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For the Daeva, see Arzhang Div.

Key Information

The Arzhang ( Persian: ارژنگ, romanized: Aržang/Arzhang; Coptic: Eikōn; Parthian: dw bwngʾhyg [dō bunɣāhīg], meaning "Worthy"), also known as the Book of Pictures, was one of the holy books of Manichaeism. It was written and illustrated by its prophet, Mani, in Syriac, with later reproductions written in Sogdian. It was unique as a sacred text in that it contained numerous pictures designed to portray Manichaean cosmogony, which were regarded as integral to the text.

The original Arzhang illustrated by Mani has been lost and its exact content is unknown. However, it is known that its illustrations were of appreciable quality, and copies were preserved in the Middle East as late as 1092 AD, when it is recorded that the library of Ghazni held a copy. Since the discovery of Manichaean artwork during the German Turfan expeditions, scholars began piecing together the style of the Arzhang and reassessed the influence of Manichaean art in general.[1]

Content and purpose

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Leaf from a Uyghur-Manichaean version of a book of pictures, Turfan, c. 8th-9th century

One of Mani's primary beliefs was that the arts (namely painting, calligraphy, and music) were of the same esteem as the divine spirit (Middle Persian: Mihryazd), believing that the creation of art was comparable to god's creation of living forms, and therefore the experience of art was more of a divine act than any other in the material world.[2] Throughout the 1400-year history of Manichaeism, didactic books of paintings were used to illustrate the religion's teachings and beliefs. From the beginning, the prophet Mani envisioned his religion (which included the teachings of Zarathustra, Buddha, and Christ) as a universal and therefore "transcultural" entity, leading to its vast spread from Europe to Asia. The Manichaean mission employed multifaceted means of communication (including oral, textual, and pictorial) so the beliefs may adapt to the variety of cultures it entered. These picture books covered the primary themes of Manichaeism, such as its dualism of light and darkness, maps of a religious universe, the process of human salvation, as well as various Manichaean prophets and deities, and were considered principal pieces of the Manichaean canon.[3]

On the subject of Mani's original paintings, Zsuzsanna Gulácsi notes that the "paintings were created first in mid-third century Mesopotamia with direct involvement from Mani ... and were later preserved by being copied and adapted to a wide variety of artistic and cultural norms, as the religion spread across the Asian continent."[4] Gulácsi points to the Yuan-era silk paintings Manichaean Diagram of the Universe and Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation as examples of sinicized variations of Mani's tradition of using a Book of Pictures as a method of teaching, specifically providing insight into the cosmology of the era's Chinese Manichaeism.[4] After the discovery of fragmentary pieces of Uyghur-Manichean art in the ruins of Turfan, Western Regions, scholars began turning to the newly uncovered remains of Manichaean book art in order to assess through the fragments what could resemble the original style of the Arzhang.[5]

Influence and legacy

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Following the discovery of Manichaean paintings in Turfan, art historian Thomas W. Arnold suggested that the Manichaean tradition of illustrative bookmaking was the source of Persian miniature painting style during the time of the Safavid Empire. Arnold stated: "The only other religious art that could have produced these pictures was the Manichaean, the Eastern Character of the types of face and figure, and the similarity in technical details to the Manichaean paintings that have survived in Central Asia, suggest that this is the source to which these strange pictures must be traced back."[1] Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, the most famous of the Persian miniature painters, was praised by the contemporaneous Afghan historian Albdulkarim Khondamir, who wrote; "[Behzād's] Mani-like brushwork overwhelmed all other painters."[6] From her studies of the fragments, Zsuzsanna Gulácsi concluded that a set of the artwork come from an authentically Manichaean book of pictures, harboring elements (such as the iconography, brush style, and use of colors) that originated in Mani's original Arzhang and were turned into the traditional painting style of future generations of Manichaeans.[7] Additionally, the Turfan fragments possess a primarily Persian appearance, specifically similar to the art that has survived from the Sassanid era (during which Mani lived), with such identifiable elements as the quality of the lines, the simplicity of the faces, and the exuberant amount of detail in the folds of the garments. These similarities link the Turfan fragments to what is known of art in the Greater Iran area before the arrival of Islam.[8]

