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John Dee (13 July 1527 – 1608 or 1609) was an English mathematician, astronomer, teacher, astrologer, occultist, and alchemist.[4] He was the court astronomer for, and advisor to, Elizabeth I, and spent much of his time on alchemy, divination, and Hermetic philosophy. As an antiquarian, he had one of the largest libraries in England at the time. As a political advisor, he advocated the foundation of English colonies in the New World to form a "British Empire", a term he is credited with coining.[5] Dee "promoted English overseas exploration and expansion in terms of a political and spiritual renewal at home".[6]

Key Information

Dee eventually left Elizabeth's service and went on a quest for knowledge of the occult and supernatural. He aligned himself with several individuals who may have been charlatans, travelled through Europe, and was accused of spying for the English Crown.[7] Upon his return to England, he found his home and library vandalised. He eventually returned to the Queen's service, but was turned away when she was succeeded by James I. He died in poverty in London, and his gravesite is unknown.

Biography

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Early life

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Dee was born in Tower Ward, London, to Rowland Dee, of Welsh descent, and Johanna, daughter of William Wild.[4][8][9][10][11][12] His surname "Dee" is an anglicisation of Welsh du (black). His grandfather was Bedo Ddu of Nant-y-groes, Pilleth, Radnorshire; John retained his connection with the locality. His father Roland was a mercer and gentleman courtier to Henry VIII. Dee traced descent from Rhodri the Great, 9th century ruler of Gwynedd, and constructed a pedigree accordingly. His family had arrived in London with Henry Tudor's coronation as Henry VII.[9]

Dee attended Chelmsford Chantry School (now King Edward VI Grammar School) from 1535 to 1542.[13] He entered St John's College, Cambridge in November 1542, aged 15, graduating BA in 1545 or early 1546.[14][15] His abilities recognised, he became an original fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge on its foundation by Henry VIII in 1546.[16] At Trinity, he designed stage effects for a production of Aristophanes' Peace. Using pulleys and mirrors, Dee was able to create the illusion of "the Scarabeus flying up to Jupiter's palace" in a mechanical contrivance possibly based on rediscovered classical techniques. Dee would later claim this to be the source of his reputation as a magician.[17] In the late 1540s and early 1550s, he travelled around Europe, studying at Louvain (1548) and Brussels[clarification needed] and lecturing in Paris on Euclid. He studied under Gemma Frisius and became friends with the cartographers Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius. Dee also met, worked and learnt from other continental mathematicians, such as Federico Commandino in Italy.[18] He returned to England with a major collection of mathematical and astronomical instruments. In 1552, he met Gerolamo Cardano in London, with whom he investigated a purported perpetual motion machine and a gem supposed to have magical properties.[19]

Working life

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Rector at Upton-upon-Severn from 1553, Dee was offered a readership in mathematics at Oxford University in 1554, which he declined, citing as offensive English universities' emphasis on rhetoric and grammar (which, together with logic, formed the academic trivium) over philosophy and science (the more advanced quadrivium, composed of arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy). He was busy with writing and perhaps hoped for a better position at court.[20] On 17 February 1554, Dee took Catholic orders in the midst of the Marian reaction. The Catholic bishop Edmund Bonner, likely already a close friend of Dee's at this point, gave him special permission to receive all of the holy orders from first tonsure to priesthood in only a single day.[21][22]

In 1555, Dee joined the Worshipful Company of Mercers, as his father had, through its system of patrimony.[23] In that same year Dee was arrested and charged with "lewd and vain practices of calculating and conjuring", because he had cast horoscopes of Queen Mary and Princess Elizabeth. The charges were raised to treason against Mary.[20][24][25] Dee appeared in the Star Chamber and exonerated himself, but was turned over to Bonner for religious examination. His strong, lifelong penchant for secrecy may have worsened matters. The episode was the most dramatic in a series of attacks and slanders that dogged Dee throughout his life. At some point, possibly before his charges were officially dismissed, Dee became Bonner's chaplain. In some early editions of John Foxe's Acts and Monuments, Dee, as Bonner's chaplain, is recorded debating the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist with Protestant prisoner Robert Smith (who accused Dee of Marcionism because his argument in favor of transubstantiation rested on the idea that Christ possessed only a spiritual body) and participating in the seventh examination of John Philpot.[26]

Dee presented Queen Mary in 1556 with a visionary plan for preserving old books, manuscripts and records and founding a national library, but it was not taken up.[20] Instead, he expanded his personal library in Mortlake, acquiring books and manuscripts in England and on the Continent. Dee's library, a centre of learning outside the universities, became the greatest in England and attracted many scholars.[27]

Dee's glyph, whose meaning he explained in Monas Hieroglyphica

When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne in 1558, Dee became her astrological and scientific advisor. He chose her coronation date and even became a Protestant.[12][28][29] From the 1550s to the 1570s, he served as an advisor to England's voyages of discovery, providing technical aid in navigation and political support to create a "British Empire", a term he was the first to use.[30] Dee wrote in October 1574 to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley seeking patronage. He said he had occult knowledge of treasure in the Welsh Marches and of valuable manuscripts kept at Wigmore Castle, knowing that the Lord Treasurer's ancestors came from the area.[31]

In 1564, Dee wrote the Hermetic work Monas Hieroglyphica ("The Hieroglyphic Monad"), an exhaustive Cabalistic interpretation of a glyph of his own design, meant to express the mystical unity of all creation. Having dedicated it to Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor in an effort to gain patronage, Dee attempted to present it to him at the time of his ascension to the throne of Hungary. The work was esteemed by many of Dee's contemporaries, and the royal secret service valued its treatise on cryptography, but it cannot be fully understood today in the absence of the secret oral tradition of that era.[32]

His 1570 "Mathematical Preface" to Henry Billingsley's English translation of Euclid's Elements argued for the importance of mathematics as an influence on the other arts and sciences.[33] Intended for an audience outside the universities, it proved to be Dee's most widely influential and frequently reprinted work.[34]

In 1577, Dee published General and Rare Memorials pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation, a work setting out his vision of a maritime empire and asserting English territorial claims on the New World. Dee was acquainted with Humphrey Gilbert and close to Sir Philip Sidney and his circle.[30]

Later life

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The "Seal of God", British Museum

By the early 1580s, Dee was discontented with his progress in learning the secrets of nature and his diminishing influence and recognition in court circles. Failure of his ideas concerning a proposed calendar revision,[35] colonial establishment and ambivalent results for voyages of exploration in North America had nearly brought his hopes of political patronage to an end. He began subsequently to turn energetically towards the supernatural as a means to acquire knowledge. He sought to contact spirits through the use of a scryer, which he thought would act as an intermediary between himself and the angels.[36]

Dee's first attempts with several scryers were unsatisfactory, but in 1582 he met Edward Kelley (then calling himself Edward Talbot) who impressed him greatly with his abilities.[37] Dee took Kelley into his service and began to devote all his energies to his supernatural pursuits.[37] These "spiritual conferences" or "actions" were conducted with intense Christian piety, always after periods of purification, prayer and fasting.[37] Dee was convinced of the benefits they could bring to mankind. The character of Kelley is harder to assess: some conclude that he acted with cynicism, but delusion or self-deception cannot be ruled out.[38] Kelley's "output" is remarkable for its volume, intricacy and vividness. Dee records in his journals that angels dictated several books to him this way, through Kelley, some in a special angelic or Enochian language.[39][40]

Edward Kelley

In 1583, Dee met the impoverished yet popular Polish nobleman Albert Łaski, who, after overstaying his welcome at court, invited Dee to accompany him back to Poland.[24] With some prompting by the "angels" (again through Kelley) and by dint of his worsening status at court, Dee decided to do so. He, Kelley and their families left in September 1583, but Łaski proved to be bankrupt and out of favour in his own country.[41] Dee and Kelley began a nomadic life in Central Europe, meanwhile continuing their spiritual conferences, which Dee detailed in his diaries and almanacs.[39][40] They had audiences with Emperor Rudolf II in Prague Castle and King Stephen Báthory of Poland, whom they attempted to convince of the importance of angelic communication. The Bathory meeting took place at the Niepołomice Castle (near Kraków, then capital of Poland) and was later analysed by Polish historians (Ryszard Zieliński, Roman Żelewski, Roman Bugaj) and writers (Waldemar Łysiak).[citation needed] While Dee was generally seen as a man of deep knowledge, he was mistrusted for his connection with the English monarch, Elizabeth I, for whom some thought Dee was a spy.[7] Dee did indeed pen a covert letter to spymaster Francis Walsingham in which he said "I am forced to be brief...That which England suspected was also here".[42] The Polish king, a devout Catholic and cautious of supernatural mediators, began their meeting(s) by affirming that prophetic revelations must match the teachings of Christ, the mission of the Holy Catholic Church, and the approval of the Pope.

