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Erythrae
Erythrae
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Erythrae or Erythrai (Greek: Ἐρυθραί) later Lythri (Λυθρί, Turkish: Ildırı) was one of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia Minor, situated 22 km north-east of the port of Cyssus (modern name: Çeşme), on a small peninsula stretching into the Bay of Erythrae, at an equal distance from the mountains Mimas and Corycus, and directly opposite the island of Chios. It is recorded that excellent wine was produced in the peninsula. Erythrae was notable for being the seat of the Erythraean Sibyl. The ruins of the city are found north of the town Ildırı in the Çeşme district of İzmir Province, Turkey.

Key Information

History

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The bay at Ildırı in Çeşme district, formerly the bay of Erythrae

According to Pausanias (Paus. 7.3.7), the founder was Erythrus, the son of Rhadamanthus, who established himself here with a body of Cretans, Carians, and Lycians.[1] At a later period came Knopos (Strab. 14.633), son of Codrus, with an Ionian colony, whence the city is sometimes called Cnopopolis (Κνωπούπολις). The city did not lie exactly on the coast, but some little distance inland, and had a harbor on the coast named Cissus (Livy, 36.43).

In the 7th century BC as an Ionian city of Asia Minor, Erythrae was a member of the Pan-Ionian League. Sometime during the 7th century, Erythrae fought a war against the neighbouring island of Chios. (Herodotus 1.18). The city gained fame as a producer of millstones during the period of tyrannical rule.

Erythrae was never a large city, it sent only eight ships to the Battle of Lade. The Erythraeans were for a considerable time subject to the supremacy of Athens, but towards the close of the Peloponnesian War they threw off their allegiance to that city. After the Battle of Cnidus, however, they received Conon, and paid him honours in an inscription, still extant.

Erythrae was the birthplace of two prophetesses (sibyls) – one of whom, Sibylla, is mentioned by Strabo as living in the early period of the city; the other, Athenais, lived in the time of Alexander the Great. The Erythraean Sibyl presided over the Apollonian oracle.

About 453 BC, Erythrae, refusing to pay tribute, seceded from the Delian League. A garrison and a new government restored the union, but late in the Peloponnesian War (412 BC) it revolted again with Chios and Clazomenae.

Later it was allied alternately with Athens and Persia. About the middle of the 4th century BC, the city became friendly with Mausolus: in an inscription found on the site, he is called a benefactor of Erythrae. About the same time the city signed a treaty with Hermias, Tyrant of Assus and Atarneus, based on reciprocal aid in the event of war.

In 334 BC the city regained its freedom through Alexander the Great who, according to Pliny (HN 5.116) and Pausanias (2.1.5), planned to cut a canal through the peninsula of Erythrae to connect Teos bay with the gulf of Smyrna.

When Alexander returned to Memphis in April 331 BC, envoys from Greece were waiting for him, saying that the oracles at Didyma and Erythrae, which had been silent for a long time, had suddenly spoken and confirmed that Alexander was the son of Zeus. The timing proves that Alexander was already thinking that he was of a more than human nature when he entered Greece: after all, the people of Didyma and Erythrae can never have known that Alexander was recognized as the son of Ra and wanted to be called 'son of Zeus'.

Erythrae was later associated with Pergamum and with Rome, and after the death of Attalos III in 133 BC, when the Pergamene kingdom was bequeathed to the Romans, it flourished as a free city ("civitas libera") attached to the Roman province of Asia.

At this time, Erythrae was renowned for its wine, goats, timber, and millstones, as well as its prophetic sibyls, Herophile and Athenais.

In the Roman period the city was plundered, and its importance faded after the earthquakes of that region in the 1st century AD.

