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Lebombo bone
Lebombo bone
Lebombo bone
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The Lebombo bone is a bone tool made of a baboon fibula with incised markings discovered in Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains located between South Africa and Eswatini.[1] Changes in the section of the notches indicate the use of different cutting edges, which the bone's discoverer, Peter Beaumont, views as evidence for their having been made, like other markings found all over the world, during participation in rituals.

The bone is between 43,000 and 42,000 years old, according to 24 radiocarbon datings.[2] This is far older than the Ishango bone with which it is sometimes confused. Other notched bones are 80,000 years old but it is unclear if the notches are merely decorative or if they bear a functional meaning.[3] The bone has been conjectured to be a tally stick.[4]

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Lebombo bone

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The Lebombo bone is a prehistoric artifact made from the of a , featuring 29 deliberately incised notches along one edge, discovered in Border Cave within the on the border between and . Dating to approximately 44,000–42,000 years ago based on Bayesian modeling of radiocarbon dates, it represents the oldest known example of a mathematical or notational tool from the Early . Unearthed during excavations in the 1970s by Peter Beaumont, the bone measures about 64 mm in length and is housed in the KwaZulu-Natal Museum in , . The artifact's notches, which are evenly spaced and microscopically analyzed to confirm intentional human modification, suggest it functioned as a for counting or recording events, potentially linked to lunar cycles given the number 29 approximates the 29.5-day synodic month. The notches on the Lebombo bone have been interpreted as possibly representing an early , a hypothesis supported by comparisons to later tally systems used by San hunter-gatherers in the region. This interpretation aligns with evidence of symbolic behavior emerging around 44,000 years ago at Border Cave, where the bone was found alongside other organic artifacts like ostrich eggshell beads and bone tools indicative of San material culture. Its significance lies in providing the earliest tangible evidence of mathematical cognition in human history, predating other notched artifacts like the by tens of thousands of years and challenging assumptions about the timeline of abstract thinking in . The Lebombo bone highlights southern 's role as a cradle of innovation, with the site's stratified layers revealing continuous occupation from the through the . Ongoing debates focus on whether the notches denote practical tallies—such as days, menstrual cycles, or hunts—or more complex symbolic systems, but its preservation underscores the sophistication of prehistoric African societies.

Discovery

Excavation and find

The Lebombo bone was discovered during archaeological excavations conducted in the 1970s at Border Cave, a rock shelter in the western of , . These excavations were led by Peter Beaumont, a researcher affiliated with the McGregor Museum in Kimberley, who directed fieldwork from 1970 to 1975 to investigate the site's long stratigraphic sequence spanning the . The artifact was recovered from Layer 15 (corresponding to 1BS Lower), within the cave's early (ELSA) deposits, a level containing assemblages of ELSA lithic tools such as microbladelets, bored stones, and bipolar cores, alongside organic artifacts indicative of advanced early technologies. This context highlights the bone's integration into a broader occupational layer reflecting sustained activity at the site. Post-discovery, the bone underwent initial documentation as part of Beaumont's detailed cataloging of organic artifacts, including analysis of its form and markings by specialists like Alexander Marshack in the site's excavation appendices. It was subsequently transported to the McGregor Museum for long-term curation and research, where it remains housed alongside other Border Cave finds.

Location and dating

The Lebombo bone was recovered from Border Cave, a rock shelter situated in the along the international border between and (formerly Swaziland). The site lies in the Ingwavuma district of province, , at an elevation of approximately 600 meters above sea level, overlooking the Phongolo River floodplain and roughly 82 kilometers from the coast. This location provided early human occupants with access to diverse resources, including riverine gravels for raw materials like and , sourced from nearby areas such as the Ingwavuma River. Stratigraphically, the bone originates from the upper layers of Border Cave's deposit, specifically within Layer 15 (1BS Lower) of the early (ELSA) sequence, which overlies strata and is associated with the post-Howiesons Poort industry—a transitional techno-complex following the Howiesons Poort period characterized by innovative blade and point technologies. The Howiesons Poort layers below, dated to around 60,000 years ago, feature backed tools and other advanced lithic forms, while the overlying ELSA levels, including those containing the bone, reflect a shift toward bipolar reduction techniques and organic artifacts. The bone's position in these upper strata places it in a context of evolving cultural practices during the Middle to transition. Dating of the relevant layers relies on radiocarbon (14C) analysis of , wood, and associated materials, supplemented by electron spin resonance (ESR) and optically stimulated (OSL) methods, yielding calibrated ages of 44,000 to 42,000 years for the ELSA horizons. Specific measurements from Member 1BS Lower B+C layers, for instance, range from 44.2–43.0 ka cal to 43.0–42.5 ka cal . Some earlier assessments provide a more conservative estimate of approximately 35,000 BC (37,000 years ), reflecting initial radiocarbon results from the 1970s excavations, though subsequent refinements support the older range.

Physical description

Material and form

The Lebombo bone is fashioned from the diaphysis of a baboon's fibula. This slender bone fragment measures approximately 6.4 cm (64 mm) in length and exhibits a broken form, consistent with its recovery from an archaeological context in Border Cave. The artifact's surface displays a heavily polished finish, suggesting prolonged manipulation or practical use beyond incidental handling.