In 1587, at a spiritual conference in Bohemia, Kelley told Dee that the angel Uriel had ordered the men to share all their possessions, including their wives. By this time, Kelley had gained some renown as an alchemist and was more sought-after than Dee in this regard: it was a line of work that had prospects for serious and long-term financial gain, especially among the royal families of central Europe. Dee, however, was more interested in communicating with angels, who he believed would help him solve the mysteries of the heavens through mathematics, optics, astrology, science, and navigation. Perhaps Kelley in fact wished to end Dee's dependence on him as a diviner at their increasingly lengthy, frequent spiritual conferences.[41] The order for wife-sharing caused Dee anguish, but he apparently did not doubt it was genuine and they apparently shared wives. However, Dee broke off the conferences immediately afterwards. He returned to England in 1589, while Kelley went on to be the alchemist to Emperor Rudolf II.[41][43] Nine months later, on 28 February 1588, a son was born to Dee's wife, whom Dee baptised Theodorus Trebonianus Dee and raised as his own.

Final years

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John Dee memorial plaque installed in 2013 inside the church of St Mary the Virgin, Mortlake

Dee returned to Mortlake after six years abroad to find his home vandalised, his library ruined and many of his prized books and instruments stolen.[27][41] Furthermore, he found that increasing criticism of occult practices had made England still less hospitable to his magical practices and natural philosophy. He sought support from Elizabeth, who hoped he could persuade Kelley to return and ease England's economic burdens through alchemy.[b] She finally appointed Dee Warden of Christ's College, Manchester, in 1595.[44]

This former College of Priests had been re-established as a Protestant institution by Royal Charter in 1578.[38] However, he could not exert much control over its fellows, who despised or cheated him.[20] Early in his tenure, he was consulted on the demonic possession of seven children, but took little interest in the case, although he allowed those involved to consult his still extensive library.[20]

Dee left Manchester in 1605 to return to London,[45] but remained Warden until his death.[46] By that time, Elizabeth was dead and James I gave him no support. Dee spent his final years in poverty at Mortlake, forced to sell off various possessions to support himself and his daughter, Katherine, who cared for him until his death in Mortlake late in 1608 or early in 1609 aged 81.[45] Both the parish registers and Dee's gravestone are missing.[20][47] In 2013 a memorial plaque to Dee was placed on the south wall of the present church.[48]

Personal life

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Dee was married three times and had eight children. He married his first wife, Katherine Constable in 1565. They had no children, and she died in 1574. He married his second wife, whose name is unknown, in 1575. She died in 1576, again with no children.[49]

In 1578, when he was 51, he married the 23-year-old Jane Fromond (1555–1604), who had her own connection with the Elizabethan court as a lady-in-waiting to Elizabeth FitzGerald, Countess of Lincoln until she married Dee. They had 7 or 8 children, namely: Arthur Dee (1579–1651), Michael Dee (died 1594), Rowland Dee, Katherine Dee, Madinia Dee, Frances Dee, Margaret Dee, and possibly Theodore Dee (1588–1601).[50]

Dee referred to Thomas Jones, who is the likely loose inspiration for Welsh folkloric outlaw Twm Siôn Cati, as his cousin; the pair corresponded, and Jones visited Dee several times.[51]

From 1577 to 1601, Dee kept a sporadic diary (also referred to as his almanac), from which most of what we know of his life in that time has been gleaned.[23] In 1587, Kelley informed Dee of the angel's wish that they share wives. Theodore Dee, born nine months later, could have been fathered by Kelley, and not Dee.[23]

Jane died in Manchester of bubonic plague and was buried in the Manchester Cathedral burial grounds in March 1604.[52] Michael, born in Prague, died on his father's birthday in 1594. Theodore, born in Třeboň, died in Manchester in 1601. His sons Arthur and Rowland survived him, as did his daughter Katherine, "his companion to the end".[50] No records exist for his youngest daughters Madinia (sometimes Madima), Frances and Margaret after 1604, so it is widely assumed they died in the epidemic that took their mother (as Dee had by this time ceased to keep a diary).[20]

While Arthur was a student at the Westminster School, Dee wrote to his headmaster echoing the normal worries of boarding-school parents.[citation needed] Arthur was an apprentice in much of his father's alchemical and scientific work and in fact often his diviner until Kelley appeared. He went on to become an alchemist and Hermetic author, whose works were published by Elias Ashmole.[20]

The antiquary John Aubrey[c] describes Dee as "tall and slender. He wore a gown like an artist's gown, with hanging sleeves, and a slit.... A very fair, clear sanguine complexion... a long beard as white as milk. A very handsome man."[47]

Achievements

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A chart from Johannes Trithemius's Steganographia in the hand of John Dee who copied the entire manuscript in 1591

Dee was a devout Christian, with his religiosity influenced by doctrines from Hermetic, Platonic, and Pythagorean systems, which were pervasive in the Renaissance.[53] He believed that numbers were the basis of all things and key to knowledge.[12] From Hermeticism he drew a belief that man had the potential for divine power that could be exercised through mathematics.[34] His goal was to help bring forth a unified world religion through the healing of the breach of the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches and the recapture of the pure theology of the ancients.[12]

Advocating the establishment of colonies

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From 1570 Dee advocated a policy of political and economic strengthening of England and establishment of colonies in the New World.[4] His manuscript Brytannicae reipublicae synopsis (1570) outlined the state of the Elizabethan Realm[54] and was concerned with trade, ethics and national strength.[4]

His 1576 General and Rare Memorials pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation was the first volume in an unfinished series planned to advocate for the establishment of English colonies abroad.[55] In a symbolic frontispiece, Dee included a figure of Britannia kneeling by the shore beseeching Elizabeth I to protect her nation by strengthening her navy.[56] Dee used Geoffrey's inclusion of Ireland in King Arthur's conquests to argue that Arthur had established a "British empire" abroad.[57] He argued that the establishment of new colonies would benefit England economically, with said colonies being protected by a strong navy.[58][59] Dee has been credited with coining the term British Empire,[60] but Humphrey Llwyd has also been credited with the first use in his Commentarioli Britannicae Descriptionis Fragmentum, published eight years earlier in 1568.[61]

Dee posited a formal claim to North America on the back of a map drawn in 1577–1580;[62] he noted that "circa 1494 Mr. Robert Thorn his father, and Mr. Eliot of Bristow, discovered Newfound Land."[63] In his Title Royal of 1580, he wrote that Madog ab Owain Gwynedd had discovered America, intending thereby to boost England's claim to the New World over that of Spain's.[64] He also asserted that Brutus of Britain and King Arthur, as well as Madog, had conquered lands in the Americas, so that their heir, Elizabeth I of England, had a prior claim there.[30][65]