The city experienced a revival of some sorts under the later Roman Empire and into the Byzantine period. Bishops are attested from 431 to 1292, and an archon, a minor governor, was based in the city in the 9th and 10th centuries.[2]

Pausanias, at the Description of Greece writes that in the city there was a temple of Athena Polias and a huge wooden image of her sitting on a throne, she holds a distaff in either hand and wears a firmament on her head.[3]

The people of Erythrae dedicated a statue of Epitherses (Ἐπιθέρσης) at Olympia, Greece. Epitherses was a native who won two boxing prizes at Olympic Games, two at Pythian Games and also victories at Nemean Games and the Isthmian Games. His father was Metrodorus (Μητρόδωρος).[4]

Recent times

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From the mid-18th century until the early 20th century, Litri was a considerable place and port, extending from the ancient harbour to the acropolis. It attracted smaller coasting steamers, and there was an active trade with Chios and Smyrna (modern day İzmir).

Remains

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The archaeological site is situated within the settlement zone of the present-day Turkish village of Ildırı. The site was explored in depth in the 1960s by Professor Ekrem Akurgal, leading to precious discoveries, but has been left somewhat unattended since. The ruins include well-preserved Hellenistic walls with towers, of which five are still visible. The acropolis (280 ft) has a theatre on its northern slope, and eastwards lie many remains of Byzantine buildings.

Notable people

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See also

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Attribution

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Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Erythrae". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 758. Some of the text has been found on the website dedicated to the museum of The Temple of Athena in Erythrae which can be found in the external links section of this page.

References

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Erythrae

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Erythrae (: Ἐρυθραί) was an ancient Greek situated on a small extending into the Bay of Erythrae, in the region of on the western coast of Asia Minor, corresponding to modern-day Ildırı village near Çeşme in Izmir Province, . One of the twelve foundational cities of the , it was established by Greek settlers—possibly from under the leadership of Cnopus, son of , or from led by Erythrus, son of Rhadamanthys—and named either after its reddish soil or the latter founder, with archaeological evidence indicating human occupation dating back to the third millennium BCE. The city gained prominence for its , the prophetess Herophile, whose attracted visitors seeking prophecies from as early as the eighth century BCE, and for its role in regional trade, exporting wine, figs, timber, and millstones while maintaining a harbor for maritime commerce with areas like and . Throughout its history, Erythrae participated actively in key Ionian and Greek events, including contributing eight ships to the against Persian rule in 499 BCE and later joining the , where it paid tribute of seven talents annually before allying with during the in 412 BCE. In the , it came under the influence of successive kingdoms such as the Antigonids, Seleucids, and Attalids of , during which a notable theater was constructed in the third century BCE; the city achieved greater autonomy following Rome's in 188 BCE and prospered as a free city in the of , with Emperor visiting in 124 CE and funding theater renovations. Religiously, Erythrae was a center for the worship of deities including Athena Polias and , evidenced by a Temple of Athena on its and a heroon dedicated to the latter, while in the Byzantine era it supported Christian bishops like Eutychius at the in 431 CE before declining by the sixteenth century due to invasions and economic shifts. Archaeological remains at the site, which spans an acropolis hill rising 88 meters, include the well-preserved foundations of the Hellenistic theater seating up to 1,300 spectators, remnants of city walls, a , an aqueduct, and artifacts such as a sixth-century BCE kore and shards from 670–545 BCE, many of which are housed in the Izmir Archaeology Museum and Çeşme Museum. Notable figures associated with Erythrae include the physician Heracleides, the Olympic boxer Epitherses, and Diodotus, a of , underscoring its cultural and intellectual contributions despite its relatively modest size compared to neighboring Ionian cities like or . Today, the ruins are accessible year-round without an entry fee, offering insights into Ionian urban life and serving as a key site for understanding the interplay of Greek, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman influences in the Aegean region.

