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Bone tool
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Bone tool
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Bone awl

In archaeology, bone tools have been documented from the advent of Homo sapiens and are also known from Homo neanderthalensis contexts or even earlier. Bone has been used for making tools by virtually all hunter-gatherer societies, even when other materials were readily available.

Any part of the skeleton can potentially be utilized; however, antlers[1] and long bones provide some of the best working material. Long bone fragments can be shaped, by scraping against an abrasive stone, into such items as arrow and spear points, needles, awls, and fish hooks. Other bone tools include spoons, knives, pins, needles, flakers, hide scrapers and reamers.[citation needed]

They made musical rasps, flutes and whistles as well as toys have also been made of bone. Decoratively carved articles were also made of bone such as hair combs, hair pins and pendants. Even the teeth and hooves did not go to waste. The teeth were drilled and used for decoration on clothing and necklaces. The hooves were also drilled and used for decoration on clothing as well as strung for rattles and bells.[2]

As an organic material, bone often does not survive in a way that is archaeologically recoverable. However, under the right conditions, bone tools do sometimes survive and many have been recovered from locations around the world representing time periods throughout history and prehistory. Also many examples have been collected ethnographically, and some traditional peoples, as well as experimental archaeologists, continue to use bone to make tools.

History

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The oldest excavated bone tools are from Africa, dated to about 1.5 million years ago.[3] It is widely accepted that they appeared and developed in Africa before any other geographic region. A very famous excavation of bone tools is that of the Blombos Cave in South Africa. A collection of twenty-eight bone tools were recovered from 70 thousand year old Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave. Careful analyses of these tools reveal that formal production methods were used to create awls and projectile points.[4]

Bone tools have been discovered in the context of Neanderthal groups as well as throughout the development of anatomically modern humans. Archaeologists have long believed that Neanderthals learned how to make bone tools from modern humans and by mimicking stone tools, viewing bone as simply another raw material. Modern humans, on the other hand, took advantage of the properties of bone and worked them into specific shapes and tools.

A recent discovery of specialized bone tools at two Neanderthal sites in southwestern France brings to light the idea that Neanderthals may have actually taught modern humans how to make specialized bone tools. The uncovering of lissoirs ("polishing stones") at these sites is significant as they are about 51,000 years old, predating the known arrival of modern humans to Europe.[5]

Prior to the Industrial Revolution (when machine mass production of sharp tools became viable), many everyday tools such as needles were made from bone; such items continue to be valued today as antiques. Bone folders are still used by bookbinders.

Types

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Awls

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An awl is a long, pointed spike generally used for piercing or marking materials such as wood or leather. Bone awls are pointed tips made on any bone splinter. Bone awls vary considerably in the amount of polish from wear, the method of preparation, and size. Bone awls tend to be classified according to the characteristics of the bone used to make the awl. Many bone awls retain an epiphysis, or rounded end of a bone. Although authors have differing theories as to the uses of bone awls, the two main uses agreed upon are as manipulators in the making of basketry and as perforators in the working of hide.[6]

Spear points and bipoints

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Bone spear points and bipoints have been found throughout the world. A mastodon rib bone found in Washington State was discovered in the 1970s with a broken bone projectile point stuck in it. A 2011 study using radiocarbon dating found that it is about 14,000 years old.[7] This discovery is significant because it predates the arrival of the Clovis people, and may help rewrite human history in the Americas.[8]

Hoes

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Hoes fashioned from bison scapula were common cultivating tools among the Plains Village Indians. In particular, it was used for cultivating small garden crops. It continued to be used among these Indians until iron hoes were brought by French traders in the 18th century. Recovered bone hoes range from 40 cm to as small as 15 cm. The size variation is due, in large part, to frequent resharpening.[9] Bone tools were also used for digging up insect mounds for consumption, known as Entomophagy.