Reputation and significance

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Some ten years after Dee's death, the antiquarian Robert Cotton bought land round Dee's house and began digging for papers and artifacts. He found several manuscripts, mainly records of Dee's angelic communications. Cotton's son gave these to the scholar Méric Casaubon, who published them in 1659, with a long introduction critical of their author, as A True & Faithful Relation of What passed for many Yeers between Dr. John Dee (A Mathematician of Great Fame in Q. Eliz. and King James their Reignes) and some spirits.[39] As the first public revelation of Dee's spiritual conferences, the book was popular. Casaubon, who believed in the reality of spirits, argued in his introduction that Dee was acting as the unwitting tool of evil spirits when he believed he was communicating with angels. This book is mainly responsible for the image, prevalent for the next two-and-a-half centuries, of Dee as a dupe and deluded fanatic.[53]

About the time the True and Faithful Relation was published, members of the Rosicrucian movement claimed Dee as one of their number.[66] There is doubt, however, that an organized Rosicrucian movement existed in Dee's lifetime, and no evidence he ever belonged to any secret fraternity.[37] His reputation as a magician and the vivid story of his association with Edward Kelley have made him a seemingly irresistible figure to fabulists, writers of horror stories, and latter-day magicians. The accretion of fanciful information about Dee often obscures the facts of his life, remarkable as they were. It also does nothing to promote his Christian leanings: Dee looked to the angels to tell him how he might heal the deep and serious rifts between the Roman Catholic Church, the Reformed Church of England, and the Protestant movement in England.[67] Queen Elizabeth I used him several times as her court astronomer, not solely because he practised Hermetic arts, but as a deeply religious and learned, trustworthy man.[citation needed]

A revaluation of Dee's character and significance came in the 20th century, largely through the work of the historians Charlotte Fell Smith and Dame Frances Yates. Both brought into focus the parallel roles of magic, science, and religion in the Elizabethan Renaissance. Fell Smith writes: "There is perhaps no learned author in history who has been so persistently misjudged, nay, even slandered, by his posterity, and not a voice in all the three centuries uplifted even to claim for him a fair hearing. Surely it is time that the cause of all this universal condemnation should be examined in the light of reason and science; and perhaps it will be found to exist mainly in the fact that he was too far advanced in speculative thought for his own age to understand."[20] Through this and subsequent re-evaluation, Dee is now viewed as a serious scholar and book collector, a devoted Christian (albeit at a confusing time for that faith), an able scientist, and one of the most learned men of his day.[53][68] His Mortlake library was the largest in the country before it was vandalised, and created at enormous, sometimes ruinous personal expense; it was seen as one of the finest in Europe, perhaps second only to that of De Thou. As well as being an astrological and scientific advisor to Elizabeth and her court, he was an early advocate of colonisation of North America, envisioning a British Empire stretching across the North Atlantic.[30]

Dee promoted the sciences of navigation and cartography. He studied closely with Gerardus Mercator and owned an important collection of maps, globes, and astronomical instruments. He developed new instruments and special navigational techniques for use in polar regions. Dee served as an advisor to English voyages of discovery, and personally selected pilots and trained them in navigation.[20][30] He believed that mathematics (which he understood mystically) was central to human learning. The centrality of mathematics to Dee's vision makes him to that extent more modern than Francis Bacon, though some scholars believe Bacon purposely downplayed mathematics in the anti-occult atmosphere of the reign of James I.[69] Although Dee's understanding of the role of mathematics differs much from ours,[34][67][70] its promotion outside the universities was an enduring achievement. For most of his writings, Dee chose English, rather than Latin, to make them accessible to the public. His "Mathematical Preface" to Euclid was meant to promote the study and application of mathematics by those without a university education, and was popular and influential among the "mechanicians": a growing class of technical craftsmen and artisans. Dee's preface includes demonstrations of mathematical principles that readers could perform themselves without special education or training.[34]

In the 20th century, the Municipal Borough of Richmond (now the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames) honoured John Dee by naming a street near Mortlake "Dee Road".[71]

Calendar

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Dee was a friend of Tycho Brahe and familiar with the work (translated into English by his ward and assistant, Thomas Digges) of Nicolaus Copernicus.[20] Many of his astronomical calculations were based on Copernican assumptions, although he never openly espoused the heliocentric theory. Dee applied Copernican theory to the problem of calendar reform. In 1583, he was asked to advise the Queen on the new Gregorian calendar promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII from October 1582. He advised that England accept it, albeit with seven specific amendments. The first was that the adjustment should not be the ten days that would restore the calendar to the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, but by eleven, which would restore it to the birth of Christ. Another proposal of Dee's was to align the civil and liturgical years and have them both start on 1 January. Perhaps predictably, England chose to spurn suggestions that had papist origins, despite any merit they may have had.[12]

Voynich manuscript

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Dee has often been associated with the Voynich manuscript.[37][72] Wilfrid Michael Voynich, who bought the manuscript in 1912, suggested that Dee may have owned it and sold it to Rudolph II. Dee's contacts with Rudolph were less extensive than had been thought, however, and Dee's diaries show no evidence of a sale. However, he was known to have owned a copy of the Book of Soyga, another enciphered book.[73]

Artefacts

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Objects used by Dee in his magic, now in the British Museum

The British Museum holds several items once allegedly owned by Dee and associated with the spiritual conferences:[74]

  • Dee's Speculum or Mirror (an obsidian Aztec cult object in the shape of a hand-mirror, brought to Europe in the late 1520s), which was subsequently owned by Horace Walpole.[75] This was first attributed to Dee by Walpole. Lord Frederick Campbell had brought "a round piece of shining black marble in a leathern case" to Walpole in an attempt to ascertain its provenance. Walpole said he responded saying, "Oh, Lord, I am the only man in England that can tell you! It is Dr. Dee's black stone." However, there is no explicit reference to the mirror in any of Dee's surviving writings.
  • The small wax seals used to support the legs of Dee's "table of practice" (the table at which the scrying was performed)
  • The large, elaborately decorated wax "Seal of God", used to support the "shew-stone", the crystal ball used for scrying
  • A gold amulet engraved with a representation of one of Kelley's visions
  • A crystal globe, 6 cm in diameter. This item remained unnoticed for many years in the mineral collection; it is possibly the one owned by Dee, but the provenance is less certain than for the others.[76]

In December 2004, both a shew stone (used for divining) formerly belonging to Dee and a mid-17th-century explanation of its use written by Nicholas Culpeper were stolen from the Science Museum in London, but recovered shortly afterwards.[77]

Science and sorcery

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Part of a series on
Hermeticism
Hermes Trismegistus
Hermes Trismegistus
Hermetic writings
Historical figures
Ancient and medieval
Early modern
Modern offshoots

To 21st-century eyes, Dee's activities straddle magic and modern science, but to apply a hard and fast distinction between these two realms or epistemological world views is anachronistic.[78][79] He was invited to lecture on Euclidean geometry at the University of Paris while still in his early twenties. He was an ardent promoter of mathematics, a respected astronomer and a leading expert in navigation, who trained many who would conduct England's voyages of discovery.[clarification needed]

Meanwhile, he immersed himself in sorcery, astrology, and Hermetic philosophy. Much effort in his last 30 years went into trying to commune with angels, so as to learn the universal language of creation and achieve a pre-apocalyptic unity of mankind.[80] A student of the Renaissance Neo-Platonism of Marsilio Ficino, he drew no distinctions between his mathematical research and his investigations of Hermetic magic, angel summoning and divination: all his activities were part of his quest for a transcendent understanding of divine forms underlying the visible world: Dee's "pure verities".