Detail of the Manichaean Diagram of the Universe, c. 13th-14th century

The Buddhist practice known as e-toki (絵解[き], meaning "picture deciphering, picture explaining") was used by the Japanese Pure Land Buddhists as a method of teaching, beginning in China as early as 931 AD. Etoki performances typically filled halls with vertical scrolls that illustrated the story of the Buddha and various Buddhist principles. Like Buddhism itself, this practice spread into Japan from China. The scrolls also often illustrated the life of Prince Shōtoku, who is credited as the founder of Japanese Buddhism.[3] During the Yuan dynasty and the Ming dynasty (during which the Hongwu Emperor banned Manichaeism in 1370), the Monijiao Manichaeans in southern China became close to the Pure Land Mahayana Buddhists, synthesizing the tradition of didactic illustration that began with the Arzhang with the formal attributes of the hanging scrolls used in e-toki, while also syncretizing Buddhist and Manichaean beliefs.[9]

Mani presenting an illustration to King Bahram I in a painting by Ali-Shir Nava'i, c. 16th century

An Islamic account of Mani's life described the prophet as a painter who founded a sectarian movement against the Zoroastrian state religion of Sassanid Persia under Shapur I. Prompted by threats, Mani fled to Turkestan, where he gained followers and painted a few temples (incidentally, a few paintings in Bamyan are attributed to Mani). Mani then spent a year in the solitude of a cave after telling his followers that he was going to heaven. After the year, Mani returned with the Arzhang, which he said he had brought down from heaven. After the death of Shapur, he and a large procession of followers returned to Persia. According to this account, the new king Bahram I received and favored Mani, but he was later flayed alive for his heresies.[10] In a 16th-century painting by Ali-Shir Nava'i from modern-day Uzbekistan, Mani is shown at the throne Bahram as the king inspects one of the prophet's illustrations.

In Islamic tradition (excluding Ibn al-Nadim's account of Mani's life) Mani is referred to as "Mani the Painter", almost always replacing the topos of "Founder of a Religion".[11] In addition, Arzhang is the name of the daeva (demon) in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh who takes Kay Kāvus to Mazanderan, and whom Rostam defeats in his sixth trial. The word "arzhang" meaning "worthy" in Middle Persian is likely the reason for the shared names, although it is coincidental (if Thomas W. Arnold's theory on the Manichaean origin of Persian miniature painting is correct) that the character of Arzhang first would've been illustrated in the style of the Arzhang.

See also

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References

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Arzhang

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Arzhang, also known as the Book of Pictures, was an illustrated work created by Mani (c. 216–274 CE), the founder of , consisting of drawings and paintings that visually represented the religion's dualistic doctrine of light and darkness. This extra-canonical text served as an appendix to Mani's Living Gospel (or Great Gospel), featuring depictions of cosmic events such as the final judgment and the interplay of the two primordial principles. Composed originally in Syriac with accompanying explanatory captions, it was designed to aid in the teaching and memorization of Manichaean cosmology and , making complex narratives accessible through visual means. The Arzhang held significant pedagogical value within , functioning as a tool to imprint key mythological scenes in the minds of believers. Known by various names across Manichaean traditions—including Eikṓn in Coptic texts and Great Mên-ho-i in Chinese sources—it was renowned for Mani's artistic skill, which enhanced his reputation as both and painter in later Islamic and Persian literary traditions. Although the original is lost, fragments of Parthian commentaries and historical references survive, attesting to its widespread use and admiration; for instance, an 11th-century account notes a copy preserved in the treasures of Ghazna. Its etymology likely derives from Arda hang, possibly meaning "message of truth" or relating to "drawing." The Arzhang's influence extended beyond , inspiring artistic motifs in Persian culture and contributing to Mani's legacy as a multifaceted figure in religious history. Despite persecutions that led to the destruction of many copies—Mani himself lamented its loss in Coptic homilies—the work's conceptual role in visualizing dualistic theology underscores its enduring scholarly interest in the study of ancient religions.

