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Bilberry
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Bilberries

Bilberry (/ˈbɪlbəri/), also known as European blueberry, is a Eurasian low-growing shrub in the genus Vaccinium of the flowering plant family Ericaceae native to northern Europe and North America.[1][2] Vaccinium myrtillus L. is the species most commonly called bilberry, but other closely related Vaccinium species may also have this name.[1][3]

The plant produces edible, dark blue berries, which resemble – but are distinct from – North American blueberries.[2] The dark blue color of bilberries derives from the high content of anthocyanins.[1][2][4]

Well known in folklore, bilberry extracts and dried powders are sold as dietary supplements promoted mainly for eye disorders, although there is no substantial clinical evidence that consuming bilberry fruit or its preparations provides any health benefits.[2][4]

Etymology and regional names

[edit]

The name "bilberry" appears to have a Scandinavian origin, possibly from as early as 1577, while the earliest known English use of the name "blueberry" dates back to 1594, appearing in the Acts of Parliament of Scotland.[5][6] The name "bilberry" is similar to the Danish word bølle for whortleberry with the addition of "berry".[5][6] In Scandinavian languages, terms for bilberries have names with the meaning "blueberry", such as blåbär in Swedish and blåbær in Danish and Norwegian.[1]

The bilberry (especially Vaccinium myrtillus) may be called blaeberry /ˈbleɪbɛri/ in Scottish and Northern English regional dialects,[7] whortleberry /ˈhwɜːrtəbri/ in southern England,[7] and fraochán in Ireland.[8][9]

Description

[edit]
Ripe bilberry and leaves
The interiors of bilberries (top) have dark-colored flesh, while bog bilberries (bottom) have pale flesh.

Bilberries, which are native to Europe, are different from North American blueberries, although the species are closely related and belong to the same genus, Vaccinium.[1][2]

Bilberries are non-climacteric berries with a smooth, circular outline at the end opposite the stalk, whereas American blueberries retain persistent sepals there, leaving a rough, star-shaped pattern of five flaps.[10] Bilberries grow singly or in pairs rather than in clusters, as American blueberries do, and American blueberries have more evergreen leaves. Bilberries are dark in color, and often appear near black with a slight shade of purple.[1][2]

Phytochemicals

[edit]

Bilberries contain diverse polyphenols, including tannins, organic acids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins, specifically anthocyanidins as delphinidin and cyanidin glycosides.[2][4][11][12] V. myrtillus bilberry pulp is red or purple, and V. uliginosum bog bilberry pulp is pale-colored.[citation needed] The high anthocyanin content of V. myrtillus may cause staining of the fingers, lips, and tongue.[11] The anthocyanin content of bilberries and bilberry juice may exceed the levels seen in blueberries and blueberry juice.[13]

Species

[edit]

The term bilberries can describe several closely related species, which (except for V. uliginosum) are part of section Myrtillus:[3]

Ecology

[edit]

Bilberry plants can suffer from bilberry blight,[14] caused by Phytophthora kernoviae. There have been severe outbreaks in Staffordshire, England.[15]

Bilberry is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species.[citation needed]

Harvesting

[edit]
Closeup of bilberries

Bilberries are found in acidic, nutrient-poor soils throughout the temperate and subarctic regions of the world.[1][2][4][3] Because they are difficult to grow and the fruit is small, bilberries are seldom cultivated.[1] Fruits are mostly collected from wild plants growing on publicly accessible lands throughout northern and central Europe where they are plentiful;[1] for example, up to a fifth (17–21%) of the land area of Sweden contains bilberry bushes, where it is called blåbär (lit. "blueberry", which is a source of confusion with the North American blueberry).[16] Bilberries can be picked by a berry-picking rake like lingonberries, but are more susceptible to damage.

In Iceland, bilberries (known as aðalbláber, or "prime blueberry") grow predominantly in Westfjords and the surrounding area.[17] In most of the country, the subtype bog blueberry occupies the same habitat. Both species are commonly found growing with dwarf birch and crowberries. Wild growth is vast compared to the population of Iceland and wild harvesting is legal, and a common activity in August when the berry season peaks.[citation needed]

In Ireland, bilberries (known as fraochán) were traditionally gathered on the last Sunday in July, known as Bilberry Sunday, for the Celtic harvest festival of Lughnasadh, which marked the end of the hungry month of July.[8][9][18]