Geography

Location and Topography

Erythrae was one of the twelve Ionian cities of ancient Asia Minor, positioned on the Aegean coast in the region now known as the of Turkey. The city lay approximately 15 kilometers northeast of the modern port town of and adjacent to the village of Ildırı, at coordinates roughly 38.38°N, 26.48°E. It occupied a strategic spot on a modest protruding into the of Erythrae, facilitating maritime access while being somewhat sheltered from direct coastal exposure. Topographically, Erythrae was situated on an elevated hill rising to about 88 meters, which formed the city's and provided defensive advantages, located slightly inland from the immediate shoreline. To the north, the rugged Mount Mimas range—a lofty, forested mountain area rich in wildlife—separated Erythrae from neighboring Hypocremnus, as described by the geographer in the first century BCE. The city relied on the nearby harbor of Cissus (modern ) for its maritime activities, a port explicitly noted as belonging to the Erythraeans during the Roman era by Livy. A shallow descended from the settlement toward the bay, supporting local water needs amid the rocky terrain. The surrounding landscape featured prominent rocky brows and outcrops, which were incorporated into the city's fortifications, including semicircular walls and square towers of fine ashlar masonry, as observed by the British antiquarian Richard Chandler during his 1764 travels in Asia Minor. A well-preserved Hellenistic theater was carved into the northern slope of the , exemplifying adaptation to the hilly for public assemblies and performances. These features underscored Erythrae's blend of coastal and elevated defensibility in the Ionian landscape.

Climate and Environment

Erythrae, situated on a small peninsula protruding into the Bay of Erythrae along the Aegean coast of western Asia Minor, features a rugged topography characterized by steep hills rising to an acropolis approximately 88 meters above sea level, providing natural defenses and panoramic views of the surrounding waters. The site's position offered a sheltered harbor, facilitating maritime activities while the inland terrain included terraced slopes suitable for agriculture and quarrying. The region enjoys a , with hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, a pattern that has persisted since antiquity and supported the city's prosperity. Ancient Greek historian praised the climate of , including Erythrae, as the most favorable known, free from extremes of heat, cold, or seasonal imbalance, attributing this to the ' fortunate settlement choices. Today, average summer temperatures in the Çeşme district, where Erythrae lies, reach around 30°C during the day with minimal rainfall, while winters see temperatures averaging 10–15°C and precipitation concentrated between November and March, totaling about 600–700 mm annually. Persistent northerly winds, known as the imbat, moderate summer heat and enhance coastal refreshment. The environment of Erythrae encompassed diverse ecosystems shaped by its coastal and hilly landscape, including maquis shrublands, pine woodlands, and groves typical of the Aegean littoral. Abundant freshwater springs, some thermal, irrigated fertile valleys that yielded key agricultural resources such as wine grapes, for fine , figs, and timber from local forests. Grazing lands supported herds of goats, while quarries in the vicinity produced high-quality millstones exported across the region. This resource-rich setting, combined with the protective peninsula, underpinned Erythrae's economic and cultural significance in the .

History

Legendary and Archaic Periods

According to ancient tradition, Erythrae was founded by Cretan settlers led by Erythros, known as "the Red," son of Rhadamanthys, who established the initial settlement alongside indigenous groups including , , and Pamphylians. This legendary foundation is attributed to migrations from during the or early , reflecting broader patterns of Aegean settlement in western . Later accounts describe a secondary colonization by Ionian from , dispatched under the leadership of Knopos (or Kleopos), a descendant of the legendary king , who reinforced the city's population and integrated it into the Ionian cultural sphere. Archaeological evidence supports continuity of habitation from the Late Bronze Age into the Archaic period, with Mycenaean and Late Protogeometric sherds indicating possible earlier Mycenaean or mixed Anatolian-Mycenaean presence, though stratified data remains limited. The earliest substantial remains date to the 8th century BCE, including the Temple of Polias, which marks the city's emergence as a significant Ionian during the early Archaic period. Pottery assemblages from this era show organic development from local Late Helladic IIIC styles, with increased local production of wheelmade vessels and painted wares by the Early , suggesting gradual cultural synthesis rather than abrupt migration. As one of the twelve cities of the (Panionion), formed around the 8th or BCE, Erythrae participated in collective religious and defensive activities centered at the Panionion sanctuary near Mycale. In the mid- BCE, the city allied with against in a naval conflict, demonstrating its involvement in inter-island rivalries and maritime networks. Toward the century's end, Erythrae shifted alliances, joining against in another war, which highlighted the fluid geopolitics of the Aegean Archaic world. During this period, it also engaged in a border dispute with neighboring , leading to armed conflict despite shared Ionian heritage. Governance in the Archaic period was characterized by an dominated by the Basilidae, a noble family tracing descent from the Athenian royal house of , which maintained hereditary influence over civic affairs. By around 560 BCE, Erythrae came under Lydian control following Croesus's conquests in , marking the onset of external domination that persisted into the Persian era after 545 BCE. These developments underscore Erythrae's role as a peripheral yet strategically positioned Ionian , balancing local with regional alliances and imperial pressures.

