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This is an outline of commentaries and commentators. Discussed are the salient points of Jewish, patristic, medieval, and modern commentaries on the Bible. The article includes discussion of the Targums, Mishna, and Talmuds, which are not regarded as Bible commentaries in the modern sense of the word, but which provide the foundation for later commentary. With the exception of these classical Jewish works, this article focuses on Christian Biblical commentaries; for more on Jewish Biblical commentaries, see Jewish commentaries on the Bible.

Jewish commentaries

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Main article: Jewish commentaries on the Bible

Philo

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Philo tried to reconcile the Jewish Scriptures with Greek philosophy, and for this purpose he made extensive use of the allegorical method of interpretation. He taught that many passages of the Pentateuch were not intended to be taken literally. In fact, he said that they were literally false, but allegorically true.

He did not make the distinction between natural and revealed religion. For example, Pagan systems may have natural religion highly developed, but, from a Judeo-Christian point of view, with much concomitant error. His exegesis served to tide over the difficulty for the time amongst the Hellenistic Jews, and had great influence on Origen of Alexandria and other Alexandrian Christian writers.

Targums

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Frederic Farrar, in his Life of Christ, says that it has been suggested that when Christ visited the Temple, at twelve years of age, there may have been present among the doctors Jonathan ben Uzziel, once thought to be the author of the Yonathan Targum, and the venerable teachers Hillel and Shammai, the handers-on of the Mishna.[1] The Targums (the most famous of which is that on the Pentateuch erroneously attributed to Onkelos, a misnomer for Aquila, according to Abrahams) were the only approach to anything like a commentary on the Bible before the time of Christ. They were interpretative translations or paraphrases from Hebrew into Aramaic for the use of the synagogues when, after the Exile, the people had lost the knowledge of Hebrew. It is doubtful whether any of them were committed to writing before the Christian Era. They are important as indicating the character of the Hebrew text used.

Shlomo Yitzchaki (1040–1105), more commonly known as Rashi (RAbbi SHlomo Itzhaki), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud and commentary on the Tanakh.

Mishna and Talmuds

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Hillel and Shammai were the last "pair" of several generations of "pairs" (Zugot) of teachers. These pairs were the successors of the early scribes who lived after the Exile. These teachers are said to have handed down and expanded the Oral Law, which, according to the uncritical view of many Jews, began with Moses. This Oral Law consists of legal and liturgical interpretations and applications of the Pentateuch. As no part of it was written down, it was preserved by constant repetition (Mishna). Upon the destruction of Jerusalem, several rabbis, learned in this Law, settled at Jamnia, near the sea, 28 miles (45 km) west of Jerusalem. Jamnia became the headquarters of Jewish learning until AD 135, due to the Third Jewish Revolt. Then schools were opened at Sepphoris and Tiberias to the west of the Sea of Galilee. The rabbis comforted their countrymen by teaching that the study of the Law (Oral as well as Written) took the place of the sacrifices. They devoted their energies to arranging the Unwritten Torah, or Law. One of the most successful at this was Rabbi Akiba who took part in the Third Jewish Revolt of Bar Kochba against the Romans, and lost his life (135). The work of systematization was completed and probably committed to writing by the Jewish patriarch at Tiberias, Rabbi Jehudah ha-Nasi "The Prince" (150–210). He was of noble birth, wealthy, learned, and is called by the Jews "Our Master the Saint" or simply Rabbi par excellence. This compilation, called the Mishna, is written in Mishnaic Hebrew and consists of six great divisions or orders, each division containing, on an average, about ten tractates, each tractate being made up of several chapters. The Mishna may be said to be a compilation of Jewish traditional moral theology, liturgy, law, etc. There were other traditions not embodied in the work of Rabbi, and these are called additional Mishna.

The discussions of later generations of rabbis all centred round the text of the Mishna. Interpreters or "speakers" laboured upon it both in Jerusalem and Babylonia (until 500), and the results are comprised in the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds. The word Talmud means teaching, doctrine. Each Talmud consists of two parts, the Mishna (in Hebrew), in sixty-three tractates, and an explanation of the same (Gemara), ten or twelve times as long. The explanatory portion of the Jerusalem Talmud is written in NeoWestern Aramaic and that of the Babylonian Talmud in Eastern Aramaic, which is closely allied to Syriac or Mandaic. The passages in the Gemara containing additional Mishna are, however, given in New Hebrew. Only thirty-nine tractates of the Mishna have Gemara. The Talmud, then, consists of the Mishna (traditions from 450 BC till 200 AD), together with a commentary thereon, Gemara, the latter being composed about 200-500 AD. Next to the Bible the Babylonian Talmud is the great religious book of orthodox Jews, though the Palestinian Talmud is more highly prized by modern scholars. From the year 500 till the Middle Ages the rabbis (geonim) in Babylonia and elsewhere were engaged in commenting on the Talmud and reconciling it with the Bible. A list of such commentaries is given in The Jewish Encyclopedia.

