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Daf
Daf
Daf
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Daf
Percussion
Other namesDafli, dap, def, tef, defi, gaval, duf, duff, dof
Classification Directly struck membranophones
Hornbostel–Sachs classification211.311
(Handle-less frame drum with one usable membrane)
Playing range
High sound of jingles, plus some have a skin with a lower sound
Related instruments
Buben, tambourine, kanjira, frame drum, parai

Daf (Persian: دف), also known as dâyere and riq, is an Iranian frame drum musical instrument, also used in popular and classical music in Persian-influenced South and Central Asia, such as in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Iran, Uzbekistan, many regions of Georgia, Armenia, Pakistan as well as in parts of India[1] and Russian polar regions. It is also popular among Balkans, Caucasians, Bukharan Jews, Kurds, and Macedonians.[2]

The daf is the national musical instrument of Pakistan[3][4] and is also depicted on the reverse and obverse of the Azerbaijani 1 qəpik coin and 1 manat banknote respectively, since 2006.[5][6]

It traditionally has a round wooden frame (although in the modern era it may also be made of metal), jingles, and a thin, translucent head made of fish- or goat-skin (or, more recently, a synthetic material).

The sound is produced by hitting the membrane with either hand – the left hand, which also holds the daf, strikes the edges, and the right hand strikes the center. The right-hand fingers are fastened about their neighbours and suddenly released, like the action of finger-snapping, to produce loud, rapid, sharp sounds.[7]

History

[edit]
Daf in a miniature, Isfahan, Iran

The Pahlavi (Middle Persian) name of the daf is dap.[8]

Some pictures of daf have been found in paintings that date before the Common Era. The presence of the Iranian daf in the 6th–5th century BCE Behistun Inscription suggests that it existed before the rise of Islam and Sufism.

Iranian music has always been a spiritual tool.

It shows that daf played an important role in Mazdean Iran emerging as an important element during the Sassanian period, during the Kâvusakân dynasty.

Also, there is a kind of square frame drum in the stonecutting of Taq-e Bostan (another famous monument located 5km northeast of Kermanshah city). These frame drums were played in the ancient Middle East, Greece, and Rome and reached medieval Europe through Islamic culture.

Daf depicted in middle Assyrian empire relief 1392 BC–934 BC

Nowruz (the first day of the Iranian New Year and the national festival of the Iranian people) and other festive occasions have been accompanied by daf in the Sassanid periods (224 AD–651 AD). In this period, the daf was played in order to accompany Iranian classical music.

Dafs were likely used in the court to be played in the modes and melodies of traditional music. This traditional or classical music was created by Barbod the Great and was named the khosravani after the mythical king Khosrow II.

Recent research reveals that these modes were used in the recitation of Mazdean (Zoroastrian) prayers. The modes were passed down from master to student and are today known as the radif and dastgāh system.

Many of the melodies were lost, but most of those that remain date to the Sassanid period. Dafs can be played to produce highly complex and intense rhythms, causing one to go under a trance and reach an ecstatic and spiritually-high state. For this reason, they have always been connected with religion in Iran.[citation needed]

Musicians in Aleppo, Syria; the Musician on the far left use the daf.

An engraved bronze cup from Lorestan at the National Museum of Iran in Tehran, portrays a double ney (end-blown reed pipes), chang (harp), and a daf in a shrine or court processional, as similarly documented in Egypt, Elam, and the Persian province of Babylonia, where music was arranged for performance by large orchestral ensembles.[8]

The Arabs introduced the daf and other Middle Eastern musical instruments to Spain, and the Spanish adapted and promoted the daf and other musical instruments (such as the guitar) in medieval Europe. In the 15th century, the daf was only used in Sufi ceremonies; the Ottomans reintroduced it to Europe in the 17th century.[citation needed]

The daf still functions as an important part of Iranian music (both traditional and classical) as it did in ancient times. It successfully encourages many young Iranians to take up learning this ancient instrument.