Musical instruments

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A number of different musical instruments have been created from bone. A vulture-bone flute discovered in Europe is currently considered the world's oldest musical instrument. At about 40,000 years old, the instrument dates to the time that modern humans were settling in the area. Researchers argue that musical instruments such as this flute helped modern humans form tighter social bonds, giving them an advantage over their Neanderthal counterparts.[10]

In addition, bones consist of a pair of animal bones that are played by clacking the bones together. As a musical instrument, they have a history that dates to ancient China, Egypt and Greece.

Other types

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Map
Selected archaeological sites with eyed bone needles aged between 45,000 and 25,000 years BP from the ROAD database (CC BY-SA 4.0 ROCEEH)

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bone tool

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A bone tool is a deliberately modified implement crafted from animal bone, typically shaped through techniques such as scraping, cutting, grinding, or percussion to create functional edges or points for use in daily activities by prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies. These artifacts, often produced alongside stone and other organic materials, served diverse purposes including piercing hides, extracting marrow or insects, weaving baskets, and possibly even musical or symbolic roles in Stone Age economies. Bone tools have a deep history in human evolution, with the earliest systematic production documented at approximately 1.5 million years ago in East Africa, where hominins shaped large mammal limb bones—primarily from elephants and hippopotamuses—using stone percussors to create elongated, pointed, or notched forms averaging over a dozen flake scars per tool. This discovery at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, part of the T69 Complex in the Frida Leakey Korongo West Gully, pushes back the timeline for intentional bone tool-making by more than a million years compared to previous finds, bridging the Oldowan and Acheulean technological traditions and highlighting advanced cognitive planning in early hominins. Evidence of bone tools appears sporadically across South and East African sites over the past two million years, revealing two regionally distinct cultural varieties that reflect local adaptations in manufacturing and use. Common types include awls for piercing, needles for sewing, beamers for hide processing, and points for hunting or scraping, often selected from durable long bones of large mammals due to their strength and availability at kill sites. Manufacturing involved both expedient modification—such as battering ends for use as retouchers on stone tools—and more formalized shaping with abrasion or incision, allowing for precise control not always achievable with stone. Archaeologically, these tools provide critical insights into vanished technologies and behaviors, such as early agriculture, bow-and-arrow use, or ritual practices, as preserved traces of use-wear and residue analysis reveal functions tied to perishable materials like wood or fiber. Later Iron Age examples in Africa suggest interactions with farming communities, possibly through trade, underscoring bone tools' enduring role in cultural exchange.

Overview

Definition

Bone tools, also referred to as osseous tools in archaeological terminology, are implements deliberately crafted from hard animal skeletal elements, including bones, antlers, and ivory, through shaping or modification to serve specific practical functions. These artifacts represent an extension of faunal resource use by prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies, transforming skeletal remains into durable cultural items beyond their primary roles in sustenance or shelter. A key distinction exists between bone tools and unmodified bones, which may be employed opportunistically without alteration; true bone tools are intentionally modified, often evidenced by traces of working such as cuts, polish, or fractures from fabrication processes. This deliberate craftsmanship differentiates them from naturally occurring or casually used skeletal fragments in archaeological contexts. The term "osseous" originates from the Latin osseus, meaning "bony" or "of bone," derived from os ("bone"), and in broadly encompasses tools made from rigid organic tissues like , , and to highlight their material commonality. Common examples include awls for piercing and points for .