Midrashim

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Simultaneously with the Mishna and Talmud there grew up a number of Midrashim, or commentaries on the Bible. Some of these were legalistic, like the halakhic sections of the Talmud, but the most important were of an edifying, homiletic character (Midrash Aggadah). These latter, although chronologically later, are important for the corroborative light which they throw on the language of the New Testament. The Gospel of John is seen to be steeped in early Jewish phraseology, and the words of Psalm 109 LXX Hebrew Bible 110], "The Lord said to my Lord", etc. are in one place[where?] applied to the Messiah, as they are in Gospel of Matthew 22:44 (referenced from Psalm 110:1), though Rashi, following the rabbis, interpreted the words in the sense of applying them to Abraham.

Karaite commentators

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Anan ben David, a prominent Babylonian Jew in the eighth century, rejected Rabbinism for the written Old Testament and became the founder of the sect known a Karaites (a word indicating their preference for the written Bible). This schism produced great energy and ability on both sides. The principal Karaite Bible commentators were Nahavendi (ninth century); Abu al-Faraj Harun (ninth century), exegete and Hebrew grammarian; Solomon ben Yerucham (tenth century); Sahal ben Mazliach (died 950), Hebrew grammarian and lexicographer; Joseph al-Bazir (died 930); Japhet ben Ali, the greatest Karaite commentator of the tenth century; and Judah Hadassi (died 1160).

Middle Ages

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Saadiah of Fayûm (died 942), the most powerful writer against the Karaites, translated the Bible into Arabic and added notes. Besides commentaries on the Bible, Saadiah wrote a systematic treatise bringing revealed religion into harmony with Greek philosophy. He thus became the forerunner of Maimonides and the Catholic Schoolmen.

Solomon ben Isaac, called Rashi (born 1040), wrote very popular explanations of the Talmud and the Bible.

Tobiah ben Eliezer, a Romaniote scholar and paytan in 11th century Kastoria (Greece), wrote the Leḳaḥ Ṭov or Pesiḳta Zuṭarta, a midrashic commentary on the Pentateuch and the Five Megillot.

Abraham Ibn Ezra of Toledo (died 1168) had a good knowledge of Semitic languages and wrote learned commentaries on the Old Testament. He was the first to maintain that Isaiah contains the work of two prophets.

Moses Maimonides (died 1204), the greatest Jewish scholar of the Middle Ages, of whom his coreligionists said that "from Moses to Moses there was none like Moses", wrote his "Guide to the Perplexed", which was read by St. Thomas. He was a great admirer of Aristotle, who was to him the representative of natural knowledge as the Bible was of the supernatural.

There were the two Kimchis, especially David (died 1235) of Narbonne, who was a celebrated grammarian, lexicographer, and commentator inclined to the literal sense. He was followed by Nachmanides of Catalonia (died 1270), a doctor of medicine who wrote commentaries of a cabbalistic tendency; Immanuel of Rome (born 1270); and the Karaites Aaron ben Joseph (1294), and Aaron ben Elias (fourteenth century).

Modern

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Isaac Abarbanel (born Lisbon, 1437; died Venice, 1508) was a statesman and scholar. None of his predecessors came so near the modern ideal of a commentator as he did. He prefixed general introductions to each book, and was the first Jew to make extensive use of Christian commentaries. Elias Levita (died 1549) and Azarias de Rossi (died 1577) have also to be mentioned.

Moses Mendelssohn of Berlin (died 1786), a friend of Lessing, translated the Pentateuch into German. His commentaries (in Hebrew) are close, learned, critical, and acute. He had much influence, and was followed by Wessely, Jarosław, Homberg, Euchel, Friedlander, Hertz, Herxheimer, Ludwig Philippson, etc., called "Biurists", or expositors. The modern liberal school among the Jews is represented by Salomon Munk, Samuel David Luzzato, Leopold Zunz, Geiger, Julius Fürst, etc.