Classical and Hellenistic Periods

During the Classical period, Erythrae transitioned from Persian domination to Athenian alliance following the Greek victory at Mycale in 479 BCE, joining the and contributing ships and tribute comparable in scale to that of and . Internal strife in the 430s BCE, involving exiles sympathetic to Persia, led to Athenian intervention via a around 434 BCE that imposed democratic reforms, a , and oversight of the council to stabilize the . Amid the , Erythraean conspirators allied with and the Persian in 412 BCE to revolt against , prompting Spartan support and the use of nearby bases like Sidoussa for Athenian counteroperations; the city oscillated between factions until the war's end in 404 BCE. The in 394 BCE marked a shift, as Erythrae surrendered to the Athenian admiral Conon and Pharnabazus, honoring Conon with a statue, rights, and privileges for his role in expelling Spartan influence from . However, the King's Peace of 387/6 BCE reaffirmed Persian control over mainland , including Erythrae, though the city maintained diplomatic ties with , evidenced by dedications on the in 354/3 BCE. In the mid-4th century BCE, under the patronage of the Hecatomnid dynasty, Erythrae benefited from the support of and Artemisia, who received statues in the agora and near the Temple of , along with titles as euergetai, proxenoi, and citizens around 365 or 357 BCE; the likely relocated 19 km along the bay during this era, reflecting oligarchic governance via the boule rather than the demos. Continued Hecatomnid influence extended to Idrieus in the 340s BCE, who granted economic privileges, while a with the Atarneus ruler Hermias provided mutual protection and trade rights. Alexander the Great's campaign liberated in 333–332 BCE with minimal resistance from Erythrae, which dispatched an embassy to him in to affirm loyalty and later benefited from his Exiles Decree restoring displaced citizens. The early brought involvement in the , including a failed by Seleucus in 315 BCE during the Third Diadochic War and territorial raids by Prepelaus in 302 BCE, after which Antigonus granted tax exemptions to secure . Defensive advanced with the of walls and forts in the early BCE, funded by private donations totaling over 16,000 drachmas and later reinforced during the Galatian wars of the 270s BCE. Politically, Erythrae navigated tensions between democratic and oligarchic elements, as documented in the local history of , a BCE author whose work engaged with these struggles and monumentalized civic memory through references to classical Athenian monuments. Inscriptions from the era, such as honorific decrees for benefactors like and Polykritos, emphasized reciprocity, , and collective identity, adapting classical practices to foster internal cohesion and alliances under Seleucid and Macedonian oversight.

Roman and Byzantine Periods

Following the bequest of the Kingdom of to in 133 BCE, became a free city within the of , enjoying a degree of while contributing to imperial administration and taxation. The city likely experienced disruption during the in 88 BCE, when Mithridates VI of Pontus invaded Minor and targeted Roman-aligned settlements, though direct evidence of destruction at remains limited. Devastating earthquakes in 17 CE and 23 CE, as recorded by ancient historians, further strained the region, prompting imperial aid from that facilitated reconstruction across western Minor. Under Emperor , Erythrae prospered notably during his visit in 124 CE, when he arrived by sea from Smyrna; the city established the Great Hadrianic Landing Festival to commemorate the event, reflecting enhanced imperial favor and local civic pride. This period saw renovations to the Hellenistic theater, including expansions to the cavea, retaining walls, and conversion of the into an , adapting it for Roman-style and spectacles. A complex at Cennettepe, featuring a courtyard, mosaics, and frescoes, emerged over Hellenistic foundations starting in the 1st century BCE, with modifications continuing into the mid-3rd century CE under and later in the Late Roman era; these structures underscore the city's integration into elite Roman provincial culture. Economically, Erythrae maintained vitality through , trade in wine, timber, and millstones, and coin minting into the late Roman period, supporting its role in Aegean maritime networks. As the Roman Empire transitioned into the Byzantine era, Erythrae continued to thrive as a coastal settlement, with evidence of an aqueduct constructed south of the to sustain urban growth and water supply. The city became a of in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, attesting to its ; notable bishops include Eutychius, who participated in the in 431 CE, and Michael, recorded in 1229 CE, indicating ongoing religious significance into the medieval period. An , serving as a local , resided in Erythrae during the 9th and 10th centuries, highlighting its administrative role within the Byzantine theme system amid Arab raids and thematic reorganizations in Asia Minor. Archaeological remains, including modified villa mosaics and frescoes from the late Roman and early Byzantine phases at Cennettepe, reflect cultural continuity and adaptation, though the site's prominence gradually waned with shifting trade routes and regional instability.