Materials and Selection

Bone tools were primarily crafted from the skeletal elements of large mammals, including long bones, ribs, and scapulae sourced from animals such as deer, , , and hippopotamuses. These elements provided suitable blanks due to their structural integrity and dimensions, often obtained from animals hunted or scavenged for . from cervids like deer were favored for their resilience and branching structure, while from tusks of or marine mammals offered exceptional durability for fine or high-stress applications. Selection of bone as a raw material hinged on criteria such as density, size, straightness, and local availability, ensuring the material's suitability for tool production with minimal modification. Denser cortical bone from long bones and ribs provided strength and resistance to wear, while larger specimens from megafauna allowed for elongated tools without excessive waste. Straight elements like ribs were preferred for their natural morphology, reducing the need for extensive shaping, and availability was tied to faunal assemblages from subsistence activities, with prehistoric artisans strategically choosing rarer, higher-quality bones over more abundant but inferior options. Compared to stone, bone offered advantages in flexibility to absorb impacts without fracturing and renewability, as it derived from renewable animal resources rather than finite lithic sources. Regional variations in material use reflected environmental availability and ecological adaptations. In coastal prehistoric sites, bones from marine mammals such as whales were exploited for their large size and density, enabling the creation of robust tools in regions where terrestrial were scarce. Inland or avian-rich areas saw the use of bones for lightweight implements, valued for their hollow structure that facilitated and reduced weight without sacrificing basic functionality. In southern African contexts, such as sites, selection sometimes incorporated cultural preferences for specific species like eland or , blending practical and symbolic considerations.

Historical Development

Earliest Evidence

The earliest confirmed evidence of bone tools dates to approximately 1.5 million years ago, from an assemblage discovered in 2025 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. This collection of 27 bone artifacts, recovered from a single stratigraphic horizon at the T69 Complex within the Frida Leakey Korongo West Gully, represents the oldest known instance of systematic bone tool production by hominins. The tools were primarily fashioned from the long bones of large mammals, including hippopotamuses and elephants, through knapping techniques that produced sharp flakes suitable for cutting tasks. These bone tools were found in association with stone tools and faunal remains indicative of butchery activities, suggesting their use in processing animal carcasses alongside lithic implements. The site's context points to repeated hominin occupation, with the bone artifacts exhibiting intentional modification patterns, such as elongated flakes and retouched edges, that distinguish them from naturally fractured s. Likely produced by , the dominant hominin in the region at this time, these finds push back the evidence of diverse raw material use in early tool-making by about one million years compared to previous records. Potential earlier indications of hominin interaction with bones appear at Dikika, , where fossilized animal bones bearing cut marks dated to around 3.4 million years ago have been interpreted as evidence of tool-assisted butchery. These marks, found on two specimens approximately 200 meters from the discovery site of fossils, are debated as intentional, with some researchers attributing them to unmodified rocks rather than deliberately shaped tools, and no direct evidence of bone tools exists there. While the oldest undisputed stone tools date to 2.6 million years ago at nearby Gona, , the Dikika finds highlight early hominin engagement with bone resources in butchery contexts, potentially by or related ancestors.

Evolution Across Periods

The development of bone tools during the period marked a progression toward greater specialization and regional variation. In the , assemblages from sites like Contrebandiers Cave in , dated between 120,000 and 90,000 years ago, include specialized implements such as spatulas fashioned from rib bones, likely employed for processing leather and fur, alongside retouchers used in stone . These tools indicate early Homo sapiens' deliberate selection of osseous materials for distinct tasks, reflecting cognitive advancements in material exploitation. Similarly, at in (ca. 420,000–200,000 years ago), bone retouchers demonstrate systematic use of discarded bones for lithic production, underscoring continuity in bone tool adaptation during this era. The (40,000–10,000 years ago) witnessed marked diversification of bone tools across and , driven by broader technological and subsistence shifts. In , tools expanded to include eyed needles for garment , harpoons for , and awls for hide preparation, often produced with techniques like scraping and polishing tailored to bone. African Later Stone Age sites parallel this with comparable osseous artifacts, such as bone points and ornaments, highlighting cultural parallels in tool complexity. Regional examples, like bone needles from China's Xiaogushan site (ca. 20,000 years ago), further illustrate this expansion into , where such implements supported cold-climate adaptations like tailored . During the and transitions, bone tools adapted to emerging sedentary lifestyles and , particularly in the around 10,000 BCE. Sedentary communities increasingly incorporated bone implements for farming, as evidenced by bone hoes and sickles at sites like Göytepe in Azerbaijan's Middle Kura Valley, which facilitated soil tilling and crop harvesting in early village settings. This period saw bone tools integrated into composite designs with stone blades and wooden hafts, such as points and handles, enhancing durability and versatility for and processing. By the , such innovations supported intensified resource use in proto-agricultural societies. Following 3000 BCE, the rise of in led to a general decline in bone tool prevalence, as and offered superior durability for many functions. However, bone implements persisted in contexts where metal was limited or for specialized roles, such as fine carving or in resource-scarce environments, maintaining their utility alongside emerging technologies.