Uses

[edit]
Bilberry pie, tarte aux myrtilles

The fruits are eaten fresh or made into jams, fools, juices, or pies.[1][2] In France and Italy, they are used as a base for liqueurs and are a popular flavoring for sorbets and other desserts. In Brittany, they are often used as a flavoring for crêpes. In the Vosges and the Massif Central, bilberry tart (tarte aux myrtilles) is a traditional dessert. In Romania, they are used as a base for a liqueur called afinată – the name of the fruit in Romanian is afină. In Nordic countries, they are eaten fresh or made into jams and other dishes, including bilberry pie (Finnish mustikkapiirakka, Swedish blåbärspaj) and blåbärssoppa, a bilberry soup served hot or cold. In Iceland, they are eaten with skyr (a cultured dairy product similar to yoghurt). In Poland, they are eaten fresh (often mixed with sugar), as a filling in a sweet yeast-leavened bun known as jagodzianka, in jams, and with śmietana.

Research

[edit]

Although bilberries have been used in traditional medicine, there are no proven health benefits or antidisease effects from consuming them.[2][4] One review of low-quality clinical research concluded there was no evidence that consuming bilberries improves night vision.[19]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Bilberry

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from Grokipedia
Bilberry ( L.) is a low-growing perennial shrub in the family , closely related to but distinct from blueberries ( sect. Cyanococcus) and cranberries ( subg. Oxycoccus). It is native to , with distributions extending to northern Asia and parts of . The plant produces small, dark blue-black berries rich in anthocyanins (300–700 mg per 100 g fresh fruit), which provide properties. Known regionally as , blaeberry, or European blueberry, bilberry has been used in traditional European folk medicine for centuries, particularly for eye conditions and . The berries and leaves are used fresh, dried, or in processed forms like teas, jams, and extracts for culinary and herbal purposes. Bilberry grows in heaths, meadows, and moist coniferous forests under moderate shade. The fruits also contain (3 mg per 100 g), (3 mg per 100 g), and (20 mg per 100 g). Anecdotal reports from , including British pilots attributing improved to bilberry jam, have fueled interest in its ocular benefits, though clinical evidence for many health claims remains limited as of 2025. Ongoing research explores potential , metabolic, and vascular effects.

Etymology and Names

Etymology

The term "bilberry" derives from , most likely the Danish "bøllebær," a compound of "bølle" (from "bolli," meaning a round or swollen object, akin to a or ) and "bær" (), reflecting the fruit's rounded, dark appearance. This etymology emphasizes the berry's distinctive dark hue rather than a direct reference to blue, though related terms in neighboring languages highlight color; for instance, the German "Blaubeere" combines "blau" () and "Beere" (), directly translating to "blue berry" and serving as the standard name for the plant in German-speaking areas. The word entered English usage in the late 16th century, with the recording its earliest appearance in 1584 in the writings of mathematician and astrologer , where it denoted the fruit or plant. By the end of the century, it featured prominently in herbal literature, such as John Gerard's 1597 "The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes," which described bilberries as a common northern foodstuff and distinguished them from similar wild berries by their habitat and flavor, aiding in their botanical identification amid overlapping vernacular names. Early English botany often conflated "bilberry" with "whortleberry," a term rooted in Old English "horte" (possibly alluding to a hurt or bruised appearance due to the dark color), leading to interchangeable applications for Vaccinium myrtillus and related species in 16th- and 17th-century texts; this confusion persisted until more precise classifications emerged in the 18th century.

Taxonomy

Classification

Bilberry, primarily referring to the species Vaccinium myrtillus, is classified in the kingdom Plantae, encompassing all multicellular photosynthetic eukaryotes. It belongs to the phylum Tracheophyta, which includes vascular plants with specialized tissues for water and nutrient transport, reflecting bilberry's adaptation as a woody shrub. Within this phylum, it is placed in the class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons), characterized by two seed leaves and net-veined leaves, a group that dominates angiosperm diversity. The order Ericales positions bilberry among ericoid plants, known for their often calcifuge (acid-soil preferring) habits and associations with mycorrhizal fungi. It resides in the family Ericaceae (heath family), a cosmopolitan group of about 4,000 species featuring urn-shaped flowers and ericoid leaves, with Vaccinium contributing significantly to its economic and ecological importance. The genus Vaccinium, comprising over 400 species of shrubs and small trees, includes economically vital berries like blueberries and cranberries, with bilberry in subgenus Vaccinium (distinguished by deciduous or semi-evergreen leaves and urceolate corollas) and section Myrtillus (marked by angled twigs and inflorescences with persistent bracts). The binomial name Vaccinium myrtillus was established by in his seminal work in 1753, marking the formal taxonomic recognition of bilberry as a distinct species. Subsequent taxonomic revisions, such as those addressing hybridization and within , have refined its placement without altering the core hierarchy. Modern phylogenetic analyses, utilizing DNA sequences from multiple genes, have robustly confirmed Vaccinium's within the subfamily Vaccinioideae and tribe Vaccinieae of , supporting its evolutionary ties to other ericaceous genera through shared ancestral traits like production and calcifuge ecology. These studies underscore the genus's ancient diversification, dating back to the , and highlight ongoing refinements to sectional boundaries based on molecular evidence.