Overview

Definition and Etymology

The Arzhang, known in Middle Iranian as Ardahang, is an illustrated volume authored by Mani, the third-century prophet and founder of , comprising a collection of drawings and paintings that visually expound the religion's dualistic doctrines of light versus darkness, , and . Distinct from Mani's textual works like the Living Gospel, it functioned as a pictorial aid to propagate Manichaean teachings across diverse linguistic and cultural audiences, with descriptions in Parthian, Coptic, and Chinese sources portraying it as an album of plates or a "negār-nāma" (book of pictures) executed on materials such as white silk. As an extra-canonical work, it held significant status within , emphasizing visual representation to convey abstract cosmological principles without reliance on verbal alone. The etymology of Arzhang remains debated among scholars, tracing to the Middle Iranian form ardahang (Parthian ʾrdhng), which appears in Manichaean texts and later Islamic references. One interpretation, proposed by H. H. Schaeder, links it to an compound arta-θanha, signifying "message of truth" (comparable to bošra’l-ḥaqq), reflecting its role in disseminating Mani's revelatory insights. Alternatively, W. B. Henning and G. Haloun suggested a derivation from an Old Iranian root θang- ("to draw" or "to paint"), thus denoting a "book of drawings" or simply "," aligning with Coptic Manichaean terms like (images) and its function as an artistic manifesto. In , the term evolved into variants such as Aržang or Artang, often evoking Mani's legendary artistry in medieval literature, though no definitive consensus exists due to the scarcity of primary linguistic evidence.

Role in Manichaeism

The Arzhang, also known as the Book of Pictures, served as a central visual canon in , functioning as an extra-canonical work authored and illustrated by the religion's founder, Mani (c. 216–274 CE). Comprising a collection of paintings and drawings, it illustrated the core dualistic doctrine of the faith, depicting the eternal conflict between the realms of light and darkness, as well as key cosmological principles such as the origins of the and the soul's . Unlike Mani's textual scriptures, the Arzhang emphasized pictorial representation to encapsulate these abstract concepts, making it a unique tool for doctrinal transmission within the religion. In Manichaean practice, the Arzhang played a pivotal didactic role, aiding and hearer members in understanding and internalizing the faith's , prophetology, and through visual means. It was employed during oral sermons and teachings, particularly to reach illiterate audiences across diverse cultural contexts, from Sasanian to and , where it complemented verbal explanations of Mani's revelations. The images were reserved for high-ranking initiates and integrated into liturgical settings, such as the annual Bema festival commemorating Mani's death, where the Arzhang's pictures were ritually displayed on a to symbolize divine and facilitate communal reflection on eschatological themes. The Arzhang's enduring significance lay in its status as canonical art, copied and adapted over a to sustain Manichaean proselytizing efforts amid . Surviving textual references in Parthian, Coptic, Sogdian, and Chinese sources attest to its use in activities, underscoring how visual doctrine reinforced the faith's universalist claims by transcending linguistic barriers. This pictorial emphasis distinguished from contemporaneous religions, embedding artistry as an integral component of religious and identity.

Creation and Authorship

Mani as Author and Artist

Mani (c. 216–274 CE), the founder of , personally authored and illustrated the Arzhang, an extra-canonical work known as the "Book of Pictures," which served as a visual complement to his written teachings. This volume consisted of original drawings and paintings executed by Mani himself, designed to convey the dualistic cosmology and doctrines of in a didactic format accessible for oral instruction. As an appendix to his Living Gospel (or Great Gospel), the Arzhang emphasized themes such as the final and the eternal struggle between light and darkness, ensuring the purity and uniformity of Manichaean propagation across diverse regions. Mani's artistic contributions were integral to the Arzhang's creation, where he employed exceptional skill in producing a pictorial format that integrated text and imagery to prevent doctrinal adulteration. Historical Manichaean texts, including Parthian fragments, attest to his direct involvement, portraying the work as a negār-nāma (book of pictures) that he crafted during his lifetime in third-century . This self-illustrated work became a foundational tool for elect and hearer missionaries, facilitating the religion's spread from Sasanian to and over a . Later traditions, particularly in Islamic and , further elevated Mani's reputation as a master , often legendarily tracing his painting prowess to Chinese origins and associating the Arzhang with unparalleled in poetic metaphors. Accounts from the eleventh century, such as Abu’l-Maʿālī’s Bayān al-adyān, reference surviving copies in regions like Ghazna, underscoring the enduring legacy of Mani's dual role as prophet and visual innovator.