Rabbi Pesach Wolicki (born 1970) is a biblical scholar and commentator. His book, Cup of Salvation, also known as Cup of Salvation: A Powerful Journey Through King David's Psalms of Praise, which was published by the Center for Jewish–Christian Understanding and Cooperation (CJCUC) in 2017, is a devotional biblical commentary on Psalms 113-118 otherwise known as the Hallel.

Patristic commentaries

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The history of Christian exegesis may be roughly divided into three periods: the Age of the Fathers, the Age of Catenæ and Scholia (seventh to sixteenth century), and the Age of Modern Commentaries (sixteenth to twentieth century). The earliest known commentary on Christian scriptures was by a Gnostic named Heracleon in the 170s CE. Most of the patristic commentaries are in the form of homilies, or discourses to the faithful, and range over the whole of Scripture. There are two schools of interpretation, that of Alexandria and that of Antioch.

Alexandrian School

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The chief writers of the Alexandrian School were:

To these may be added

  • St. Ambrose, who, in a moderate degree, adopted their system

Its chief characteristic was the allegorical method. The 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia considers it to be founded on passages in the Gospels and the Epistles of St. Paul, but heavily influenced by the writings of Alexandrian Jews, especially of Philo.

The great representative of this school was Origen (died 254). Origen was the son of Leonides of Alexandria, himself a saint and martyr. Origen became the master of many great saints and scholars, one of the most celebrated being St. Gregory Thaumaturgus; he was known as the "Adamantine" on account of his incessant application to study, writing, lecturing, and works of piety. He frequently kept seven amanuenses actively employed; it was said he became the author of 6000 works (Epiphanius, Hær., lxiv, 63); according to St. Jerome, who reduced the number to 2000 (Contra. Rufin., ii, 22), he left more writings than any man could read in a lifetime (Ep. xxxiii, ad Paulam). Besides his great labours on the Hexapla he wrote scholia, homilies, and commentaries on the Old and the New Testament. In his scholia he gave short explanations of difficult passages after the manner of his contemporaries, the annotators of the Greek classics. Most of the scholia, in which he chiefly sought the literal sense, are unfortunately lost, but it is supposed that their substance is embodied in the writings of St. John Chrysostom and other Fathers. In his other works Origen pushed the allegorical interpretation to the utmost extreme. In spite of this, however, his writings were of great value, and with the exception of St. Augustine, no writer of ancient times had such influence.

Antiochene School

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Main article: School of Antioch

The writers of the Antiochene School disliked the allegorical method, and sought almost exclusively the literal, primary, or historical sense of Holy Scripture. The principal writers of this school were

The great representatives of this school were Diodorus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, and St. John Chrysostom. Diodorus, who died Bishop of Tarsus (394), followed the literal to the exclusion of the mystical or allegorical sense. Theodore was born at Antioch, in 347, became Bishop of Mopsuestia, and died in the communion of the Church, 429. He was a powerful thinker, but an obscure and prolix writer. He felt intense dislike for the mystical sense, and explained the Scriptures in an extremely literal and almost rationalistic manner.

His pupil, Nestorius, became the subject of the Nestorian controversy; the Nestorians translated his books into Syriac and regarded Theodore as their great "Doctor". This made Catholics suspicious of his writings, which were finally condemned after the famous controversy on The Three Chapters. Theodore's commentary on St. John's Gospel, in Syriac, was published, with a Latin translation, by a Catholic scholar, Dr. Chabot.

St. John Chrysostom, priest of Antioch, became Patriarch of Constantinople in 398. He left homilies on most of the books of the Old and the New Testament. When St. Thomas Aquinas was asked by one of his brethren whether he would not like to be the owner of Paris, so that he could dispose of it to the King of France and with the proceeds promote the good works of his order, he answered that he would prefer to be the possessor of Chrysostom's Super Matthæum. St. Isidore of Pelusium said of him that if the Apostle St. Paul could have used Attic speech he would have explained his own Epistles in the identical words of St. John Chrysostom.

Intermediate School

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Other writers combined both these systems, some leaning more to the allegorical and some to the literal sense. The principal contributors were

Jerome, besides his translations of Scripture and other works, left many commentaries, in some of which he departed from the literal meaning of the text. At times he did not always indicate when he was quoting from different authors, which according to Richard Simon accounts for his apparent discrepancies.

Medieval commentaries

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The medieval writers were content to draw from the rich treasures left them by their predecessors. Their commentaries consisted, for the most part, of passages from the Church Fathers, which they connected together as in a chain, a catena.