Dee amassed one of England's biggest libraries.[81] His scholarly status also took him into Elizabethan politics as an adviser and tutor to Elizabeth I and through relations with her ministers Francis Walsingham and William Cecil. He tutored and patronised Sir Philip Sidney; his uncle Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester; Edward Dyer; and Sir Christopher Hatton.

Literary and cultural references

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Works

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  • Monas Hieroglyphica, 1564
  • Preface to Billingsley's Euclid (Billingsley's translation of Euclid's Elements), 1570
  • General and Rare Memorials, Pertayning to the Perfect Art of Navigation: Annexed to the Paradoxal Cumpas in Playze. 1577.
  • On the Mystical Rule of the Seven Planets, 1582–1583
  • Dee, John; Kelly, Edward; Casaubon, Meric (1659). A True & Faithful Relation of what Passed for Many Yeers Between Dr. John Dee and Some Spirits. T Garthwait. ISBN 978-5-88514-094-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  • Quinti Libri Mysteriorum. British Library, Sloane MS 3188. Also available in a fair copy by Elias Ashmole, at Sloane MS 3677.
  • Joseph H. Peterson, ed. (2003). John Dee's Five Books of Mystery: Original Sourcebook of Enochian Magic. Boston: Weiser Books. ISBN 978-1-57863-178-0. from the collected works known as Mysteriorum libri quinque
  • John Dee, The Mathematicall Praeface to the Elements of Geometrie of Euclid of Megara (1570). (Reprinted New York: Science History Publications (1975) ISBN 0-88202-020-X)
  • John Dee, John Dee on Astronomy: Propaedeumata Aphoristica (1558 & 1568) edited by Wayne Shumaker, Berkeley: University of California Press ISBN 0-520-03376-0
  • John Dee, Autobiographical tracts of John Dee, Warden of the College of Manchester, ed. James Crossley. Chetham Society Publications, Vol XXIV. Manchester, 1851
  • John Dee, Diary for the years 1595–1601, ed. John E. Bailey. Privately printed, 1880
  • J.O. Halliwell, ed. (1842). The Private Diary of Dr John Dee. Camden Society.

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

John Dee

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John Dee (13 July 1527 – 1608 or 1609) was an English mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and occult philosopher who served as a scientific and navigational advisor to Queen Elizabeth I, contributing to the intellectual foundations of Tudor exploration and imperial ambitions. Educated at , and the University of Louvain, Dee edited key mathematical texts such as Euclid's Elements and authored works on as well as Propaedeumata Aphoristica (1558), an aphoristic work on natural philosophy and astrology, while advising the on nautical charts and instruments essential for English voyages. He amassed the largest private library in England at the time (over 4,000 books and manuscripts) at his home, encompassing thousands of volumes on science, history, and esoterica, though much was dispersed or stolen during his lifetime. Dee selected the date for Elizabeth's coronation based on astrological calculations and proposed reforms to the , advocating an 11-day adjustment to align with solar observations, efforts that prefigured later Gregorian changes. His advisory role extended to and , positioning him as an advisor who bridged empirical with hermetic traditions. In later years, Dee collaborated with scryer on sessions using a to communicate with angels, recording visions and a purported angelic language known as , along with accompanying sigils and calls; these private diaries provide the sole primary documentation, lacking independent corroboration. Despite brief imprisonment in 1555 on suspicions of conjuring—stemming from casting horoscopes of Queen Mary I and Princess Elizabeth, leading to charges of "calculating and conjuring"—Dee maintained influence until financial ruin in old age.

Biography

Early life and education

John Dee was born on July 13, 1527, in , and baptized at the parish church of . His father, Rowland Dee, served as a gentleman to and traced descent from Welsh stock, including Bedo Ddu of Nant-y-groes in ; the family name derived from the Welsh word du, meaning "black," reflecting their origins. Dee's mother was Jane Wild, and the family engaged in mercantile activities with variable prosperity, positioning them among London's emerging urban elite during the Tudor era. From around 1535, Dee received early schooling at in , where he developed foundational in classics and rhetoric. In November 1542, at age 15, he matriculated at St. John's College, , immersing himself in the study of Greek, Latin, , and amid the college's emphasis on humanist scholarship under figures like . He graduated with a in 1546, became a founding Fellow of the newly established , that December—through royal patronage under —and earned his by 1550 or 1551, establishing his early reputation in academic circles.

Early career and continental influences

After obtaining his BA from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1546 and becoming a founding fellow of Trinity College in December 1546, Dee embarked on continental travels in June 1548 that shaped his mathematical and scientific pursuits. In June 1548, he arrived in Louvain, where he studied under the cosmographer Gemma Frisius and the cartographer Gerardus Mercator, both prominent in advancing instrumental mathematics and globes for navigation. These encounters exposed Dee to cutting-edge techniques in surveying, map-making, and astronomical instrumentation, influencing his later advocacy for precise empirical methods in English scholarship. Mercator, in particular, formed a lasting friendship with Dee, sharing insights into projective geometry and magnetic variation that informed Dee's interest in practical applications for maritime exploration. Dee's time in the Low Countries extended into 1550, during which he acquired brass mathematical instruments in , including astrolabes and armillary spheres, which he later imported to to promote advanced tooling. He also interacted with other scholars such as Gaspar à Mirica and Antonio Gogava, broadening his exposure to and Arabic mathematical traditions revived in Europe. These influences underscored a shift from medieval toward observational , as Frisius's work on and Mercator's charts emphasized causal links between measurement and real-world phenomena like longitude determination. By mid-1550, Dee relocated to , where he delivered public lectures on Euclid's Elements, drawing large audiences of students and scholars impressed by his command of Greek texts and geometric proofs. This period honed his pedagogical skills and reinforced his view of as a bridging philosophy and utility, distinct from the more speculative he would later pursue. Returning to around 1551, Dee brought back not only instruments but also a network of continental contacts, positioning him as a conduit for innovations in and amid 's nascent scientific revival.

Service in the Elizabethan court

Following Elizabeth I's accession on 17 November 1558, John Dee assumed a significant advisory role in her court, drawing on his expertise in astrology, mathematics, and navigation. He selected 15 January 1559 as the coronation date, guided by astrological analysis deemed favorable for the realm's stability. Elizabeth reportedly called him "my philosopher," reflecting her reliance on his intellectual counsel, and she visited his Mortlake library—housing over 3,000 volumes and scientific instruments—on occasions including 17 September 1580. Dee's service emphasized practical applications for Elizabethan expansion. In General and Rare Memorials Pertaining to the Perfect Arte of Navigation (1577), he outlined strategies for maritime supremacy, promoted the acquisition of northern territories, and first employed the term "" to conceptualize a vast dominion reviving ancient imperial claims. He supplied navigational charts, instruments, and theoretical guidance to ventures like the Muscovy Company's expeditions and Martin Frobisher's searches (1576–1578), enhancing England's exploratory capabilities amid competition with and . In 1583, Dee recommended adopting the by excising 11 days to align with solar cycles, arguing from astronomical data despite papal origins, but clerical resistance citing religious implications delayed implementation until 1752. His court tenure, spanning advisory consultations rather than formal office, underscored a blend of empirical and esoteric , though financial remained inconsistent, prompting repeated petitions for support. By the early 1580s, shifting priorities and his European pursuits diminished his direct influence.