Ottoman and Modern Periods

Following the Ottoman conquest of the region in 1333 by Umur Bey of Aydin, the ancient city of Erythrae, then known as Litri or Rithri, was renamed Ildırı and integrated into the Ottoman administrative structure. The settlement experienced a period of decline, with records from 1575 indicating a sparse of only 135 , reflecting its temporary abandonment amid broader regional instability. By the mid-18th century, Ildırı revived as a modest Greek Orthodox fishing village and harbor, serving as a key trading point with nearby islands like and the port of Smyrna (modern Izmir), where local products such as fish, , and timber were exchanged. This resurgence marked a multicultural Ottoman coastal community, with the Greek maintaining distinct cultural practices under the millet system, which granted religious and communal autonomy to non-Muslim groups. In the 19th century, the Greek community in Ildırı grew significantly, constructing the Church of Saint Matrona on the ancient acropolis around the mid-1800s as a central place of worship and social gathering, symbolizing their enduring ties to Byzantine and Orthodox traditions amid Ottoman rule. The village's strategic Aegean location supported a mixed economy of agriculture, fishing, and small-scale trade, though it remained peripheral compared to larger Ottoman ports. Tensions escalated during the late Ottoman era and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), but the community persisted until the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), which culminated in widespread displacement. The modern period for Ildırı began dramatically with the 1923 , which mandated a compulsory population exchange between and , uprooting approximately 1.2 million Greek Orthodox from Turkey and resettling nearly 400,000 from Greece in their place. In Ildırı (then called Lithri by its Greek inhabitants), the entire Greek community—numbering several hundred—was forcibly deported to mainland , particularly to the new suburb of Nea Erythraia near , where they carried memories of their lost homeland and its ancient ruins as symbols of identity and trauma. The incoming Muslim refugees, primarily from Bosnia and , repopulated the village, adapting Ottoman-era structures while the Saint Matrona Church fell into partial disrepair and was largely demolished by the 1950s. Today, Ildırı is a small Turkish rural village of about 1,000 residents in the Çeşme district of Izmir Province, blending modest tourism with agriculture; its ancient ruins, including the Temple of Athena Polias and a Hellenistic theater, attract visitors and support ongoing excavations led by Turkish archaeologists since 1964, with artifacts housed in local museums like the Izmir Archaeological Museum. These efforts highlight Ildır's transition from a contested multicultural site to a preserved archaeological landmark, though the population exchange's legacy endures in refugee oral histories preserved by institutions such as the Centre for Asia Minor Studies.