Greek Catenists

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Latin Catenists, Scholiasts, etc.

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The principal Latin commentators of this period were the Venerable Bede, Walafrid Strabo, Anselm of Laon, Hugh of Saint-Cher, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Nicholas de Lyra.

The Venerable Bede (seventh to eighth century), a good Greek and Hebrew scholar, wrote a useful commentary on most of the books of the Old and the New Testament. It is in reality a catena of passages from Greek and Latin Fathers judiciously selected and digested.

Walafrid Strabo (ninth century), a Benedictine, was credited with the "Glossa Ordinaria" on the entire Bible. It is a brief explanation of the literal and mystical sense, based on Rabanus Maurus and other Latin writers, and was one of the most popular works during the Middle Ages, being as well known as "The Sentences" of Peter Lombard.

Anselm of Laon, professor at Paris (twelfth century), wrote the Glossa Interlinearis, so called because the explanation was inserted between the lines of the Vulgate.

Hugh of Saint-Cher (Hugo de Sancto Caro), thirteenth century), besides his pioneer Biblical concordance, composed a short commentary on the whole of the Scriptures, explaining the literal, allegorical, analogical, and moral sense of the text. His work was called Postillæ, i. e. post illa (verba textus), because the explanation followed the words of the text.

Thomas Aquinas (thirteenth century) left commentaries on Job, Psalms, Isaiah, Epistles of St. Paul, and was the author of the well-known Catena Aurea on the Gospels. This consists of quotations from over eighty Church Fathers. He throws much light on the literal sense and is most happy in illustrating difficult points by parallel passages from other parts of the Bible.

Nicholas de Lyra (thirteenth century), joined the Franciscans in 1291 and brought to the service of the Church knowledge of Hebrew and rabbinical learning. He wrote short notes or Postillæ on the entire Bible, and set forth the literal meaning with great ability, especially of the books written in Hebrew. This work was most popular, and in frequent use during the late Middle Ages, and Martin Luther was indebted to it.

A great impulse was given to exegetical studies by the Council of Vienne which decreed, in 1311, that chairs of Hebrew, Chaldean, and Arabic should be established at Paris, Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca.

Besides the major writers already mentioned the following are some of the principal exegetes, many of them Benedictines, from patristic times till the Council of Trent:

Syriac commentators

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Modern Catholic commentaries

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The influx of Greek scholars into Italy after the fall of Constantinople, the Christian and anti-Christian Renaissance, the invention of printing, the controversial excitement caused by the rise of Protestantism, and the publication of polyglot Bibles by Cardinal Ximenes and others, gave renewed interest in the study of the Bible among Catholic scholars. Controversy showed them the necessity of devoting more attention to the literal meaning of the text, according to the wise principle laid down by St. Thomas in the beginning of his "Summa Theologica".

It was then that the Jesuits, founded in 1534, stepped into the front rank to counter the attacks on the Catholic Church. The Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuits made it incumbent on their professors of Scripture to acquire a mastery of Greek, Hebrew, and other Semitic languages. Alfonso Salmeron, one of the first companions of Ignatius Loyola, and the pope's theologian at the Council of Trent, was a distinguished Hebrew scholar and voluminous commentator. Bellarmine, one of the first Christians to write a Hebrew grammar, composed a valuable commentary on the Psalms, giving an exposition of the Hebrew, Septuagint, and Vulgate texts. It was published as part of Cornelius a Lapide's commentary on the whole Bible. Cornelius a Lapide, S. J. (born 1566), was a native of the Low Countries, and was well versed in Greek and Hebrew. During forty years he devoted himself to teaching and to the composition of his great work, which has been highly praised by Protestants as well as Catholics.

Juan Maldonato, a Spanish Jesuit, born 1584, wrote commentaries on Isaias, Baruch, Ezechiel, Daniel, Psalms, Proverbs, Canticles (Song of Solomon), and Ecclesiastes. His best work, however, is his Latin commentary on the Four Gospels, which is generally acknowledged to be one of the best ever written. When Maldonato was teaching at the University of Paris the hall was filled with eager students before the lecture began, and he had frequently to speak in the open air.

Great as was the merit of the work of Maldonato, it was equalled by the commentary on the Epistles by Estius (born at Gorcum, Holland, 1542), a secular priest, and superior of the college at Douai. These two works are still of the greatest help to the student.