Composition Process and Date

The Arzhang, also known as the Picture-Book or Ardahang, was composed by Mani, the founder of , as a uniquely pictorial work designed to visually convey the religion's dualistic cosmology and doctrinal principles. Mani, renowned for his artistic abilities, personally created or directly oversaw the production of its illustrations, integrating them with explanatory texts to form a comprehensive teaching tool. This volume served as an appendix to Mani's Living Gospel (or Great Gospel), featuring drawings that depicted key elements such as the conflict between light and darkness, the structure of the , and scenes of final judgment. The composition process involved Mani employing techniques influenced by Mesopotamian and Babylonian artistic traditions, likely learned during his early life in the region near . Working in southern , Mani produced the Arzhang in a format, commissioning or painting the images himself to ensure their alignment with his prophetic vision. These illustrations were intended for didactic use by Manichaean (priests), who employed a performative tradition called "pardeh-khani" (curtain-reading) to interpret the motifs during communal teachings, making complex theological concepts accessible to diverse audiences, including the illiterate. Its extra-canonical yet foundational role as an illustrated artifact, distinct from Mani's textual scriptures, emphasized its use as a portable aid for activities across the expanding religion. Scholars date the Arzhang's creation to the mid-third century CE, during the early phase of Mani's prophetic mission (c. 240–276 CE), though no exact date is confirmed; this timing aligns with his efforts to consolidate his teachings under the , before the composition of his later works like the Shābuhragān. While the original Arzhang has not survived intact, references in Parthian fragments, Chinese records from the , and Islamic sources up to the confirm its production within Mani's lifetime (c. 216–276 CE), underscoring its integral place in the Manichaean canon from inception.

Content and Structure

Key Illustrations and Themes

The Arzhang, Mani's illustrated book, primarily featured didactic paintings that visually conveyed the core tenets of Manichaean cosmology and , emphasizing the eternal struggle between and . These illustrations depicted the three phases of creation: the first involving the Primordial Man's battle with the forces of , the second showing the Living Spirit's redemption of captured through celestial architecture like the ten firmaments and eight earths, and the third illustrating the Third Messenger and Maiden of 's release of light particles via mechanisms such as the Column of Glory (the ). Symbolic elements like the , representing the pure realm of with its diamond-paved paradise, trees, and palaces, contrasted with the Tree of Death embodying the chaotic domain of ruled by demonic figures such as the lion-headed . Central themes revolved around dualism, portraying as divine spirit imprisoned in and as an invasive , with illustrations of cosmic battles where elements like , , , , and clashed against abyssal entities. narratives were prominent, showing the elect's role in liberating through rituals, often visualized in scenes of the Arks of the Sun and collecting particles for ascent, and eschatological events like the final separating from . Prophet hierarchies featured Mani as the central figure, larger in scale than predecessors like , , and , underscoring his role as the seal of prophets in a composition of divine envoys. Judgment and reincarnation motifs appeared in multi-register paintings, such as those depicting the Light Maiden's intervention during soul assessments, leading to favorable rebirths in higher social states or punitive descents into hellish torments, reinforcing ethical conduct and the pursuit of light redemption. These visuals, drawn from textual allusions in Syriac, Coptic, and Parthian sources, served as mnemonic aids for oral teachings, with no original Arzhang surviving but later copies like Turfan fragments echoing their style and content.