Species

The bilberry is primarily represented by the species L., described by in his in 1753, with the type locality in the boreal forests of . This holarctic species belongs to section Myrtillus within the genus and is characterized by its wide circumboreal distribution, though its taxonomy has been subject to revisions based on morphological and genetic studies. Several are recognized under V. myrtillus, reflecting regional variations. The nominotypical V. m. subsp. myrtillus occurs across temperate , including and the region, as well as parts of such as western and the northwestern ; it is distinguished by its typical morphology adapted to acidic, forested understories. Another recognized is V. m. subsp. oreophilum (Rydb.) Á. Löve & D. Löve, primarily found in montane habitats of western , from the northward, and sometimes treated as a variety or full synonym V. oreophilum Rydb. in earlier classifications. Historical synonyms for V. myrtillus include Vaccinium yatabei (an Asian form sometimes subsumed under V. myrtillus), reflecting past taxonomic uncertainties and reclassifications within the , particularly as has clarified relationships in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, early 20th-century treatments by Rydberg elevated certain variants to species level, but subsequent works, such as those by Löve et al. in 1971, consolidated them into based on subtle differences in and characteristics. Hybrids involving V. myrtillus occur naturally with close relatives in the genus , such as V. uliginosum L. (bog bilberry), resulting in nothospecies like V. × pseudomyrtillus Asch. & Graebn., which exhibit intermediate traits and are documented in overlapping Eurasian ranges; these hybrids underscore the reticulate evolution within section Myrtillus.

Description

Morphology

Bilberry () is a low-growing, , typically reaching heights of 5 to 60 cm, with a rhizomatous that allows it to form open colonies. The plant features highly branched stems that are angular and green to reddish in color, often glabrous or minutely puberulent along the grooves, contributing to its compact, upright to spreading form. The leaves are broadly elliptic to ovate, measuring 1 to 3 cm in length, with finely serrulate margins and a glabrous or sparsely hairy abaxial surface; they emerge bright green in spring and characteristically turn in autumn before shedding. Flowers are urceolate, pinkish-white, and 4 to 6 mm long, borne solitary or in small axillary clusters on short pedicels. The fruits are globular berries, 5 to 12 mm in diameter, with dark blue-black, glabrous exocarp, pink- mesocarp, and numerous small seeds embedded within.

Reproduction

Bilberry () exhibits a reproductive strategy that combines through -pollinated flowers and vegetative propagation via underground rhizomes. The plant is , displaying late-acting self-incompatibility that reduces seed set following compared to cross-pollination, thereby promoting . Flowers, which are hermaphroditic and typically solitary or in pairs, bloom from May to June in its native Eurasian range, attracting a diverse array of pollinators including bees and bumblebees that facilitate transfer. Following , development proceeds over approximately 8–10 weeks, with transitioning from green to deep blue as they ripen between and . Each mature , resembling a small but with a more intense flavor, contains 10–40 small embedded in juicy pulp. occurs primarily through endozoochory, where birds and mammals consume the fruits and excrete viable , aiding in the plant's spread across forest understories. In natural populations, bilberry reproduction is predominantly vegetative, with plants forming extensive clones through of underground rhizomes that produce new shoots annually. This clonal growth allows for rapid colonization of suitable habitats but can limit if is infrequent. Sexual propagation via seeds is less common in the wild due to environmental constraints, though it contributes to occasional establishment; seeds exhibit physiological requiring cold stratification—typically 12–20 weeks at 2–5°C—to break and achieve rates of up to 88% under optimal conditions like alternating temperatures of 15°C/5°C and exposure.