Manufacturing Techniques

Shaping Processes

The shaping of bone into tools begins with primary processes that remove excess and form the basic , primarily through abrasion, percussion, and subsequent grinding or . Abrasion involves scraping the bone surface with lithic tools, such as flint or scrapers, to gradually reduce and contour the while preserving its fibrous integrity. This method is particularly effective for creating smooth, controlled removals without fracturing the bone, as demonstrated in experimental replications of techniques where stone scrapers produce parallel striations indicative of unidirectional motion. Percussion, akin to lithic , employs direct or indirect strikes with hard hammers or soft /bone percussors to detach flakes from denser osseous materials, enabling the production of sharp edges and pointed forms through controlled fracturing. Grinding and follow to refine edges, using stones like or waterworn pebbles to achieve a smooth finish that enhances durability and reduces wear during use. The manufacturing sequence typically progresses in three stages: initial cutting to size, rough shaping, and finishing. Initial cutting employs sawing or chopping with stone adzes or burins to segment the bone blank from larger elements like long bones or ribs, minimizing waste and selecting optimal morphology. Rough shaping then integrates abrasion and percussion to approximate the tool's final form, removing irregularities and establishing functional features such as points or bevels. Finishing involves prolonged grinding against abrasive surfaces, often with added water or ochre as lubricants, to polish surfaces and eliminate micro-fractures, resulting in tools with glossy, low-friction edges suitable for piercing or scraping tasks. In some experimental contexts simulating ancient practices, this sequence yields tools with significant reductions in surface roughness. Variations in shaping arise from material properties, with softer bones like those from herbivores often relying on abrasion to avoid splintering, while denser is more amenable to percussion due to its patterns similar to silcrete stone. Softer cortices, for instance, are preferentially scraped to maintain pliability for flexible tools, whereas tines withstand hammer strikes for producing rigid points, as evidenced in comparative experimental studies where flake scars exhibit bulb-of-percussion features absent in scraped bone. Ethnographic analogies from Mackenzie practices illustrate these adaptations, where whale bone—intermediate in density—is initially abraded with knives for rough contouring before polishing with pumice-like stones, optimizing the material for components. Certain cultures apply to modify bone properties, heating blanks over low fires for straightening curved elements or enhancing hardness prior to shaping. This process, observed in , softens temporarily for reshaping without degrading the matrix, allowing corrections to natural warps in long bones before final abrasion or . Tools for these processes, such as stone scrapers and hammers, are essential for precision but vary by stage and material.

Tools and Methods

In the production of bone tools, auxiliary implements played a crucial role in facilitating precise modifications to raw bone material. Stone flakes, often sharp-edged lithic pieces, were commonly employed for initial cutting and incising tasks, allowing artisans to score and shape bone surfaces efficiently. such as slabs were utilized for grinding and smoothing, reducing bone thickness and refining edges through abrasive that minimized material loss compared to cutting alone. For percussion-based shaping, or bone hammers provided controlled impacts, enabling the removal of bone fragments without excessive fracturing, particularly in knapping-like processes. Advanced methods supplemented these tools to create specialized features on bone implements. Incision followed by snapping, where deep grooves were cut around a bone segment using stone tools before applying pressure to break it cleanly, was a key technique for producing pointed tools like awls or projectiles. for involved carving indentations or serrations at the base of a bone tool to secure it to a , enhancing durability and functionality in composite implements. has demonstrated the efficiency of these methods. Cultural variations in these practices are evident in African traditions, where low-heat fire treatment was applied to soften dense bone, such as long bone shafts, making them more pliable for shaping prior to auxiliary tool use. These methods left distinctive microscopic traces on bone surfaces, including fine striations from scraping with stone flakes, which appear as parallel linear marks under magnification, aiding in the reconstruction of production sequences. Such techniques were adapted to form various tool shapes, from perforators to cutting edges, as explored in subsequent analyses of bone tool typology.