Textual Components and Cosmology

The Arzhang, Mani's foundational pictorial canon in , integrates textual elements with illustrations to convey the religion's dualistic cosmology, serving as a didactic tool for teaching core doctrines. Composed primarily in Syriac with accompanying texts in languages such as Parthian and , it includes Mani's own writings that frame the images, such as explanatory narratives, parables, hymns, and dialogues that elucidate cosmological themes. These textual components, referenced in historical accounts like those of in the Fihrist and Theodore bar Konai's Scholion, often draw on creation myths, including the figures of Gehmurd () and Murdiyanag (), to illustrate the origins of humanity as a mixture of divine light and demonic matter. Central to the Arzhang's structure is its use of visual-textual , where illustrations depict key cosmological sequences while texts provide interpretive depth. Surviving fragments and descriptions indicate sections organized around thematic scrolls or panels, such as those on prophetology, , and cosmology, with the latter featuring diagrams of the that outline the eternal realms of and . For instance, parables like those of the farmers, blind people, or debtors accompany images symbolizing the entrapment and liberation of light particles in the material world, emphasizing the spiritual hierarchy of —righteous, hypocritical, and sinful—through metaphors like mountains or towers. These elements underscore Mani's claim of , positioning the Arzhang as a direct akin to prophetic visions. Manichaean cosmology in the Arzhang portrays a radical dualism where the uncreated Realm of Light, ruled by the , coexists with the chaotic Realm of Darkness until the latter's prompts cosmic creation. Illustrations, as reconstructed from later Manichaean art traditions, show the First Man's defeat and the subsequent emanation of deities like the Living Spirit and Third Messenger, who orchestrate the world's formation from mingled light and darkness substances. The textual narratives detail the binding of the evil prince Ahrimen, the establishment of heavens, earth layers, and luminaries (sun and moon as light-refining vessels), and the role of divine winds and commandments in separating light from matter. Humanity emerges in this mingled cosmos, influenced by demonic forces like Âz and astrological powers, with salvation achieved through practices that free trapped light souls for ascent via the Column of Glory. Eschatological themes in the Arzhang's cosmology culminate in the final separation of and , restoring the original purity of the realms, as depicted in diagrams showing the New Aeon and the ultimate defeat of demonic entities. These visuals, often presented in scroll format for oral sermons, facilitated cross-cultural transmission, influencing later illuminated manuscripts in and . The integration of text and image ensured accessibility, allowing Manichaean and hearers to grasp abstract concepts like the cycle of rebirth and the soul's in without relying solely on verbal .

Transmission and Survival

Manuscripts and Historical Copies

No complete manuscripts of the Arzhang, Mani's illustrated canonical work in , have survived from antiquity, with evidence of its existence derived primarily from textual references and fragmentary archaeological remains. The original, composed in the mid-3rd century CE, was likely a or format featuring paintings on materials such as , , or , but all early copies were systematically destroyed following Mani's death in 274/277 CE under Sassanian . The earliest physical evidence consists of four fragmentary Uygur-era editions (9th–10th centuries CE) preserved at the Museum of Asian Art in , recovered from the Turfan region in Chinese Turkestan, where flourished among the until the 14th century. These fragments include small pieces of illustrated scrolls and related wall paintings in Manichaean monasteries, such as those in Bazaqlıq 38b and Sangim 4, depicting cosmological themes like the Paradise of Light and divine figures. Parthian and textual fragments, such as the "Ardaḥang Wifrās" (commentary on the Arzhang) cataloged as M 35, M 5815, M 5596, and M 2 from the Turfan collections, provide indirect insights into its content and structure, confirming its use as a teaching tool with diagrams and narratives. Historical copies are attested in diverse regions through contemporary accounts. In the , a copy was reportedly held in the treasuries of Ghazna (modern ) until the late , as recorded in Abu’l-Maʿālī’s Bayān al-adyān (1092 CE), highlighting its prestige among Manichaean communities. In , inventories from the (731 CE) describe a version presented to the court, while a 12th-century Wenzhou record lists six silk paintings associated with the Arzhang alongside thirteen textual books, indicating its adaptation for East Asian missionary efforts. sources, such as al-Awfi’s Jawāmiʿ al-ḥikāyāt (), note its survival in Turkistan until at least the . Textual allusions in non-Manichaean sources further document the Arzhang's transmission. Coptic Manichaean codices, including the Kephalaia (chapters 92 and 151) and Homilies from the , describe its pictorial elements as essential for doctrinal instruction, with the Coptic title hikōn (). Syriac polemics by Ephrem Syrus () reference it critically, quoting Mani's use of illustrations to convey dualistic cosmology. These accounts, alongside Parthian hymns and fragments edited by scholars like W.B. Henning, underscore the Arzhang's role in sustaining Manichaean teachings across , , and beyond, despite no full reconstruction being possible from surviving materials.