Ecology

Habitat and Distribution

Vaccinium myrtillus, commonly known as bilberry, is a Holarctic species with a native distribution spanning boreal and temperate regions across , northern , and . In , it is widespread from and the eastward through , , and into , occupying much of the continent's northern and montane zones. Its range extends across northern from westward to the and eastward to and northern , favoring circumpolar latitudes between approximately 50°N and 70°N. In , native populations occur in , across (particularly and the ), and southward into the northern United States, including the from Washington to and , though some southern occurrences may represent local introductions or expansions. Bilberry thrives in cool temperate climates characterized by mild summers and cold winters, exhibiting strong tolerance to frost but high sensitivity to prolonged drought, which can limit its persistence in warmer or drier margins of its range. It is adapted to humid, boreal forest environments with annual precipitation often exceeding 500 mm, and it performs best under conditions of diffuse light and moderate temperatures averaging 10–15°C during the growing season. The species prefers acidic, moist soils in nutrient-poor, organic-rich substrates, typically with a of 3.8–5.5, which supports its ericoid mycorrhizal associations essential for nutrient uptake in low-fertility conditions. Optimal habitats include open coniferous forests dominated by species like or , moorlands, bogs, heaths, and boggy barrens, where it forms dense carpets. Elevations commonly range from 300 to 2,000 m, though it extends from near in northern boreal zones to over 3,000 m in montane and subalpine settings, particularly in mountainous regions like the , Carpathians, and Rockies.

Ecological Interactions

Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) forms symbiotic relationships with ericoid mycorrhizal fungi, such as Oidiodendron maius and Meliniomyces bicolor, which enhance nutrient uptake, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, in nutrient-poor, acidic soils typical of boreal and subalpine environments. These associations allow the plant to thrive in oligotrophic conditions where mineral availability is limited, with the fungi extending the root system's exploratory capacity in exchange for carbohydrates from the host. The berries of bilberry serve as a vital food source for various , including birds such as ( spp.), thrushes (Turdus spp.), and ptarmigans ( spp.), as well as mammals like black bears (Ursus americanus), red foxes ( ), and hares (Lepus spp.). Additionally, the leaves are browsed by (Rangifer tarandus) during winter, providing essential in snow-covered boreal landscapes. In native boreal forests, bilberry acts as an indicator species for , reflecting understory and responses to disturbances like practices or shifts, with its cover abundance signaling and integrity.

Production

Wild Harvesting

Wild harvesting of bilberries () primarily occurs through manual techniques in natural forest and heathland environments across . The peak harvesting season aligns with late summer, typically from to , when berries reach full ripeness and optimal flavor. In this period, pickers employ hand-raking or combing tools, such as traditional metal or plastic combs, to efficiently gather clusters without excessive damage to the ; these methods allow for rapid collection while separating berries from stems and foliage. Major harvesting regions include (particularly and ), , and , where vast boreal forests support abundant natural populations. In , for instance, the potential annual yield of bilberries and lingonberries combined exceeds 800,000 tons, though only about 2-5% is actually harvested commercially, equating to roughly 10,000-15,000 tons of wild berries exported annually. As of 2023, the annual commercial harvest of wild berries (primarily bilberries and lingonberries) in is approximately 25,000 tons, with lingonberry exports reaching 5,840 tons valued at USD 10.62 million. Globally, wild bilberry harvests contribute to a broader wild berry market, with concerns arising from overpicking in high-demand areas; however, studies indicate that even intensive raking causes minimal long-term damage, with loss under 0.5% annually and no significant reduction in future yields. Post-harvest handling is critical due to the berries' perishability, involving immediate cooling to remove field heat and extend , followed by processing methods like freezing or drying to prevent spoilage. In the , wild collection is regulated under phytosanitary standards requiring checks for imports and movement, alongside and hygiene rules to ensure contaminant-free products; may further mandate monitored supply chains and avoidance of polluting substances during handling.