Types of Bone Tools

Perforating Tools

Perforating tools encompass awls and needles, specialized implements crafted from bone to pierce hides, , and other organic materials for and assembly tasks. These tools facilitated the production of fitted clothing, bags, and decorative items during the , reflecting technological adaptations to environmental demands. Awls, constructed from splintered long bones of mammals such as or horses, functioned as robust pointed instruments for punching holes in to prepare it for lacing or . At the site of in the , dated to approximately 31,000 calibrated years before present, excavations have uncovered numerous such awls, with use-wear analysis revealing striations and polish consistent with repeated perforation of soft animal hides. Eyed bone needles, dating from around 25,000 BCE in the cultural context, advanced perforating capabilities by incorporating a small eye for threading sinew or plant fibers, enabling more precise stitching of garments and attachments like beads. These needles were frequently made from bird s, valued for their hollow structure and thin walls that allowed for fine, tapered points suitable for delicate work on thinner materials. Archaeological recoveries from Eurasian sites, including those in and , demonstrate their widespread use in tailoring cold-weather attire. Perforating tools typically measured 5–15 cm in length, featuring sharply tapered tips to minimize tearing during use. Microwear traces, such as glossy polish along the working edges from against hides, provide direct evidence of their intensive application in crafting and domestic activities; experimental replications confirm that such polish develops rapidly from perforation motions. These tools were often refined through scraping with lithic implements to achieve their functional form.

Projectile and Cutting Tools

Projectile and cutting tools represent a key category of bone implements used primarily for hunting and initial post-hunt processing in prehistoric societies. Spear points and bipoints, often fashioned from antler or long bones, were designed as hafted or unhafted projectiles for thrusting or throwing during big-game hunts. These tools typically measured 10–20 cm in length, with pointed tips sharpened through grinding and polishing techniques to enhance penetration. Archaeological evidence from Siberian sites, such as the Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site, reveals examples dating to around 32,000–31,000 years ago, indicating early adoption of such technologies in northern Asia during the Upper Paleolithic. Bipoints, featuring worked ends on both extremities, allowed for versatile use and resharpening, reflecting adaptive manufacturing strategies in resource-scarce environments. Harpoons and fishhooks extended the utility of bone projectiles to aquatic environments, featuring barbed designs that prevented prey from escaping. Crafted from sturdy bone or segments, these tools were prevalent in coastal settlements across around 8000 BCE, as seen in assemblages from submerged sites like those in Denmark's Storebælt region. Barbs were meticulously carved and set at angles to hook fish or marine mammals, with evidence of to wooden shafts for effective propulsion. Such implements highlight a specialized to post-glacial coastal ecosystems, where rising sea levels preserved organic remains in anaerobic conditions. Beamers, typically made from the beam of antler or split long bones, were used to stretch and flesh hides during processing. Cutting tools, including knives and scrapers derived from large ribs such as those of deer or bovids, facilitated the dissection of hides and meat following hunts. These flat, elongated implements were shaped by splintering and abrading the bone's natural curvature to create sharp edges suitable for slicing or scraping. Use-wear analysis on Neanderthal-era examples from sites like Combe-Grenal in France shows polish and striations consistent with processing fresh hides and separating meat from bone, often applying pressure akin to rolling to soften animal skins. In Paleolithic contexts, rib-based scrapers were expedient yet effective, minimizing the need for stone alternatives in bone-rich kill sites.