Religion and Mythology

The Erythraean Sibyl

The , also known as Herophile, was a prominent figure in traditions, closely linked to the Ionian city of Erythrae in Asia Minor. According to the 2nd-century CE traveler Pausanias, she was regarded as one of the earliest Sibyls, predating even the of , and was said to have been born in a cave on Mount Corycus near Erythrae to a local shepherd named Theodorus and a , reflecting the wooded environs of the region. Alternative accounts placed her fatherland at Marpessus by the Trojan , with a human father and mother, emphasizing her semi-divine origins common to Sibylline lore. Her prophecies were renowned for their scope and influence across the Greek world. Pausanias records that Herophile foretold the destructive role of Helen in the , predicting the ruin of Asia and Europe and the eventual capture of by the . She composed a to Apollo and delivered oracles at multiple sacred sites, including , , Clarus, , and the , where her verses were consulted for guidance on major events. Though she spent much of her life in , the people of Erythrae claimed her as their own, associating her service in the local temple of Apollo Smintheus, the mouse-god protector against plagues. In Roman antiquarian traditions, the was cataloged among the ten Sibyls enumerated by the scholar in his work Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum. Varro, as cited by the early 4th-century CE Christian apologist , listed her alongside figures like the Persian, Libyan, Delphic, Cimmerian, Samian, Cumaean, Hellespontine, Phrygian, and Tiburtine Sibyls, highlighting her role in compiling prophetic books that influenced Roman state religion. further quoted her verses to affirm monotheistic themes, such as "One God, who is alone, most mighty, uncreated," portraying her as a witness to divine unity predating . Later Christian interpretations amplified her significance, attributing to the an in the pseudepigraphal (Book 8, lines 217–250), where initial letters spell out " Christ, , Savior, " in Greek, interpreted as a foretelling of the . This association, though rooted in Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian adaptations rather than her classical oracles, inspired and literature depicting her alongside prophets.

Temples and Cult Practices

The primary temple in ancient Erythrae was the Temple of Athena Polias, situated on the city's acropolis. This sanctuary housed a massive wooden cult statue (xoanon) of the goddess seated on a throne, holding a distaff in each hand and wearing a celestial sphere (firmament) on her head. The statue was attributed to the sculptor Endoeus, and marble images of the Graces (Charites) and Seasons (Horai) by the same artist stood before the temple entrance. Archaeological excavations have uncovered the temple's foundations, along with terracotta figurines of the goddess and votive offerings such as pottery, bronze items, and ivory artifacts dating from ca. 670–545 BCE, indicating Cretan and Rhodian influences in early cult activity. Another significant religious site was the Herakleion, a sanctuary dedicated to the Tyrian (), though its precise location remains unknown. The cult featured an ancient wooden of Egyptian style, reportedly transported from Tyre on a that drifted to the Ionian . According to , the Erythraeans secured the statue after a contest with the Chians, using ropes woven from the hair of Thracian women to tow it ashore; a portion of this hair rope was preserved as a relic within the sanctuary. The statue's image appeared on Erythraean coins from the 6th century BCE onward. Cult practices in Erythrae followed standard Greek conventions, including sacrifices and votive dedications, but included distinctive elements tied to local myths. In the Herakleion, access was restricted to men and Thracian women only, commemorating the role of Thracian hair in the statue's arrival; a blind fisherman named Phormio reportedly regained his sight through a divine vision aiding the cult's establishment. Broader evidence from finds, such as a 6th-century BCE graffito on a bowl offering to , attests to routine rituals of supplication and thanksgiving at the Polias temple. These practices underscored the city's emphasis on divine protection for its maritime and civic life, with continuity from Archaic to Hellenistic periods.

Economy and Society

Key Resources and Trade

Erythrae, situated on the Aegean coast of , derived much of its economy from and maritime , leveraging its fertile and natural harbor at Cissus. The city's key resources included high-quality wine, which was prized in antiquity; goats, valued for , cheese, and hides; timber from surrounding woodlands; figs and as staple crops; and millstones quarried locally, noted for their durability. These products supported both local sustenance and export, contributing to Erythrae's prosperity as one of the twelve Ionian cities. The renowned Erythraean wine, often mixed with Heraclean varieties to enhance its softness and wholesomeness, was celebrated by ancient writers such as , highlighting its role in regional commerce. Goats and figs represented typical Ionian agricultural outputs, while timber facilitated and , essential for a coastal . Millstones were a specialized , underscoring Erythrae's access to quality stone resources. Wheat production sustained the and enabled surplus for trade, aligning with broader Ionian patterns of cultivation in fertile valleys. Trade networks connected Erythrae to other Greek poleis, as well as eastern Mediterranean partners like and , evidenced by imported pottery and artifacts found in archaeological contexts. As a member of the during the 5th century BCE, Erythrae contributed 7 talents annually in , a measure of its economic vitality derived from these exchanges. A with Hermias of Atarneus in the 4th century BCE further secured mutual economic rights and protection for merchants, emphasizing the city's strategic position in Aegean shipping routes. The harbor at Cissus served as the primary hub for exporting agricultural goods and importing luxuries, fostering integration into wider Hellenistic trade systems.