European travels and final years

In September 1583, John Dee departed with Edward , Dee's wife Jane, their children, and a substantial portion of Dee's library, embarking on a journey to at the invitation of the Polish nobleman Olbracht Łaski. The group traveled through the and before reaching in by early 1584, where they conducted sessions and alchemical experiments under Łaski's patronage. Dee's diaries record ongoing angelic communications during this period, which guided their pursuits and reportedly included promises of alchemical transmutation. By 1586, Dee and Kelley had relocated to in , seeking support from Rudolf II, known for his interest in the and natural philosophy. Rudolf granted Dee an audience and provided modest financial aid, though Dee's hopes for imperial patronage in and imperial prophecy were unmet amid court intrigues and skepticism toward Kelley's claims of discovering the . Tensions arose, including a purported angelic command for Dee and Kelley to exchange wives, which Dee reluctantly followed, straining personal relations and contributing to the partnership's dissolution. Kelley remained in , eventually imprisoned by Rudolf in 1588 for failing to produce gold, while Dee departed in 1589. Upon returning to England in late 1589, Dee discovered his Mortlake home had been ransacked during his absence, with much of his library and instruments stolen or destroyed. Despite petitions to Queen Elizabeth I, who granted him minor restitution including £50, Dee faced financial hardship and sought ecclesiastical positions without success. In 1596, he accepted the wardenship of , a position marred by disputes with locals over fees and governance, leading to his resignation in 1604. Dee's final years were marked by poverty and neglect; after a 1605 plague outbreak in claimed his wife Jane and several children, he relocated to without favor from the new monarch James I. He died in around December 1608, buried in the of St. Mary the Virgin church there, his grave later lost. Contemporary accounts attribute his decline to the disrepute of his associations, though Dee maintained his intellectual pursuits until the end.

Scientific and Mathematical Contributions

Advancements in mathematics and navigation

John Dee advanced the application of to navigation through his promotion of practical and tailored to maritime needs. In the 1550s, he developed early forms of to address problems in , enabling more accurate determination of latitude and longitude at sea by integrating astronomical observations with geometric calculations. This work built on continental influences from scholars like Gemma Frisius, whom Dee encountered during his travels in Louvain in 1548, and emphasized empirical measurement over purely theoretical abstraction. A pivotal contribution came in 1570 with Dee's Mathematicall Praeface to the English translation of Euclid's Elements, where he systematically outlined the utility of mathematics in navigation, including the use of instruments for measuring distances, angles, and planetary positions. He advocated for the construction of specialized tools, such as the (or sector), which he refined around 1559 to facilitate rapid computations for sailors in plotting courses and resolving triangular bearings via proportional scales. Dee's preface classified mathematical "artes" like cosmography and hydrography, arguing that mastery of these would empower in overseas exploration by providing precise methods to chart unknown waters and predict tides. Dee applied these advancements practically as an advisor to Elizabethan voyages, training navigators and selecting pilots for expeditions, including those of the in the 1550s, where he compiled charts and navigational data for routes using trigonometric projections. In 1577, his General and Rare Memorials Pertayning to the Arte of Navigation urged institutional support for navigation studies, proposing dedicated lectureships at and to disseminate these techniques systematically, though such reforms were not immediately realized. His efforts helped bridge theoretical mathematics with empirical seafaring, influencing subsequent English cartographers and mariners by prioritizing verifiable computations over astrological approximations alone.

Astronomical observations and calendar reform

John Dee initiated systematic astronomical observations in 1546, employing instruments including the quadrant and cross-staff to document thousands of celestial phenomena over subsequent decades. A notable instance occurred in 1572, when he recorded the appearance of a "new star"—the now associated with —and authored Parallacticae commentationis praxosque (1573), applying to assess its and distance from . His broader astronomical framework appeared in Propaedeumata aphoristica (1568), which synthesized observational data with mathematical principles and astrological interpretations to delineate the boundaries between and celestial influence. In the realm of , Dee leveraged his astronomical expertise to address the Julian calendar's drift from the solar year, proposing in February 1583 to Queen Elizabeth I the omission of 11 days—exceeding the Gregorian reform's 10-day adjustment—to restore alignment reckoned from the epoch of Christ's birth, thereby embedding Protestant theological priorities over papal decree. This scheme envisioned a commencing in 1584, structured around a refined leap-year cycle that preserved timing for centuries while rejecting the Council of Trent's framework; gradual implementation via omitted days in May through 1583 was suggested to minimize disruption. Ecclesiastical resistance, led by the , thwarted adoption, with retaining the Julian system until 1752.

Instruments, library, and empirical methods

John Dee assembled one of the largest private libraries in Elizabethan at his home, cataloged in 1583 as containing around 3,000 printed volumes and 1,000 manuscripts. This collection spanned , astronomy, , classical , and Hermetic texts, functioning as a hub that he drew upon for advising explorers and scholars. Many volumes bore his annotations, reflecting active empirical engagement with contents through cross-referencing and diagrammatic additions. Complementing his library, Dee curated a significant array of scientific instruments, including globes, , and quadrants sourced from Flemish makers like Gemma Frisius and Gerard Mercator during his continental studies in the 1540s. He also owned an by English hydrographer William Borough and supplied custom navigational tools—such as precursors and polar-adapted quadrants—to mariners like for Arctic voyages in the 1570s. These implements enabled precise altitude measurements and chart plotting, which Dee demonstrated in teaching sessions for royal navigators. Dee's empirical methods prioritized instrumental observation and data-driven validation in astronomy and , diverging from purely speculative by insisting on repeated field measurements to refine models. For instance, he conducted timings in 1556–1560 to argue for Gregorian-style adjustments, using quadrants for angular precision over 0.5 degrees. In , he promoted causal linkages between observed stellar positions, magnetic variation logs, and computations, training pilots in iterative error correction via instruments rather than rote tradition, as evidenced in his advisory role for over thirty years supplying charts and tools to figures like Stephen . This approach yielded practical advancements, such as enhanced polar sailing techniques accounting for compass deviations.

Occult and Esoteric Pursuits

Hermeticism, alchemy, and philosophical foundations

John Dee integrated Hermetic philosophy into his worldview, drawing from the Corpus Hermeticum, texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus that emphasized a prisca theologia—an ancient, unified wisdom tradition reconciling divine revelation with natural knowledge. This framework underpinned Dee's conviction that human intellect could access hidden cosmic structures through disciplined study of mathematics, astronomy, and esoteric disciplines. His approach reflected a syncretic blend of Christian theology with pagan sources, prioritizing empirical observation and symbolic interpretation over dogmatic orthodoxy. Central to Dee's alchemical endeavors was the , published in on March 13, 1564, wherein he devised a hieroglyphic symbol—the Monad—conceived over twelve days as a synthetic emblem fusing lunar crescent, solar orb, astrological cross, and alchemical elements to represent the unity of creation. The treatise, dedicated to Maximilian II, expounded 24 theorems elucidating the Monad's generative power, linking it to kabbalistic letter permutations, planetary influences, and metallic transmutations, thereby positing not merely as material transformation but as a philosophical key to divine operations in nature. Dee's alchemical pursuits, evident in his library holdings of over 4,000 volumes including Paracelsian works, aimed at revealing causal mechanisms of substance change, aligning with his broader quest for a disciplina nova—a new learning integrating quantitative precision with qualitative essences. Philosophically, Dee's foundations rested on Neoplatonic emanationism and Pythagorean numerology, viewing the universe as a hierarchical continuum from the divine One downward, where numbers embodied archetypal forms and harmonic ratios governed physical phenomena. Influenced by Ficino's translations and Pico della Mirandola's kabbalistic , he interpreted Pythagorean doctrines—such as the as a of cosmic order—as precursors to Christian mysteries, enabling a rational ascent toward divine understanding. This metaphysical stance rejected scholastic , favoring a realist where mathematical s directly mirrored eternal truths, thus bridging empirical with insight in Dee's hierarchical .