Agricultural and Processing Tools

Bone hoes and adzes, characterized by their broad, flat working edges, were essential for tilling and land preparation in early farming communities, often manufactured from the scapulae of large mammals to leverage their natural flatness and robustness. In the of eastern (ca. 7000–5000 BCE), such tools included spades crafted from scapulae, which were hafted and used to dig and aerate for cultivation, marking a key adaptation of for intensive agricultural labor. Experimental replications confirm that these scapula-based implements efficiently broke compacted earth without requiring extensive modification, highlighting their practicality in transitioning from to settled . These tools were particularly valued in regions with access to sizable herbivores, where provided a lightweight yet durable alternative to emerging stone implements. Scrapers and wedges made from facilitated the processing of fibers, bark, and wood for tasks like basketry, roofing, and tool handles, supporting the broader agricultural economy by enabling efficient material preparation. Evidence from African archaeological sites, including the Middle Stone Age layers at Klasies River Main site in (ca. 60,000–40,000 years ago), indicates use in processing vegetal resources. Use-wear analysis on similar artifacts from southern African sites reveals polish and striations consistent with longitudinal scraping motions on fibrous , underscoring 's role in handling crops during the shift toward plant domestication and . Bone mallets, formed from the dense long bones of herbivores, served as heavy-duty pounding tools for breaking grains, softening fibers, and processing hides or nuts, integral to post-harvest activities in early farming villages. At the Neolithic settlement of in (ca. 7100–6000 BCE), bone pounders fashioned from sheep or metapodials exhibit rounded, polished distal ends from percussive use, likely in pulverizing wild or early domesticated cereals like emmer . These implements proliferated during agricultural transitions after 10,000 BCE, as communities intensified plant and animal exploitation, with bone's shock-absorbing properties making it ideal for repetitive, high-impact tasks without fracturing. Bone tools for agricultural and processing roles were predominantly derived from large mammal bones, offering superior strength for demanding fieldwork.

Specialized and Ornamental Tools

Specialized bone tools encompass a range of niche implements that extend beyond basic utilitarian functions, often incorporating aesthetic or ritual elements. Among these, musical instruments represent some of the earliest evidence of creative expression using bone. Flutes crafted from the wing bones of birds, such as swans or vultures, date back to around 40,000 years ago in the period. These artifacts, featuring precisely drilled finger holes, were excavated from sites like Geissenklösterle Cave in Germany's , where five such flutes were found, indicating sophisticated acoustic knowledge among early modern humans. Whistles and rasps, also fashioned from bone, appear in contexts and likely served ceremonial or signaling purposes in rituals. Bird bone whistles, pierced for airflow, have been identified in assemblages, producing shrill tones when blown across the opening. Bone rasps, with serrated edges scraped by another implement, generated rhythmic percussion and are documented in European cave sites from the same era, potentially used in communal gatherings. Ornamental bone tools highlight artistic craftsmanship, frequently adorned with incised patterns for decorative or symbolic value. In the culture (ca. 43,000–26,000 years ago), bone pins served as hair ornaments, carved from or long bones with tapered points and sometimes engraved motifs. These items, found at sites like Riparo Mochi in , measured up to 10 cm in length and were polished to a smooth finish, emphasizing their non-practical role. Beads and pendants, often made from perforated teeth or segments, featured incised geometric designs representing symbolic engravings, as seen in assemblages from Isturitz Cave in . Other specialized bone tools include fishing gorges and weaving implements, adapted for precise tasks. Fishing gorges, narrow bipointed bone shafts (typically 2–5 cm long) from fish or mammal bones, were baited transversely on lines to hook prey when swallowed, with examples from Epipaleolithic sites like Jordan River Dureijat in Israel dating to 12,000 years ago. Weaving tools, such as bone shuttles or needles, facilitated textile production; elongated pins from deer metapodials, smoothed and pointed at one end, were used in prehistoric Southwest U.S. sites to pass threads through looms. In ethnographic contexts among traditional societies, bone probes exemplify highly specialized extraction tools. These slender, sharpened implements, often from bird or small bones, were employed to extract insects like from nests, as observed in African hunter-gatherer groups where probes up to 30 cm long allowed safe retrieval without disturbing colonies. Such tools underscore bone's versatility in addressing specific environmental challenges.