Governance and Social Structure

In the archaic period, Erythrae was governed by an known as the Basilidae, a ruling group that described as administering affairs effectively during ancient times. This oligarchic system, common among Ionian city-states, emphasized control by a narrow , likely tied to prominent families or those with Athenian royal connections. Following subjugation by the Lydian king around 560 BCE and subsequent Persian conquest after 546 BCE, local governance was subordinated to external monarchic authority, with Erythrae integrated into the Persian satrapy of as one of the Ionian cities. During the Classical period, after the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BCE), Erythrae joined the Delian League under Athenian leadership, marking a shift toward democratic institutions imposed by Athens to ensure loyalty and prevent oligarchic or tyrannical resurgence. The Erythrae Decree of approximately 453 BCE reorganized the government along democratic lines, establishing a council (boule) of 120 members selected by lot from men aged 30 or older, with no reappointment for four years to promote rotation and prevent entrenchment. Athenian overseers (episkopoi) and a garrison commander initially supervised the council's formation, after which the council and commander handled subsequent selections, underscoring Athenian oversight. Council members swore oaths by Zeus, Apollo, and Demeter to govern justly for the Erythraeans, Athenians, and their allies, with severe penalties—including ruin for oath-breakers and their descendants—for violations such as aiding exiles, defecting, or expelling residents without approval from the Athenian council and assembly. This imposed democracy retained oligarchic elements, as the council was smaller and less representative than ' 500-member boule, and a limited eligibility for service, restricting participation to wealthier citizens. Regulations also addressed threats to , mandating death or for murderers of Erythraeans, with their property confiscated for the Athenian , and similar punishments for those supporting tyrants, thereby protecting the citizen body from internal disruption. Erythraean society was structured around a citizenry of freeborn males who held political under these systems, with women, foreign residents (metics), and slaves occupying subordinate roles typical of Greek poleis, though specific details on class divisions or slave usage in Erythrae remain limited in surviving records. The decree's emphasis on preventing or execution without oversight highlights Athenian control over social membership and stability, ensuring the propertied citizen elite aligned with league interests.

Archaeology

Early Explorations

The exploration of ancient Erythrae's ruins commenced in the amid the European fascination with classical antiquities in Asia Minor, driven by scholarly expeditions to document sites. In 1765, British antiquarian Richard Chandler, accompanied by artist William Pars and funded by the Society of Dilettanti, conducted one of the earliest recorded visits to the site as part of a broader tour of . Chandler described the fortifications crowning semicircular rocky heights, constructed with thick, massive stones in pseudoisodomum masonry and punctuated by square towers, which underscored the city's defensive architecture. He further noted scattered remnants including broken columns, sepulchral vaults, an inscribed fragment, and a stone bearing a carved , while lamenting the site's long abandonment and the plundering of its materials for construction in nearby flourishing towns like . [Chandler's Travels in Asia Minor; or, An Account of a Tour Made at the Expense of the Society of Dilettanti, 1775] Throughout the 19th century, the ruins attracted occasional visits from British and other European travelers navigating the Ottoman coastal regions, contributing informal sketches and observations that highlighted the site's picturesque yet dilapidated state amid a growing Greek village settlement. Charles MacFarlane, a Scottish and diplomat, toured Erythrae during his 1827–1828 journey through western Asia Minor, approaching via Çeşme and incorporating the site into his accounts of Ionian ; he remarked on the visible theater, walls, and harbor remnants, portraying them as evocative of the city's faded maritime prominence. These accounts, often embedded in broader travelogues, emphasized the challenges of access due to marshy terrain and local inhabitation but preserved key visual and structural details for later scholars. [MacFarlane's Constantinople in 1828: A Residence of Sixteen Months in the Turkish Capital and Provinces, 1829] Such early explorations relied on visual documentation and superficial surveys rather than excavation, serving primarily to map and illustrate the site's layout for publications in . Travelers like Chandler and MacFarlane identified prominent features such as the , theater slope, and coastal , providing foundational references that informed 20th-century archaeological planning, though the site's full extent remained obscured by modern overlay and vegetation until systematic digs began.