Scrying practices and the Enochian system

John Dee's practices involved using reflective objects, such as crystal balls or stones known as show-stones, to facilitate visions and communications with spiritual entities, a method he pursued systematically from late 1581. Initially employing Barnabas Saul as scryer starting December 22, 1581, Dee transitioned to in March 1582, with their first joint session recorded on March 10. Kelley, positioned as the passive medium, would gaze into the stone while Dee invoked entities through prayers and recorded the proceedings, often in Latin or English, as detailed in manuscripts like Sloane MS 3188. The setup centered on a Holy Table, approximately two cubits square, constructed per angelic instructions from figures like , featuring engraved letters around its borders and supporting the Aemeth—a wax disk with a complex heptagonal seal incorporating divine names and geometric figures—placed under the scrying stone. Additional tools included a framed show-stone, a ring, and ensigns of creation, with sessions commencing after preparatory rituals emphasizing purity and divine permission. These practices, spanning intermittent periods through May 1583, yielded claims of interactions with angels such as Michael, , and , who delivered practical and esoteric knowledge, including alchemical formulas and treasure maps, though Dee's financial debts of £300 by 1583 underscore the unverified nature of promised material gains. From these scryings emerged the Enochian system, a framework of angelic , cosmology, and , with foundational elements revealed between March and May 1583. On March 26, 1583, angels provided letters for the Holy Table's inscription, followed by the alphabet of 21 characters and the "," comprising 49 calls, 95 tables, and 48 angelic keys delivered in reverse order for transcription. The , termed "Angelical" by Dee, featured unique and , used in 19 Enochian Calls to invoke elemental and planetary spirits across seven tables of creation linked to 49 governing entities. Later sessions during Dee's continental travels from 1583 onward expanded this to include 30 aethyrs, a series of spiritual realms, though primary records like Sloane MS 3191 confirm the core system's origin in Kelley’s visions as interpreted by Dee, without independent corroboration beyond their diaries. The system's emphasis on precise and hierarchical angelic orders reflected Dee's broader Hermetic influences, yet contemporary skepticism, including Kelley's reputation for forgery from earlier convictions, questions the authenticity of revelations, as Dee himself noted conflicts with deceptive spirits resolved only through further angelic verification. Despite this, the materials, preserved in Dee's unpublished manuscripts, formed a distinct corpus influencing subsequent traditions, distinct from Dee's mathematical works due to their reliance on subjective rather than empirical observation.

Collaboration with Edward Kelley and its outcomes

John Dee encountered , initially under the alias Edward Talbot, in March 1582, after previous scrying partners proved unsatisfactory. Kelley, a former convicted of and counterfeiting in 1580—for which his ears were cropped—possessed purported scrying abilities using a black obsidian mirror and . Their partnership commenced with sessions documented in Dee's diaries starting around that date, focusing on invocations to elicit angelic communications for divine knowledge, including alchemical secrets and navigational aids. By March 1583, the duo formalized scrying routines, yielding the Enochian corpus: an angelic alphabet, 19 Calls or Keys, and elemental tablets purportedly dictating cosmic structures and rituals. These revelations, recorded verbatim during trances where Kelley described visions and Dee transcribed, spanned hundreds of sessions until 1587, often in European locales after departing England in 1583 under Polish noble Albrecht Łaski. Concurrently, Kelley asserted possession of a red powder enabling gold transmutation, demonstrated in alchemical furnaces, though no independent verification confirmed these claims beyond Dee's endorsement. Tensions escalated in 1587 when Kelley relayed an angelic directive for spousal exchange—Dee with Kelley's wife and vice versa—which Dee reluctantly implemented for a brief period before reversing, straining their rapport. The dissolved by 1588; Dee repatriated to in 1589, discovering his Mortlake library plundered and finances depleted, yielding no sustained patronage or empirical gains from the pursuits. Kelley remained in , securing Rudolf II's employ as alchemist in 1588 with transmutation demonstrations, but faced in 1591 for failing to replicate gold production on imperial command, perishing in 1597 from injuries sustained in a attempt. The partnership produced voluminous manuscripts influential in later esotericism but empirically resulted in unverified claims, Dee's material ruin, and Kelley's exposure as presumptive .

Political and Imperial Engagements

Advocacy for British empire-building

John Dee emerged as a key proponent of English imperial expansion during the 1570s, framing it as essential for national strength and economic gain under Queen Elizabeth I. In his 1577 treatise The General and Rare Memorials pertayning to the Perfect Arte of Navigation, Dee urged the bolstering of the royal navy as the "Master Key" to unlocking a "," emphasizing its role in securing overseas commodities, safeguarding merchants, and absorbing idle labor into productive maritime pursuits. He argued that such empire-building would restore England's ancient dominion, invoking medieval legends of King Arthur's transatlantic voyages around 530 AD and Prince Madoc's expedition in 1170 AD to assert prior English claims over North American territories, thereby challenging Spanish hegemony without reliance on mere papal grants. Dee formalized these ideas in his unpublished manuscript Brytanici imperii limites (limits of the ), composed between 1576 and 1580, where he delineated the geographical and legal boundaries of imperial authority using historical precedents, geographical knowledge, and principles of . He contended that Elizabeth held inherent rights under to trade in newly discovered lands and to incorporate into her dominion any territories effectively occupied by English subjects, provided they were not under Christian princes—a direct rebuttal to Iberian monopolies enshrined in Alexander VI's 1493 bull . Dee prioritized actual occupation over symbolic discovery for , influencing crown policies such as for explorers and diplomatic disputes with European rivals. His advocacy extended to strategic , proposing alliances like a between Elizabeth and IV to consolidate control over northern and facilitate a to Asia via private trading companies, such as the . Dee integrated these secular arguments with his esoteric worldview, viewing imperial expansion as a cosmopolitical mission aligned with angelic revelations and Solomonic traditions, though his primary appeals to the queen rested on pragmatic naval and legal entitlement to counter Spanish dominance in the . These efforts contributed to Elizabethan ventures, including Martin Frobisher's expeditions (1576–1578), for which Dee supplied navigational expertise and justifications for territorial claims.

Intelligence activities and court advisory roles

John Dee emerged as a trusted advisor to Queen Elizabeth I shortly after her accession on November 17, 1558, a date he had selected based on astrological calculations to ensure a propitious start to her reign. His counsel extended to scientific, navigational, and strategic matters, including recommendations for exploratory voyages that supported England's maritime ambitions, such as those undertaken by in search of the during the 1570s. Elizabeth granted Dee sporadic pensions totaling around £100 annually, reflecting his value as a consultant on technical and advisory issues amid Tudor efforts to counter continental rivals. Dee's advisory roles intersected with early intelligence practices through his proficiency in , a field where his mathematical background enabled the creation of monoalphabetic substitution ciphers for secure . These skills positioned him as a for encoding state secrets, aligning with Elizabethan needs for discretion in during periods of tension with Catholic powers like and . Historical records indicate Dee maintained an extensive network of European correspondents—scholars, merchants, and travelers—who supplied him with reports on political intrigue, scientific advancements, and military preparations abroad, functioning as an informal apparatus. In the 1580s, as Anglo-Spanish hostilities escalated toward the Armada crisis of 1588, Dee's network provided insights into Spanish court activities and naval intentions, aiding 's defensive preparations. He advised on the strategic implications of foreign , drawing from his travels and library acquisitions across , which yielded not only books but also geopolitical data on threats to Protestant . While Dee's contributions lacked the formalized structure of later agencies, his integration of empirical observation, cipher expertise, and advisory acumen supported Elizabeth's regime in navigating without direct evidence of him undertaking field operations himself.