Daf, and its smaller version called dafli, is also used across India.[1] It is believed to have arrived along with other Persian influences in the medieval era, and is a popular folk instrument. In southern India, its use became mainstream, especially in protests, during the early half of the 20th century.[9] Since the 1950s, it has also been used prominently in Bollywood.[9]

In Islam

[edit]

In Islam, daf holds special importance in Ahl-as Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah as it is the only musical instrument which is permitted to be used.[10] However it is only permitted to be used by women during celebrations.

It also holds special importance in Islamic Sufi music.[11]

Structure and construction

[edit]

The jingles, which are thin metal plates or rings, are attached to hooks in three or four rectangular holes in the circular wooden frame.

The drumhead is made of fish or goat skin. The width of the frame is 45–50 centimetres (18–20 in) and the depth, 5–7 centimetres (2–3 in). In order to bend the frame, the wood ("buka", "orev") may be softened in water before being bent around a hot metal cylinder. The frame is closed by gluing the ends together. Finally, the skin is attached to the frame by fixing it with another wooden frame or by using nails.

Another variation is to have the ring-style jingles arranged around the edge of the inside of the drum the whole way around[8] or to have several tiers half way around the inside edge.[12]

Notable performers

[edit]
Iranian Kurds from Sanandaj, Iran

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Daf

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The daf (Persian: دف) is a frame drum percussion instrument originating from ancient Persia, featuring a circular wooden frame approximately 50-60 cm in diameter, covered with a taut goatskin membrane and fitted with small metal rings attached to the inner rim for a characteristic jingling effect. Constructed traditionally from hardwood like walnut or mulberry, the daf's design allows for resonant bass tones from palm strikes and sharper finger slaps, with the rings adding rhythmic texture during shakes and tilts. Played vertically with the left hand gripping the frame and the right hand striking the head, the daf employs coordinated techniques involving fingers, wrists, and arms to produce complex polyrhythms central to Persian classical ensembles and improvisational performances. Its historical roots trace back over two millennia, with depictions in ancient Mesopotamian and Sassanian artifacts, evolving into a staple of Middle Eastern musical traditions across , , and . In Sufi mysticism, the daf holds profound spiritual symbolism, used in zikr ceremonies to induce states through repetitive rhythms that mimic the heartbeat and evoke divine ecstasy, as endorsed by historical figures like . Beyond ritual contexts, it features in folk celebrations, weddings, and contemporary fusions, underscoring its enduring role as a bridge between and ecstatic devotion.

Etymology and Terminology

Origins of the Name

The term daf (Persian: دف) designates a frame in Iranian musical , originating from pre-Islamic Persian and linguistic traditions where it specifically denoted square or hexagonal variants of such instruments, as opposed to circular forms termed dāyera. This distinction reflects early terminological precision in the , with daf emphasizing structural form over size alone. Linguistic precursors appear in Sumerian cuneiform records from the third millennium BCE, where the term a-da-pa referred to frame drums, suggesting a continuity in nomenclature for hoop-framed percussion across ancient Mesopotamian cultures. By the Achaemenid period, around the 6th–5th century BCE, the daf name is implied in contexts like the , indicating its established usage in Iranian contexts prior to Islamic influences. In contrast to the Arabic riq, a smaller tambourine-like frame drum with jingles integrated into the skin, daf terminology highlights larger, ring-adorned frames typical of Persian traditions, underscoring regional semantic divergences without implying direct derivation. The daf exhibits regional nomenclature variations primarily within Persianate, , and Turkic linguistic spheres, where phonetic and orthographic adaptations reflect local pronunciations and scripts. In Persian contexts, the instrument is termed daf (دَف), denoting a large frame drum without jingles, while in usage, it is often rendered as daff or duff (دَفّ), with a geminated f sound emphasizing the doubled in orthography. Kurdish traditions employ def, a close phonetic variant that aligns with the Persian form but incorporates regional dialectal shifts. These terminological differences trace to historical linguistic diffusion across the and , where the family shares a common archetype but diverges in naming conventions. For instance, in Central Asian regions like , equivalents include dap, doira, dayereh, childirma, or charmand, stemming from Persian influences transmitted via trade networks that facilitated instrument exchange from eastward. Such pathways, active from antiquity through medieval periods, propagated Persian musical terminology, adapting it to Turkic and Iranian substrate languages in areas like and . While related to other frame drums, the daf's nomenclature distinguishes it from non-identical instruments like the North African , which employs a distinct term for a variant with internal snares, or the European , known for its jingle-equipped rim in Western classification systems. These contrasts highlight the daf's position within the -like category, where terminological specificity underscores cultural boundaries rather than uniform design. ![Daf from Isfahan, illustrating Persian variant][float-right]
![Music from Aleppo, showing Arabic regional context][center]