Uses and Cultural Significance

Practical Applications

Bone tools played a crucial role in prehistoric hunting and butchery, where pointed implements served as spear tips or atlatl foreshafts to facilitate the capture of large game animals. Scrapers fashioned from long bones or ribs efficiently removed flesh from hides during butchery, with experimental studies demonstrating that single-beveled bone scrapers could endure up to 105 minutes of continuous use on wet hides before requiring resharpening, outperforming blunt alternatives in fleshing efficiency. These tools complemented stone implements, enabling thorough carcass processing to yield meat, hides, and other resources essential for survival. In domestic crafts, bone needles and awls were indispensable for and from animal hides, integrating seamlessly into the daily routines of hunter-gatherers by allowing precise piercing and stitching with sinew thread. Bone hoes, typically made from scapulae, supported tasks such as tilling and root harvesting, providing a lightweight yet durable option for small-scale among Indigenous groups. Awls, as detailed in the types of bone tools, also aided in these activities by perforating materials without causing excessive damage. For , bone awls facilitated harvesting by shredding fibers or husking grains like corn, while scrapers cut such as squash with minimal wear over extended use. Experimental residue and use-wear analyses on knapped tools reveal multi-use patterns, with traces of animal flesh, silica, and hide on the same implements, indicating their versatility in preparing diverse foodstuffs from hunted and gathered resources. This adaptability enhanced subsistence efficiency in varied environments.

Symbolic and Ritual Roles

Bone tools have served as objects in prehistoric societies, often appearing as or talismans imbued with symbolic meaning. In the Sungir site in , dated to approximately 30,000 BCE, burials contained modified bone artifacts such as awls, small tubes, and a femur filled with and placed alongside the deceased, suggesting ceremonial significance and high social status. These items, including incised vertebrae, indicate practices where bone tools facilitated connections to the or spiritual realms. Similarly, engraved animal bones from contexts, such as the deliberate engravings on a bone from the Nesher Ramla site in , exhibit intentional incisions interpreted as symbolic etchings, potentially functioning as talismans for protection or commemoration. In hierarchical societies, bone tools often denoted status and social roles, transcending their utilitarian purposes. Among the people of , bone tools found in later burials alongside elite grave goods like shell beads and reflect distinctions in social rank within stratified communities. In complex societies, the selection of specific animal bones for tool manufacture, such as long bones from valued species, further emphasized prestige, as seen in zooarchaeological analyses of higher-status contexts. associations are evident in burial practices, with and tools, including bone needles, more commonly interred with women in and later cultures, indicating roles in craft production and domestic activities. Bone tools also embodied artistic expression through incised motifs that conveyed mythological narratives, particularly in indigenous cultures. In Alaskan Native traditions, bone artifacts carved with animal and spiritual figures served as ceremonial masks or items, representing clan stories and ancestral myths. Among groups, whalebone tools and structural elements in dwellings featured symbolic engravings linking to cosmology, where motifs reinforced human-animal relationships and efficacy in ceremonies. These incised designs persisted as cultural symbols, integrating bone tools into ongoing indigenous practices that honor spiritual and mythological themes.