Personal Life

Marriages, family, and descendants

John Dee's first marriage was to Katherine Constable in 1565; the couple had no children, and she died in 1574. He contracted a second marriage in 1575 to an unidentified woman who died in March 1576, also without issue. In February 1578, at age 51, Dee married Jane Fromond, a 23-year-old lady-in-waiting at the court of Lady Howard of Effingham; this union produced eight children over the subsequent years. The children included sons Michael (died 1594 in Prague), Theodore (born in Bohemia, died 1601 in Manchester), Arthur (born 13 July 1579 at Mortlake, died 1651), and Rowland, as well as daughters Katherine, Margaret, Frances, and Madinia. Several children perished young or during outbreaks such as the 1605 plague in Manchester, leaving five or six survivors at Dee's death in March 1609. Arthur Dee, the eldest surviving son and heir, pursued medicine, earning recognition as a "Doctor of Physic" likely from continental studies, and practiced in before moving to around 1605–1606, where he faced scrutiny from the Royal College of Physicians for unauthorized pharmaceutical activities. He married Isabella Prestwich in 1602 and fathered children including Rowland, , Jane, John, , and Maria, thereby extending the family line. Daughter Katherine remained with Dee until his final days, while scant records exist for other daughters' marriages or offspring, with no verified descendant named despite later claims. Rowland Dee, another son, survived into adulthood but left limited traceable progeny. Jane Fromond died in 1604 or 1605, predeceasing Dee by several years.

Household dynamics and key associates

Dee's residence served as an experimental household integrating with family life, where his wife Jane oversaw servants, supervised provisioning, and hosted scholars drawn to his laboratory and library of approximately 4,000 volumes. This setup demanded Jane balance traditional wifely roles—such as meal preparation and child-rearing amid frequent visitors—with the disruptions from Dee's alchemical and instrumental work, which occupied shared spaces and strained resources. Financial pressures compounded these dynamics, as Dee's expenditures on and equipment outpaced , leading to debts that affected household stability; by the early 1580s, the family faced pawnings and sales of possessions. Tensions arose from Dee's prioritization of esoteric and empirical pursuits over domestic order, intruding into marital intimacy and requiring Jane to negotiate her authority amid uninvited guests and irregular routines. Servants handled menial tasks but were subordinate to Jane's management, though specifics on their number or roles remain sparse; the household's scale supported Dee's collaborative endeavors, including instrument calibration and manuscript copying. In 1583, the entire household—encompassing Jane, children, and select retainers—relocated to the alongside Dee's partner, marking a collective upheaval from Mortlake's established patterns. Prominent non-familial associates included mathematician Thomas Allen, a frequent collaborator who accessed Dee's for astronomical computations and shared defenses against sorcery accusations in the 1550s; their rapport facilitated exchanges on and . Brother-in-law Nicholas Fromond, Jane's kin, managed the property during Dee's absences, such as royal progresses, but relations soured over unpaid loans totaling £400 by 1583, highlighting fiscal strains on interpersonal ties. Connections to the Sidney family provided intellectual and patronage links, with among visitors to the household's scholarly milieu, though direct household integration was limited. These associations underscored 's role as a for Elizabethan intellectual networks, yet they amplified the household's exposure to external scrutiny and envy.

Controversies and Criticisms

Accusations of sorcery and contemporary skepticism

In 1555, during Queen Mary I's reign, John Dee faced formal accusations of sorcery stemming from his astrological calculations. On 28 May, he was arrested on charges of "calculating," a term then equated with magical conjuration, as mathematical studies were often suspected of harboring occult powers in England. The complaint originated from George Ferrys, who alleged Dee's enchantments had blinded one of his children, killed another, and targeted the queen's life. Dee's London lodgings were searched and sealed, and he underwent examination before the Secretary of State, the Privy Council on eighteen specific articles, and trial in the Star Chamber. Dee mounted a defense emphasizing his scholarly pursuits in mathematics and astronomy as tools for rather than demonic arts, leading to his clearance of charges. He was released by on 29 August 1555 after three months' imprisonment, though he suffered financial losses from disrupted patronage. Subsequently handed to Bishop for religious orthodoxy scrutiny, Dee was deemed sound in and even enlisted to interrogate the Protestant John Philpot on 19 November 1555. These events reflected broader Tudor-era suspicions where advanced learning blurred into perceived amid Catholic-Protestant tensions. Accusations persisted throughout Dee's career, intensifying with his scrying sessions alongside from 1582 onward, which involved purported angelic communications via . Critics viewed these as illicit conjuring of spirits, associating Dee with necromancy despite his framing them as divine revelations aligned with Christian theology. Rumors of Kelley's fraudulent background as a forger and alchemist further fueled perceptions of , though Dee maintained the authenticity of the visions. In Dee's era, reactions to his practices ranged from endorsement by patrons like , who valued his advisory role, to among detractors who dismissed angelic dialogues as or Kelley's inventions. Contemporary critics, influenced by debates on from figures like , questioned the validity of such esoteric methods, seeing them as deviations from empirical observation. Modern scholarship similarly approaches Dee's sorcery claims , attributing them to the period's hermetic worldview rather than verifiable supernatural events, and highlights potential psychological or manipulative elements in without endorsing efficacy.

Misconceptions in modern historiography

Modern historiography has often portrayed John Dee primarily as an occult practitioner whose scrying sessions and Enochian communications dominated his intellectual life, thereby overshadowing his substantive contributions to , , and imperial policy. This emphasis stems from selective focus on his later angelic conversations with , which, while documented in Dee's diaries published posthumously by Meric Casaubon in 1659, represented only a fraction of his diverse activities; Dee's earlier works, such as the Mathematical Preface to Euclid's Elements (1570), systematically advocated for in fields like , , and seafaring, influencing Elizabethan practical sciences. A persistent misconception depicts Dee as a naive or delusional magus, credulously duped by Kelley, rather than a pragmatic who deployed esoteric practices strategically to advance political and imperial agendas. Glyn Parry argues that Dee's "" served as a tool for gaining favor in a where knowledge was valued by figures like and William Cecil, Lord Burghley, countering narratives that reduce him to a victim of fraud; contemporary rivals, not inherent credulity, amplified libels against him. This view challenges earlier dismissals rooted in post-Enlightenment biases that excised magical elements from Elizabethan politics, as seen in Victorian-era histories that prioritized "rational" science over integrated worldviews. Influential interpretations by , particularly in The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age (1979), have been critiqued for overstating Dee's role in a cohesive "Hermetic tradition" driving and , portraying him as a central of Rosicrucian enlightenment precursors. Subsequent scholars, including those in interdisciplinary studies edited by Stephen Clucas (2006), highlight Yates' romanticization, which imposed modern esoteric frameworks on Dee's eclectic pursuits—blending , Cabala, and —without sufficient evidence of unified influence; Dee's (1564), for instance, synthesized alchemical symbolism with arithmetic but lacked the purported revolutionary impact on empirical methodology. Anachronistic labeling of Dee as a "proto-scientist" or forerunner of experimentalism misrepresents his epistemological commitments, which prioritized divine hierarchies and mathematical over mechanistic hypotheses; attempts to align him with Baconian induction ignore his reliance on angelic for knowledge, as in the Enochian calls, which he viewed as complementary to, not supplanted by, observation. This dichotomy—scientist versus magus—artificially fractures his holistic , where informed (e.g., advising on Martin Frobisher's 1576 voyage) and empire-building, such as coining "British Empire" in Brytannicae reparationis defensio (1570, unpublished until 1975). Populist myths, echoed in some modern accounts, erroneously position Dee as the inspiration for Shakespeare's Prospero or Marlowe's Faustus, or as the shadowy architect of calendar reform; no primary evidence links him to The Tempest's protagonist beyond shared motifs, and his 1583 calendar proposal—adopting the Gregorian system retroactively—was rejected by ecclesiastical authorities, not implemented as a defining achievement. Such fabrications, often amplified in non-academic media, perpetuate a sensationalized image detached from archival records of his Mortlake library and advisory roles.