Historical Development

Pre-Islamic Origins

Frame drums, precursors to the modern daf, appear in Mesopotamian artifacts dating to approximately 3000 BCE, with depictions in religious and ceremonial contexts suggesting early use in temple rituals across Sumer and related cultures. Archaeological evidence from seals in western Iran, circa 3300–3100 BCE, illustrates drummers participating alongside harpers and singers in ritual ensembles, indicating percussion's integral role in proto-Iranian ceremonial music. In Elamite civilization, contemporaneous with early Persian influences, square s are evidenced in rock reliefs at Kul-e Farah (900–600 BCE), portrayed in ritual processions featuring vertical and horizontal harps, underscoring their function in sacred gatherings rather than warfare. Artifacts from the 7th–8th centuries BCE confirm square dafs among Elamites, aligning with broader Near Eastern frame drum traditions that likely disseminated through trade and migration routes. By the Parthian (250 BCE–224 CE), tambourine-like frame drums featured in processions, as seen in reliefs, while large drums supported battle preparations, evidencing adaptation for both civil and martial rituals. Sasanian sources (224–651 CE) document frame drums (tas) and similar percussion in celebratory contexts, preserving pre-Islamic Persian continuity amid Zoroastrian-influenced practices, though textual references like the imply ritual percussion without specifying form. These instruments' persistence in excavated art and seals refutes later attributions of invention to biblical figures, prioritizing empirical chronology over mythological claims. Evidence from and western supports localized evolution, potentially linked to via female-associated depictions, distinct from ' broader dispersal patterns observed in Hittite and Indus sites lacking direct frame drum confirmation.

Integration into Islamic Traditions

The , referred to as in early sources, is documented in narrations from the time of Prophet Muhammad around 622 CE, where it was played by women during celebratory events such as his safe return from travel or Eid occasions. In one such account, a woman vowed to beat the duff and sing upon the Prophet's return, and he permitted her to fulfill the despite initial reservations from companions about her recent , indicating tacit approval for its use in limited, joyous contexts. This early attestation reflects the instrument's pre-Islamic Arabian folk usage transitioning into the nascent Islamic era without outright prohibition, primarily confined to female-led gatherings for weddings and festivals. Despite a prevailing Islamic scholarly caution toward music—rooted in concerns over its potential to incite passion or distract from devotion, as articulated in various juristic texts that deemed most stringed and wind instruments impermissible—the duff endured as an exception due to its unadorned form and minimal acoustic intensity compared to alternatives like the tablah. This selective tolerance stemmed from cultural continuity rather than doctrinal innovation, allowing the frame drum's rhythmic simplicity to align with permissible expressions of communal joy while broader instrumental music faced curtailment in orthodox settings. In Persianate regions following the 7th-century Arab conquests, the instrument's deep pre-Islamic entrenchment in Sassanid-era customs—evident in its role in communal and ritual percussion—ensured persistence amid Islam's expansion, as local practices adapted without requiring religious reframing. By the 8th to 10th centuries, folk chronicles and regional accounts portray frame drums in Arabian and Persian village life for rites and lifecycle events, underscoring adaptation through entrenched social utility over theological endorsement. This continuity highlights causal persistence of indigenous traditions, where the duff's non-elite, participatory nature evaded stricter scrutiny applied to courtly or melodic arts.