Loss, Rediscovery, and Archaeological Evidence

The original Arzhang, created by Mani in the third century CE, was lost in its entirety due to repeated persecutions of across the Sasanian, Roman, Byzantine, and later Islamic empires, with no complete surviving to the present day. Historical accounts indicate that the work was present at Mani's death in 274/277 CE and passed to his successor Sisinnios, who produced copies for dissemination in the 280s CE, but these likely perished amid martyrdoms and book burnings, such as those in in 923 CE and 953 CE. By the early eleventh century, the Arzhang had vanished from West and Central Asian Manichaean communities following the destruction of key sites like the manistans (temples) in Kocho after 983 CE, though textual references suggest a copy may have been held in the Ghazna treasury as late as 1092 CE. The Arzhang was partially rediscovered in the early twentieth century through the German Turfan Expeditions (1902–1914), led by Albert Grünwedel and Albert von Le Coq, which excavated thousands of Manichaean manuscript fragments and numerous art pieces from the arid ruins of the Turfan oasis in present-day , . These expeditions uncovered evidence of the Arzhang's enduring influence in Uighur-era Manichaean communities (mid-eighth to early eleventh centuries), including later illuminated picture books and textual commentaries that echoed its pictorial style and doctrinal content. No original third-century paintings were found, but the discoveries revealed how the Arzhang inspired folios, handscrolls, and murals depicting Manichaean cosmology, such as scenes of light versus darkness, eschatological judgment, and the prophet's life. Ongoing digitization efforts by institutions like the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities continue to make these materials accessible for scholarly analysis as of 2025. Archaeological evidence primarily consists of fragmentary illuminated manuscripts and commentaries preserved in the dry climate of the Taklamakan Desert, housed today in the Berlin Turfan Collection at the Museum of Asian Art. Key finds include Uighur picture book fragments from Kocho, such as MIK III 4975 and MIK III 4947 (tenth century), which feature sideways-oriented illustrations of doctrinal themes like the Light Maiden and cosmological dualism, reflecting the Arzhang's original format as a painted scroll. Parthian fragments of the Ārdhānğ Wifrās (Sermon on the Arzhang), including M 35 and M 8255 (eighth–tenth centuries), provide textual descriptions of Mani's lost paintings, explaining motifs such as salvation, prophetology, and the elect's elect life, confirming the Arzhang's role in visual evangelism. Additional evidence emerges from Dunhuang Cave 17 (early ninth century), with Uighur fragments referencing the Arzhang, and later Chinese adaptations, like mortuary banners from Kocho (tenth century) and silk scrolls from Wenzhou (1120 CE), which adapt its imagery under Song dynasty influence. These artifacts, totaling over 40 surviving images, underscore the Arzhang's transmission eastward despite its physical loss in the West.