Major Excavations and Findings

The systematic archaeological exploration of Erythrae began with the first major excavation campaign from 1964 to 1984, directed by Ekrem Akurgal of , in collaboration with Hakkı Gültekin and Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu under the auspices of the Turkish Historical Society and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. This effort, interrupted periodically due to funding constraints and supported initially by the Yaşar Cultural Foundation until 1977, focused on the and surrounding areas, yielding the first modern plan of the ancient city. Key discoveries included the Archaic Temple of Athena Polias, constructed between 750 and 500 BCE using polygonal , along with votive deposits containing , and offerings, and a kore dated to 560–550 BCE now housed in the Museum of History and Art. Further findings from this period encompassed the Hellenistic-Roman theater, featuring double diazomas and partially restored between 1978 and 1983, as well as a fourth-century BCE Heroon adjacent to the agora, architecturally akin to the Mausoleum of Belevi. Excavations also uncovered fifth-century BCE Greek houses, including a large megaron complex with three rooms and a porticus; a second-century BCE Hellenistic villa with distinct gynaikonitis and andronitis sections plus a cistern; and a second-century CE Roman peristyle villa adorned with a geometric mosaic. The city's 3.7 km defensive walls, built in the late fourth century BCE from trachyte rocks and limestone, were documented, highlighting Erythrae's strategic role in Ionia. The second generation of excavations, initiated in 2006 and ongoing under Ayşe Gül Akalın Orbay of Ankara University, has emphasized the Cennettepe area and early settlement layers, reviving work after a two-decade hiatus. These efforts have revealed Early (third millennium BCE) habitation traces, including architectural remains and ceramics, alongside Roman-period mosaics such as the 2008 CMVI Mosaic with gryphon motifs from earlier soundings. Additional discoveries include terracotta reliefs from the Late Classical to Early Hellenistic periods (excavated in 2009), ceramic workshops, and a necropolis spanning the Archaic to Late Antiquity eras, with artifacts like faience figurines displayed in the İzmir Archaeological Museum and Çeşme Museum. These findings underscore Erythrae's continuous occupation and cultural exchanges from through the Roman era.

Notable People

Ancient Inhabitants

The ancient inhabitants of Erythrae included a mix of pre-Ionian groups such as Cretans, , , and Pamphylians, later integrated with Ionian Greek settlers, forming a predominantly Greek population by the Archaic period.

Associated Figures

Naucrates of Erythrae was a prominent Greek rhetorician of the 4th century BCE, known as a disciple of the renowned orator . He gained recognition for delivering a funeral oration for , the satrap of Caria, in 353 BCE, alongside other notable pupils of Isocrates such as Theodectes, Isocrates of Apollonia, and . This event highlighted his skill in epideictic rhetoric, a genre emphasizing praise and commemoration. Another Naucrates from Erythrae, distinct from the rhetorician, served as a commentator on Homer's Iliad, focusing on geographical and textual details such as the Catalog of Ships. His work is referenced in later Byzantine scholia, underscoring Erythrae's contributions to early Homeric scholarship, though few fragments survive. Athenais, a prophetess active around the time of (late 4th century BCE), was another key figure linked to Erythrae. Described by Strabo as resembling the earlier Erythraean Sibyl in her prophetic abilities, she traveled to confirm Alexander's divine parentage through oracles, affirming his claim to semi-divine status during his campaigns. Her pronouncements bridged local Ionian traditions with the broader Hellenistic world. Heracleides (also spelled Heraclides) of Erythrae was a physician of the Herophilean school in the 1st century BCE. A contemporary of Strabo, he studied under Chrysermus and contributed to medical knowledge in Ionia. Epitherses of Erythrae was an Olympic boxer who won crowns in the men's boxing event at the in 184 BCE and 180 BCE. He was a periodonikes, also victorious at the Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games, as commemorated by a statue dedicated by the Ionians of Erythrae. Diodotus of Erythrae served as a courtier to in the late 4th century BCE and is associated with the Royal Ephemerides (journals recording Alexander's daily activities), though authorship is debated and may be pseudonymous.

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