Cultivation

Bilberry () remains primarily a wild-harvested species, with commercial cultivation efforts limited by its stringent environmental needs and inherently slow maturation. Unlike highbush blueberries (V. corymbosum), which are widely farmed, bilberry lacks established programs and is mostly gathered from natural forest stands across and . Experimental and small-scale cultivation trials have explored its agronomic potential, particularly in , where projects have tested semi-cultivated systems to supplement wild yields. For example, a Norwegian initiative from 2008 to 2011 evaluated methods for viable production on , including clone selection for regional adaptation. Optimal growth demands acidic soils with a of 4.0 to 5.5, enriched with high to mimic nutrient-poor, humus-rich floors, alongside well-drained yet consistently moist conditions to prevent stress. Partial shade is essential, as full sun can scorch foliage in warmer climates, while moderate supports overall vigor. typically involves stratified , which germinate slowly, or semi-hardwood cuttings rooted under mist; plants require 2 to 3 years to establish and begin fruiting reliably. Trials using commercial horticultural substrates, such as peat-based mixes adjusted to low , have demonstrated strong vegetative performance in systems over multi-year periods. Key obstacles to broader adoption include the shrub's sluggish growth, yielding far less fruit per plant than cultivated blueberries—often under 1 kg per mature bush annually in trials—and vulnerability to soilborne pathogens like root rot in overly wet or compacted conditions. Maintaining the thin organic layer (O-horizon) and precise macronutrient balance proves challenging, as excess fertility can inhibit rooting. Yields remain inconsistent without natural mycorrhizal associations, further complicating scalability. In the , ongoing has emphasized container cultivation and climate-resilient selections to address these issues, highlighting bilberry's niche viability for organic or specialty markets amid shifting environmental pressures.

Uses

Culinary Applications

Bilberries () are often consumed fresh but are notably tart, making them more palatable when cooked or processed into various culinary preparations. In European cuisines, particularly in northern and eastern regions, they feature prominently in desserts such as pies and tarts, where their robust flavor balances sweetness in recipes like the traditional Finnish mustikkapiirakka, a buttery crust filled with bilberries and . They are also commonly transformed into jams and preserves through cooking with to mellow their acidity, yielding spreads ideal for breads or pastries, and into sauces that accompany meats or enhance cheesecakes. A hallmark Scandinavian dessert incorporating bilberries is , a thickened prepared by the berries with water, sugar, and a like potato flour, then serving it warm or chilled, often garnished with or for creaminess. This simple preparation highlights the berries' vibrant color and tangy profile, originating as a nourishing dish in rural traditions. In beverages, bilberries are pressed into juices that retain their deep purple hue and sharp taste, frequently diluted or sweetened for drinking. They inspire wines through of the fruit must and liqueurs like the Finnish mustikkalikööri, where wild bilberries are infused in alcohol with sugar, resulting in a velvety, aromatic spirit enjoyed neat or in cocktails. The berries can also be dried whole for herbal teas, steeped to produce a mildly with subtle berry notes, commonly savored in northern European households. The high content in bilberries imparts their characteristic intense flavor and color, making them especially appealing in baked goods where these compounds contribute to enhanced depth without overpowering other ingredients. Historically, bilberries have been integral to local diets across , with processing methods like jamming preserving their seasonal abundance for year-round use in traditional recipes.

Traditional

In European folk medicine, bilberry () has been employed since antiquity for various remedial purposes. The physician Dioscorides documented the use of bilberry fruits in the 1st century AD to treat and , leveraging their properties from to constrict tissues and reduce . By the 16th century, records indicate that bilberry berries were commonly used to alleviate , urinary tract issues, , and biliary disorders, often prepared as decoctions or teas for internal consumption. Bilberry leaves have held a prominent place in traditional remedies for managing , particularly in and , where they were brewed into teas believed to lower blood sugar levels—a practice noted as one of the most popular herbal treatments for the condition in Russian folk medicine. A longstanding tradition associates bilberry with improving vision and eye health, rooted in its historical application for ocular disorders. This lore gained prominence through a persistent myth from , in which British pilots reportedly ate bilberry jam before night missions to enhance their , though subsequent investigations suggest this was likely a rumor propagated for strategic reasons rather than verifiable fact. The berries' effects, attributed to their content, also led to their topical use in folk remedies for soothing mouth ulcers and minor skin irritations. In northern European cultures, bilberry fruits were traditionally utilized to prevent , owing to their high content, which supported their role in combating nutritional deficiencies during harsh winters. Beyond internal medicinal applications, bilberry berries were employed in folk practices to produce natural dyes for textiles, yielding and purple valued in traditional crafts.