Notches and markings

The Lebombo bone exhibits 29 distinct notches incised along one edge, forming a linear series of deliberate markings on the artifact's surface. The notches are incised along the interosseous crest, consisting of four sets made with different tools—three complete sets and one interrupted by breakage—with generally consistent spacing but irregular in the incomplete set, underscoring intentional craftsmanship by its makers. Analysis of the notches reveals variations in their arrangement, including four sets that suggest organized patterning, though these groupings are less defined compared to those observed in subsequent tally tools. The bone's composition as a baboon provided a suitable medium for such engravings, with the notches confined to one side to preserve functionality as a potential or tool component.

Interpretations and significance

Mathematical uses

The Lebombo bone is widely regarded by archaeologists as an early employed for numerical ing, with its incisions likely serving to record sequential events such as days. The artifact features 29 distinct notches, a that aligns closely with the synodic of approximately 29.5 days, supporting interpretations of its use in tracking lunar phases or related temporal cycles. This numerical correspondence suggests deliberate enumeration rather than random markings, marking it as one of the earliest known instances of systematic tallying in . Supporting evidence draws from ethnographic observations of similar tally systems among indigenous African groups. The bone's design and function resemble calendar sticks still utilized by San (Bushmen) communities in , where incisions track lunar cycles, seasonal changes, or daily counts for practical purposes like or timing. These modern parallels indicate continuity in notational practices from prehistoric to contemporary contexts, reinforcing the hypothesis for the Lebombo artifact without implying direct cultural descent. This interpretation carries significant implications for understanding early arithmetic cognition among populations in approximately 44,000 years ago. The deliberate creation of grouped or sequential notches demonstrates basic additive and an awareness of cyclical patterns in nature, foundational to later mathematical developments. Such tools likely facilitated cognitive advancements in timekeeping and quantification, embedding numerical thinking into daily survival strategies and .

Alternative theories

One alternative interpretation posits that the Lebombo bone functioned as a , potentially used to track menstrual cycles or seasonal changes, given its 29 notches approximating the 29.5-day synodic . This idea draws from the bone's resemblance to later calendar sticks employed by San hunter-gatherers in for monitoring lunar phases. Another view suggests a or purpose, where the notches served as non-utilitarian markings, possibly linked to early behaviors or ceremonial practices during the early . Such engravings on bone tools from Border Cave, including the Lebombo artifact, are seen as evidence of emerging expression among early modern humans, predating similar European finds by millennia. Scholars caution against over-interpretation, emphasizing the absence of direct contextual to confirm any specific function, whether lunar tracking, use, or even the more commonly proposed as a simple tally for counting. The bone's breakage at one end further complicates precise notch counts, rendering claims about exact alignments—such as to the lunar cycle—speculative at best.

Context and legacy

Archaeological importance

The Lebombo bone serves as key evidence of symbolic behavior and planning capabilities among early populations in , where it was found in association with engraved bone tools and personal ornaments in Border Cave layers dated to 42,000–44,000 years ago. These features indicate deliberate modification for non-utilitarian purposes, reflecting advanced cognitive processes such as abstraction and foresight in resource management or practices. This artifact highlights the early emergence of symbolic expression in , predating comparable engraved items from the European by at least 10,000 years and supporting the view that modern human behavioral complexity originated on the . Its notches, interpreted as intentional tallies, demonstrate planning and representational thought, contributing to understandings of how prehistoric African societies engaged in structured activities beyond mere survival. The bone also plays a pivotal role in scholarly debates on the evolutionary origins of and , as its 29 incisions suggest an early system for tracking quantities or cycles, possibly lunar phases, among hunter-gatherers. This positions the Lebombo bone as a foundational example of , illustrating how such skills developed in tandem with and in early Homo sapiens. In the context of the Border Cave stratigraphic sequence, the artifact aligns with the transition from Middle to technologies around 44,000 years ago, a process debated as either gradual or involving regional discontinuities, providing a window into the behavioral adaptations of early modern humans in southern Africa before their dispersals northward and out of the continent. This placement underscores the site's importance in tracing the roots of cultural innovations that facilitated human migrations and global expansion.

Comparisons to other artifacts

The Lebombo bone, with its 29 uniform notches carved in a single linear sequence along one edge of a , contrasts with the younger from the , dated to approximately 20,000 years ago. The , also a , features around 168 notches organized into three parallel columns with grouped markings, including sequences that some researchers interpret as representations of prime numbers (such as 11, 13, 17, and 19) or doubling patterns suggestive of early concepts. This structured complexity on the implies a more advanced notational system compared to the Lebombo's straightforward tally, potentially indicating progression in numerical recording within African Paleolithic contexts. In relation to European Paleolithic artifacts, the Lebombo bone predates notched tally sticks from the Magdalenian culture (circa 17,000–12,000 years ago) by tens of thousands of years, underscoring early African precedence in such technologies. Examples from sites, such as a rib bone from Laugerie-Basse with over 120 sequential marks or an from La Marche with more than 300 incisions, exhibit greater volume and variety in markings, often interpreted as cumulative tallies for tracking time or quantities. These European artifacts, while sharing the basic function of linear notching for enumeration, appear later in the archaeological record and lack the singular, uniform simplicity of the Lebombo bone. The Lebombo bone's basic linear design as a rudimentary tally distinguishes it from both the grouped sophistication of the Ishango and the extensive markings of sticks, supporting scholarly views on the independent invention of counting systems across continents during the . This highlights its role as an early precursor to more elaborate numerical tools, without evidence of shared .
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