Evolution in Sufi Practices

The daf emerged as a central instrument in Sufi rituals during the 13th century, particularly in Persian traditions where it facilitated ecstatic remembrance of through rhythmic accompaniment to chanting and sama' (spiritual listening). Jalaluddin , in his poetry, praised the daf's role in adorning Sufi dance and piercing the heart toward divine union, marking its elevation from secular to mystical use in practices emphasizing (annihilation of the self). This adoption aligned with the formalization of Sufi orders practicing audible , distinguishing it from earlier, more restrained Islamic musical integrations. In the , established by Rumi's followers after his death in 1273, the daf integrated into sema ceremonies as a key percussive element alongside the and kudum drum, supporting whirling meditation to evoke spiritual intoxication (wajd). Sufi exegetes imbued the instrument with cosmological symbolism: its circular frame denoted the celestial vault or assembled dervishes, the taut skin membrane evoked the transient world of phenomena, and the dangling metal rings symbolized faithful souls resounding in perpetual divine praise. By the , Mevlevi missionaries propagated the daf's ritual use into the , where it evolved into the def variant employed in courtly ayin-i sharif ceremonies and urban tekke gatherings, sustaining its ecstatic function amid expanding Sufi networks. This dissemination preserved the daf's primacy in loud-dhikr orders, adapting its jingles and slaps to intensify states while adhering to sharia-compliant .

Physical Construction

Materials and Components

The frame of the daf is typically crafted from hardwoods such as or mulberry, providing durability and while maintaining a lightweight structure; diameters generally range from 40 to 60 centimeters to balance portability and sound projection. The drumhead is formed by stretching natural animal skin—most often or sheep—taut across one side of the frame, yielding a thin, responsive that produces deep bass tones on central strikes and brighter slaps near the rim, with the skin's natural tension influencing pitch and sustain. Attached to the inner perimeter are numerous small metal rings or chains, often arranged in rows that vibrate sympathetically against the skin during play, generating a characteristic rattling that layers texture over the primary percussion without overpowering it. These elements combine for tactile feedback suited to hand techniques, as the wooden rim offers grip without slippage and the skin provides variable rebound based on and tension. While modern iterations may employ synthetic heads for resistance and consistent tuning, traditional natural skins are favored for their organic warmth and historical fidelity to the instrument's sonic profile.

Manufacturing Techniques

The frame of a traditional daf is handcrafted from woods such as , mulberry, nutwood, plane, or , selected for durability. Artisans cut the wood into thin, curved pieces, which are steamed or soaked to bend into a circular hoop typically measuring 50-55 cm in diameter for Persian variants, then joined using adhesives, dowels, or metal bands and sanded smooth. This pre-industrial bending and assembly technique, passed down through generations of craftsmen in , contrasts with contemporary methods employing in factory settings. The , usually goatskin but occasionally , fish skin, or deer skin, undergoes preparation by soaking in water to increase pliability. The softened skin is then stretched taut over one side of the frame and fixed in place via gluing or nailing, with tension adjusted manually during attachment to ensure even tightness. In Kurdish production, similar soaking and stretching processes are documented through field interviews with manufacturers, maintaining hand-lacing or nailing traditions despite pressures from mass production. Internal jingles consist of 30-50 metal rings or disks, crafted from , , or repurposed materials like can metal, which are hooked or nailed at regular intervals inside the frame during assembly. Kurdish dafs often feature larger frames up to 70 cm in diameter and 10 cm deep, requiring scaled-up carving and securing methods to accommodate heavier construction. These techniques preserve ethnographic craftsmanship observed in Persian and Kurdish communities, emphasizing manual tools like knives for carving and basic fasteners for durability.

Acoustic Properties

The daf produces sound primarily through the vibration of its —a taut layer of stretched across a wooden frame—coupled with the sympathetic vibration of internal metal rings. Striking the membrane initiates radial and transverse waves that propagate as pressure disturbances in the air, with the fundamental mode frequency governed by the relation f∝T/μ/rf \propto \sqrt{T / \mu} / r
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