Research

Nutritional Composition

Bilberry () fruits offer a modest caloric content, with approximately 57 kcal per 100 g of fresh weight, making them a low-energy option. The macronutrient composition includes about 0.7 g of protein, 12 g of carbohydrates (of which roughly 6 g are simple sugars), and 2.5 g of , while fat levels remain low at less than 0.5 g per 100 g. This profile supports their role as a fiber-rich, nutrient-dense with minimal fat contribution. In terms of micronutrients, bilberries provide (typically 3–15 mg per 100 g, up to 33 mg in some studies, varying by growing conditions and region), which contributes to antioxidant defenses, alongside at approximately 1.9–2.1 mg per 100 g for cellular protection. Exact values can vary by growing conditions. The overall low fat content further enhances their appeal in balanced diets. The profile of bilberry fruits is dominated by s, particularly anthocyanins, which range from 300 to 700 mg per 100 g fresh weight and include glycosides of and as predominant forms. Bilberry extract is derived from the fruit of the European bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), a relative of the blueberry, and is rich in anthocyanins, typically standardized to 25–36% anthocyanidins, including delphinidin, cyanidin, and malvidin glycosides, plus flavonols, tannins, and phenolic acids. Additional compounds such as (about 3 mg per 100 g) contribute to the overall capacity. These s are commonly quantified and characterized using (HPLC) methods, which separate and identify individual components based on retention times and spectral data.
Nutrient CategoryKey Components per 100 g Fresh FruitNotes
Energy~57 kcalLow-calorie profile.
MacronutrientsProtein: 0.7 g
Carbohydrates: 12 g (sugars: 6 g)
: 2.5 g
: <0.5 g		Supports digestive health via .
MicronutrientsVitamin C: 3–33 mg (varies by conditions)
Vitamin E: 1.9–2.1 mg		Contributes to daily requirements for antioxidants.
PhytochemicalsAnthocyanins: 300–700 mg (, glycosides)
: ~3 mg		Analyzed primarily via HPLC.

Health Effects Studies

Research on the health effects of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) has primarily focused on its anthocyanin content, which is believed to contribute to potential antioxidant and vascular benefits, though clinical evidence remains mixed and often preliminary. Studies investigating bilberry's impact on vision span from the 1940s to the 2020s, yielding inconsistent results. Early anecdotal claims from World War II suggested that British pilots consumed bilberry jam to enhance night vision during raids, but this has been debunked as a myth with no supporting evidence from rigorous trials. A 2004 systematic review of placebo-controlled trials found no significant improvement in night vision parameters, such as dark adaptation or contrast sensitivity, across various doses of bilberry anthocyanosides. Subsequent studies, including randomized controlled trials up to the 2020s, have similarly shown limited or no benefits for normal night vision in healthy individuals or those with mild impairments. However, some evidence supports bilberry for dry eye symptoms; a 2017 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial demonstrated that a standardized bilberry extract (Mirtoselect®) improved tear film stability and reduced ocular discomfort in patients with dry eye syndrome after 12 weeks of supplementation. A 2022 meta-analysis on interventions for computer vision syndrome, which often includes dry eye, reported mixed outcomes for bilberry extracts, with modest reductions in symptoms like fatigue but no consistent effect on tear production scores. In vitro studies have consistently demonstrated bilberry's antioxidant activity, attributed to its high anthocyanin levels, which scavenge free radicals and inhibit oxidative stress in cellular models. Preliminary clinical trials suggest potential benefits for metabolic and circulatory health. A 2022 review highlighted small-scale trials where bilberry extracts improved glycemic control in patients, with one crossover study showing reduced postprandial blood glucose levels after 12 weeks of supplementation at 160 mg/day of anthocyanins. For circulation, bilberry has been studied in the context of and ; a 2022 systematic analysis of clinical data indicated that anthocyanin-rich extracts reduced symptoms like leg swelling and pain in affected individuals, possibly through strengthened walls, though effects were more pronounced in combination therapies. More recent research as of 2025 has explored additional areas. A 2025 pilot study found that bilberry extract supplementation improved mood parameters, reducing tension and depression. A 2025 indicated potential benefits for profiles and glycemic indices in metabolic . Short-term supplementation trials in 2025 showed reductions in atherogenic small dense LDL subfractions. Studies in 2024–2025 also reported protective effects against and improvements in aging and complexion evenness with fermented bilberry extract. Bilberry is generally considered safe for short-term use at doses up to 480 mg/day of extract, with rare reports of mild gastrointestinal upset. However, it may interact with medications like due to potential antiplatelet effects from anthocyanins, increasing bleeding risk; monitoring is recommended for concurrent use. Gaps in the research include a reliance on small, short-term trials, with calls for larger randomized controlled trials to validate benefits beyond vision and to address persistent myths like the WWII night vision legend, which continue to influence public perception despite lack of substantiation.

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