Archaeological Analysis

Identification Methods

Identification of bone tools in archaeological contexts relies on a combination of visual, microscopic, and analytical techniques to distinguish anthropogenic modifications from natural alterations. begins with macroscopic examination for manufacturing traces such as incisions, grooves, or polish indicative of shaping processes like scraping or grinding, while microscopic under low- and high-power magnification reveals use-wear patterns, including linear striations, edge rounding, and surface polish resulting from repeated contact with materials like hide, wood, or plants. For instance, polish from activities often appears as a bright, localized sheen on awl tips, whereas striations from cutting may align parallel to the tool's edge. These features are compared against experimental references to infer function, as demonstrated in studies of bone tools from , where striation orientations helped differentiate piercing from scraping uses. Microscopic techniques extend to residue analysis, where traces of organic materials adhering to tool surfaces provide direct evidence of use. spectroscopy identifies residues such as blood proteins, plant starches, or fibers by analyzing molecular vibrations, enabling non-destructive screening of samples for biomarkers like degradation products or silica from plants. In archaeological applications, FTIR has been used to detect organic residues on tools, while ancient further speciates residues to link tools to specific activities, such as hide working via preserved animal proteins. Zooarchaeology by (ZooMS) extends this by rapidly identifying the of bone used in tools, aiding in understanding raw material selection and distinguishing bone from or . Typological classification complements these methods through morphometric studies, which quantify tool shapes using geometric to compare outlines and dimensions against standardized typologies. For example, landmark-based analyses of bone points reveal variations in basal morphology that correlate with regional or cultural groups. Dating bone tools typically involves indirect methods due to the challenges of directly applying radiocarbon to heavily modified or mineralized specimens. Associated stratigraphy provides relative dating by contextualizing tools within sedimentary layers, while radiocarbon dating of co-occurring organic remains, such as collagen from unmodified bones or charcoal, establishes absolute chronologies; for instance, at Olduvai Gorge, bone tools dated to 1.5 million years ago were contextualized via associated faunal remains and stratigraphic correlation. Differentiation from natural bone modifications, such as carnivore gnawing or weathering, relies on diagnostic criteria like the uniform depth and V-shaped cross-sections of anthropogenic cut marks versus the irregular, overlapping grooves of tooth marks, often confirmed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or micro-CT scans that visualize internal fracture patterns absent in natural damage. Experimental replication confirms these distinctions, as seen in analyses of Palaeolithic sites where percussion fractures on knapping tools exhibit step-terminating edges unlike taphonomic breaks.

Preservation and Challenges

Bone tools, like other organic artifacts, are highly susceptible to post-depositional degradation through taphonomic processes that alter their physical and chemical integrity after . Soil acidity accelerates dissolution by leaching minerals such as , leading to fragmentation and loss of structural detail, while neutral or alkaline soils promote better mineral retention. Animal scavenging by carnivores and further damages bones through gnawing and dispersal, often obscuring manufacturing traces or rendering tools unrecognizable. In contrast, dry environments, with low humidity and minimal microbial activity, facilitate superior preservation by inhibiting and bacterial breakdown, whereas wet sites, including riverine or coastal areas, exacerbate decay through waterlogged conditions that foster fungal growth and oxygenation. Archaeological studies of bone tools face significant challenges in interpretation due to these taphonomic biases and analytical complications. Distinguishing intentionally modified tools from food waste or naturally fractured bones is difficult, particularly for minimally processed items that lack clear modification marks, potentially leading to underrepresentation of simple technologies in the record. Preservation favors denser, more durable bone elements like long bones over fragile ones such as ribs or vertebrae, skewing assemblages toward robust materials and biasing reconstructions of tool diversity. Additionally, modern contamination during excavation or handling—such as residues from tools, gloves, or soil additives—can interfere with residue and use-wear analyses, introducing false positives that complicate species identification or functional assessments. To mitigate these issues, conservators employ techniques such as consolidation with acrylic polymers like to stabilize fragile structures without altering original surfaces, allowing for subsequent non-destructive analyses. Preventive measures include controlled storage in low-humidity environments to prevent further cracking or . Case studies from tropical regions, such as ancient , highlight substantial lost evidence, where high humidity and acidity result in near-total degradation, underscoring the underrepresentation of perishable technologies in humid equatorial archives.

References

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