Influence and Legacy

Impact on Manichaean Doctrine and Practice

The Arzhang, as Mani's illustrated of Manichaean cosmology, played a pivotal role in shaping the religion's doctrinal transmission by providing visual representations of abstract concepts such as the primal division between light and darkness, the structure of the universe, and the ongoing cosmic battle. These images were not mere decorations but integral to the faith's teachings, serving as a "visual " that complemented Mani's written scriptures like the Šābuhragān and the Living Gospel. According to historical accounts, Mani himself painted the original illustrations to ensure fidelity to his revelations, making the Arzhang a canonical tool for elucidating the dualistic worldview central to . In Manichaean practice, the Arzhang facilitated missionary activities and communal instruction, allowing elect missionaries to unroll the picture book during sermons to demonstrate key doctrines, such as the entrapment of light particles in and the path to through . Syriac and Parthian texts describe how the images were employed in teaching sessions for both elect and hearers, bridging linguistic and cultural barriers as the religion spread from Sasanian to and . This visual approach enhanced doctrinal adherence by making complex ideas like the "Column of Glory" and the "Paradise of Light" tangible, thereby reinforcing ethical practices such as and among the elect. The book's influence extended to liturgical and communal rituals, where copies or adaptations of its illustrations were used to inspire devotion and meditation on Manichaean . For instance, later Uygur Manichaean communities adapted Arzhang motifs into hanging scrolls and temple murals for educational purposes during bēma festivals, commemorating Mani's passion and reinforcing the of redemption. This enduring didactic function ensured the Arzhang's legacy in preserving orthodox interpretations amid persecutions, as evidenced by surviving fragments from ninth-century Kocho that depict core cosmological themes. Overall, the Arzhang elevated visual art to a level within , distinguishing it from text-only traditions and contributing to its appeal across diverse cultures.

Artistic and Cultural Influences

The Arzhang, Mani's illustrated scripture, established a foundational of didactic art within , emphasizing visual representations of cosmology, dualism, and redemption as essential for propagating complex doctrines across linguistic and cultural barriers. This approach elevated to a sacred practice, influencing subsequent Manichaean artistic production from the 4th to 14th centuries, where surviving fragments from Turfan (e.g., banners and paper scrolls depicting the "Column of Glory" and paradise motifs) blended Mesopotamian iconography with local Central Asian styles, such as Sogdian and Uyghur elements. These works, discovered at archaeological sites in the Turfan region, such as Kocho, demonstrate how Arzhang-inspired imagery adapted to Buddhist artistic conventions, incorporating lotuses and pearl bands to convey Manichaean themes of light triumphing over darkness. The transmission of Arzhang's aesthetics along the extended its impact to , particularly in the development of illuminated manuscripts during the Ilkhanid and Timurid periods (–16th centuries). Scholars identify persistent Manichaean motifs—such as simplified line work, frontal compositions, and symbolic color schemes—in Persian miniatures, including illustrations of the that echo Arzhang's cosmological diagrams. For instance, 15th-century painter Kamal al-Din Bihzad's style was described by contemporary historian Khwandamir as employing "Mani-like brushwork," characterized by fluid contours and ethereal figures, linking it to earlier Manichaean survivals reintroduced via Uyghur influences. This stylistic continuity contributed to the evolution of Persian book art, shaping Ottoman and Mughal traditions through shared techniques in depicting divine realms and heroic narratives. Culturally, Arzhang fostered syncretic practices that permeated Iranian and Central Asian societies, notably inspiring the pardeh-khani tradition of narrative painting on portable screens used for storytelling in medieval Persia. This performative art form, documented in 11th-century texts, mirrored Arzhang's educational role by visualizing epic and moral tales, influencing and , as seen in echoes of dualistic imagery in Rumi's poetry. In , during the Tang (7th–9th centuries) and later Ming eras, Manichaean pictorial rolls adapted to local temple art, impacting silk paintings and festival banners that integrated Zoroastrian-inspired light symbolism with Daoist elements, thus bridging Iranian and visual cultures. More recent discoveries, including a 2024 identification of a Chinese Manichaean painting titled 'Auspicious Signs Heralding Mānī's Birth' from , underscore the continued revelation of Manichaean artistic survivals in .

References

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  19. https://turfan.bbaw.de/
  20. https://www.academia.edu/28800960/_Conclusions_to_MANI_S_PICTURES_The_Didactic_Images_of_the_Manichaeans_from_Sasanian_Mesopotamia_to_Uygur_Central_Asia_and_Tang_Ming_China_Leiden_Brill_2015_pp_490_504
  21. https://brill.com/display/title/16430
  22. https://www.academia.edu/28945654/_Introduction_to_MANI_S_PICTURES_The_Didactic_Images_of_the_Manichaeans_from_Sasanian_Mesopotamia_to_Uygur_Central_Asia_and_Tang_Ming_China_Leiden_Brill_2015_pp_1_19
  23. https://akjournals.com/view/journals/062/77/3/article-p433.xml
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