Many other Jesuits were the authors of valuable exegetical works, e.g.:

The Jesuits were rivalled by

Nineteenth century

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During the nineteenth century the following were a few of the Catholic writers on the Bible:

Catholics have also published scientific books. There is the great Latin "Cursus" on the whole of the Bible by the Jesuit Fathers, Karl Cornely, Joseph Knabenbauer, and Franz Hummelauer. The writings of Marie-Joseph Lagrange (Les Juges), Albert Condamin (Isaïe), Theodore Calmes (Saint Jean), Albin van Hoonacker (Les Douze Petits Prophètes).

For a list of Catholic publications on the Scripture, the reader may be referred to the "Revue biblique", edited by Lagrange (Jerusalem and Paris), and the "Biblische Zeitschrift', published by Herder (Freiburg im Breisgau). For further information concerning the principal Catholic commentators see respective articles.

Twentieth century

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Twenty-first century

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Modern Orthodox commentaries

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  • The Explanatory Bible of Aleksandr Lopukhin and successors (1904-1913) is written by professors of Russian theological seminaries and academies. It's based on Russian Synodal Translation, its authors apply to ancient sources of the text (Masoretic Text, Septuagint, etc.). At the present time, is the only full Russian Orthodox Bible commentary on both canonical and deuterocanonical books of the Scripture. The Lopukhin Bible was republished in 1987 by Biblical Societies of Northern Europe countries.[2]
  • The Orthodox Study Bible is an English-language translation and annotation of the Septuagint with references to the Masoretic Text in its Old Testament part and its New Testament part it represents the NKJV, which uses the Textus Receptus, representing 94% of Greek manuscripts. It offers commentary and other material to show the Eastern Orthodox Christian understanding of Scripture often in opposite to catholic and Protestant ideas. Additionally the OSB provides basic daily prayers, a lectionary for personal use, and reproductions of icons in its pages.[3]

Protestant commentaries

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In general

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The commentaries of the first Reformers, Luther, Melanchthon, Calvin, Zwingli and their followers wrote on Holy Scripture during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

During the nineteenth century:

There were many commentaries published at Cambridge, Oxford, London, etc. (see publishers' catalogues, and notices in "Expositor", "Expository Times", and "Journal of Theological Studies"). Other notable writers include:

There are also the Bible dictionaries of Kitto, Smith, and Hastings. Many of these works, especially the later ones, are valuable for their scientific method, though not of equal value for their views or conclusions.

Prominent series include:

One-volume Commentaries:

A notable recent specialist commentary is Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (2007), edited by G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson.

Rationalistic commentaries

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The opinions of the English rationalists were disseminated on the Continent by Voltaire and others. In Germany the ground was prepared by the philosophy of Wolff and the writings of his disciple Semler. The posthumous writings of Reimarus were published by Lessing between 1774 and 1778 (The Fragments of Wolfenbüttel). Lessing pretended that the author was unknown. According to the "Fragments", Moses, Christ, and the Apostles were impostors. Lessing was vigorously attacked, especially by Goeze. Eichhorn, in his "Introduction to the Old Testament" (Leipzig 1780–83, 3 vols.), maintained that the Scriptures were genuine productions, but that, as the Jews saw the intervention of God in the most ordinary natural occurrences, the miracles should be explained naturally.

Heinrich Paulus (1761–1850), following the lead of Eichhorn, applied to the Gospels the naturalistic method of explaining miracles. G. L Bauer, Heyne (died 1812), and Creuzer denied the authenticity of the greater portion of the Pentateuch and compared it to the mythology of the Greeks and Romans. The greatest advocate of such views was de Wette (1780–1849), a pupil of Paulus. In his "Introduction to the Old Testament" (1806) he maintained that the miraculous narratives of the Old Testament were popular legends, which in the course of centuries, became transformed and transfused with the marvellous and the supernatural, and were finally committed to writing in perfectly good faith.

David Strauss (1808–74) applied this mythical explanation to the Gospels.[6] He showed most clearly, that if with Paulus the Gospels are allowed to be authentic, the attempt to explain the miracles naturally breaks down completely. Strauss rejected the authenticity and regarded the miraculous accounts in the Gospels as naive legends, the productions of the pious imaginations of the early generations of Christians.

The views of Strauss were severely criticized by the Catholics, Kuhn, Mack, Hug, and Sepp, and by the Protestants Neander, Tholuck, Ullman, Lange, Ewald, Riggenbach, Weiss, and Keim.