Legacy and Influence

Impact on early modern science and exploration

John Dee's Mathematicall Praeface to the 1570 English edition of Euclid's Elements, translated by Henry Billingsley, articulated a vision of mathematics as the foundational discipline underpinning , astronomy, , and engineering, thereby elevating its status in English intellectual circles and fostering an indigenous tradition of applied mathematical inquiry. This preface, drawing on continental influences like those of Commandino and Ramus, classified mathematical branches such as cosmography and hydrography as essential for practical arts, influencing subsequent English mathematicians and surveyors who integrated these methods into land measurement and fortification design. In astronomy and , Dee's Propaedeumata Aphoristica (1558) advanced observational techniques and theoretical frameworks for , including critiques of Ptolemaic models and endorsements of more accurate instruments like astrolabes refined through his collaborations with instrument-makers, which contributed to the empirical turn in English by emphasizing precise measurement over speculative cosmology. His advocacy for , detailed in petitions to in 1582 and presentations to , aligned with continental efforts like those of Clavius, promoting Gregorian-style adjustments based on astronomical data to enhance navigational reliability, though it faced resistance due to religious conservatism. Dee's navigational expertise directly shaped Elizabethan exploration, as he advised on voyages from approximately 1551 to 1583, providing charts, route recommendations, and polar navigation techniques for the Muscovy Company's northeastern expeditions and searches for the Northwest Passage. For Martin Frobisher's 1576–1578 voyages to Arctic regions, Dee supplied specialized instruments and magnetic variation data, enabling safer traversal of icy waters and informing later Anglo-American claims to northern territories through his historical and cartographic arguments linking Elizabeth to Arthurian precedents. He instructed explorers like Walter Raleigh and Francis Drake in longitude determination via lunar observations, a method that improved positional accuracy on transatlantic routes and supported England's competitive edge against Iberian monopolies. By amassing a library of over 3,000 volumes including Mercator's maps and globes, Dee facilitated knowledge transfer that bolstered England's maritime expansion, with his 1580s charts for specific expeditions exemplifying the integration of mathematics into imperial strategy. John Dee's magical system, developed through sessions with between 1582 and 1589, exerted significant influence on subsequent Western esoteric traditions. This framework, involving an angelic language, hierarchical calls, and elemental tablets, was revived and formalized by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn during the 1880s and 1890s, who integrated it into their initiatory rituals and elemental invocations. , building on Golden Dawn materials, conducted extensive Enochian workings in the early 20th century, publishing accounts in works like The Vision and the (1911), where he described traversing the Enochian aethyrs as a means of spiritual ascent. Dee's (1564), a on a symbolic glyph uniting alchemical, astrological, and kabbalistic principles, received early reception in continental alchemical circles, with references appearing in Italian, French, and German texts by the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In , Dee has been depicted as a quintessential magus bridging and the . Scholars have proposed him as a model for , the sorcerer in William Shakespeare's (performed circa 1611), due to parallels in themes of invocation, exile, and imperial ambition. Similar archetypal links exist with the titular scholar in Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (circa 1592), reflecting contemporary views of learned . In 20th- and 21st-century media, Dee features in exploring esotericism, including comic works by , who drew on Dee's angelic communications for narrative elements in graphic novels. British musician premiered the opera Dr Dee in 2011 at the , portraying Dee's life, alchemical pursuits, and experiments through a blend of folk, electronic, and . His legacy persists in science fiction, where motifs inform plots involving otherworldly contact and .

Major Works

Scientific and navigational treatises

In 1570, Dee published The Elements of Geometrie of the most auncient Philosopher EUCLID of Megara, faithfully translated into the Englishe tonge, the first English edition of Euclid's Elements, accompanied by his influential Mathematicall Praeface. This preface provided a systematic classification of the mathematical sciences into three categories—static (geometry and cosmography), self-moving (astronomy and music), and instrumental (navigation, architecture, and perspective)—arguing for their foundational role in practical arts and natural philosophy. Dee drew on ancient authorities like Plato and Ptolemy to justify mathematics as a tool for empirical measurement and discovery, countering scholastic dismissal of its utility beyond abstraction. Dee's preface extended to navigational applications, detailing how geometry enabled the construction of instruments for surveying seas, determining latitudes via celestial observations, and plotting courses with astrolabes and quadrants. He promoted the integration of arithmetic and geometry for resolving paradoxes in spherical trigonometry, essential for accurate charting during voyages. This work influenced English mathematicians like , who built on Dee's parallactic methods for altitude measurements in . Complementing these efforts, Dee's General and Rare Memorials pertayning to the Perfecte Arte of Navigation (1577) addressed maritime deficiencies hindering English expansion, proposing a state-sponsored "Colledge of Navigators" to train pilots in mathematics, compile hydrographic data, and standardize instruments like the cross-staff. Presented to Queen Elizabeth I, the treatise urged investment in globes, maps, and longitude solutions to secure trade routes and territorial claims, linking mathematical precision to imperial strategy. Dee cited empirical needs from Muscovy Company voyages, advocating for pilots versed in astronomical tables over rule-of-thumb methods. Earlier, in works like the 1558 Propaedeumata Aphoristica, Dee explored astronomical principles underpinning navigation, including planetary motions and parallax calculations for positional accuracy at sea, though these blended theoretical with predictive elements. His navigational advocacy extended to unpublished manuscripts on instrument design, but the 1577 stands as his primary published call for systematic reform, emphasizing verifiable data over anecdotal seamanship.

Esoteric manuscripts and unpublished writings

John Dee's esoteric manuscripts document his purported communications with angels, conducted via through from late 1581 onward. The core of these works comprises transcripts of spiritual conferences, preserved in unpublished volumes that detail revelations on cosmology, , and divine . Chief among them are the Mysteriorum Libri Quinque (Five Books of Mystery), recording sessions from 22 December 1581 to 23 May 1583, including the initial unveiling of the script and tablets. These manuscripts, handwritten by Dee, remained private and unpublished during his lifetime, surviving in collections such as the . Subsequent diaries extended these records, with volumes covering 1583–1584, 1585–1586, and isolated entries from 1587, transcribing angelic dictations on topics like the Sigillum Dei Aemeth—a wax talisman inscribed with divine names—and invocations for elemental control. Dee viewed these as direct divine transmissions, yet they were not prepared for print, reflecting caution amid contemporary suspicions of necromancy. Many original leaves were lost or deliberately destroyed by Dee in 1589, during a period of financial distress and reputational threats, leaving fragmentary survivals. Beyond angelic records, Dee amassed unpublished notes on kabbalistic exegesis, alchemical processes, and Hermetic philosophy, often interleaved in his extensive library of over 3,000 volumes. These include annotations on Agrippa's De Occulta Philosophia and explorations of the Book of Soyga, a cryptographic grimoire he consulted but did not author. Such materials, esoteric by intent, circulated minimally among select associates and were rediscovered in institutional archives post-mortem. Later derivatives, like 17th-century compilations of Enochian tables in Sloane manuscripts, stem from Dee's originals but represent adaptations rather than his direct hand.

References

  1. https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Dee/
  2. https://galileo.library.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/dee.html
  3. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dee
  4. https://www.nsa.gov/portals/75/documents/news-features/declassified-documents/tech-journals/john-dee.pdf
  5. https://archaeologyofreading.org/john-dee-a-biographical-note/
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  33. http://www.johndee.org/calder/html/Calder4.html
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  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282294296_John_Dee_and_Edward_Kelley_in_Cracow_Identifying_the_House_of_Enochian_Revelations
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  40. https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v23/n08/charles-nicholl/the-last-years-of-edward-kelley-alchemist-to-the-emperor
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  43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0160932718300462
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  45. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/queen-elizabeth-is-vast-spy-network-was-the-original-surveillance-state
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