The German Protestant scholar F. C. Baur originated a theory which was for a time in great vogue, but which was afterwards abandoned by the majority of critics. He held that the New Testament contains the writings of two antagonistic parties amongst the Apostles and early Christians. His principal followers were Zeller, Schwegler, Planck, Köslin, Ritsch, Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, Tobler, Keim, Hosten, some of whom, however, emancipated themselves from their master.

Besides the writers already mentioned, the following wrote in a rationalistic spirit:

  • Ernesti (died 1781)
  • Berthold (1822)
  • the Rosenmüllers
  • Crusius (1843)
  • Bertheau
  • Hupfeld
  • Ewald
  • Thenius
  • Fritzsche
  • Justi
  • Gesenius (died 1842)
  • Longerke
  • Bleek
  • Bunsen (1860)
  • Umbreit
  • Kleinert
  • Knobel
  • Nicolas
  • Hirzel
  • Kuenen
  • J. C. K. von Hoffmann
  • Hitzig (died 1875)
  • Schulz (1869)
  • B. Weiss
  • Ernest Renan
  • Tuch
  • Heinrich A. W. Meyer (and his continuators Huther, Luneman, Dusterdieck, Brückner, etc.),
  • Julius Wellhausen
  • Wieseler
  • Jülicher
  • Beyschlag
  • H. Holtzmann, and his collaborators
  • Schmiedel, von Soden

Holtzmann, while practically admitting the authenticity of the Gospels, especially of St. Mark, explains away the miracles. He believes that miracles do not happen, and that the scripture are merely echoes of Old Testament miracle stories. Holtzmann was severely taken to task by several writers in the "International Critical Commentary". The activity of so many acute minds has thrown great light on the language and literature of the Bible.

Modern non aligned commentaries

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See also

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References

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External public domain Bible commentaries

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With the rise of the Internet, many Public Domain or otherwise free-use Bible commentaries have become available online. Here is a list of some of the commentaries:

Many public domain commentaries are now available to view or download through the Google Books Project and the Internet Archive. FreeCommentaries.com is curating a list of free commentaries from these and other sources. The Christian Classics Ethereal Library has presented a unified reference tool to access many commentaries from different traditions in their World Wide Study Bible.

With all the commentaries now available, several resources review and recommend commentaries, including Tyndale Seminary's Old Testament Reading Room and New Testament Reading Room, Challies, Best Commentaries, and Lingonier Ministries.

Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

List of biblical commentaries

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from Grokipedia
A list of biblical commentaries is a comprehensive compilation of scholarly works that provide detailed, verse-by-verse of the , analyzing its original languages, historical contexts, literary structures, and theological implications to aid in deeper understanding for study, preaching, and research. These lists typically organize entries by biblical book, Old or New Testament division, or commentary series, serving as essential bibliographies for theologians, , students, and lay readers seeking interpretive resources. The tradition of biblical commentary originated in the ancient period, with early Jewish and Christian interpreters such as Philo of Alexandria, , and Augustine employing methods like allegorical and literal to explore scriptural meanings amid philosophical and doctrinal debates. This practice flourished through the medieval era, including the Carolingian and twelfth-century revivals of literal interpretation, and evolved during the with figures like emphasizing historical-grammatical approaches, leading to the diverse array of commentaries produced today. Modern lists highlight a variety of commentary types, including technical works focused on philological and critical analysis (e.g., conservative or liberal perspectives) and practical ones emphasizing application for sermons or devotionals. Notable series encompass the International Critical Commentary (ICC), known for its rigorous academic depth since 1895; the New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT), blending evangelical scholarship with historical insights; the Word Biblical Commentary (WBC), structured around textual, form-critical, and theological sections; and comprehensive one-volume overviews like the New Jerome Biblical Commentary or Oxford Bible Commentary, which integrate interdisciplinary perspectives across the entire canon. This article organizes commentaries by historical periods and traditions, including Jewish, early Christian, medieval Christian, , and modern traditions.

Jewish Commentaries

Hellenistic and Early Rabbinic

(c. 20 BCE–50 CE), a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, pioneered allegorical interpretations of the , integrating Jewish scriptural with Greek philosophical traditions such as and . In works like On the Life of Moses (De Vita Mosis), Philo portrayed as an ideal philosopher-king and , using to depict elements like the priestly garments as symbolic representations of cosmic order. His Allegorical Interpretation (Legum Allegoriae), comprising 39 treatises, systematically unpacked biblical narratives—such as the creation account and the —as metaphors for ethical and metaphysical truths, viewing philosophy as a servant to divine rather than a conflicting system. This approach universalized Jewish wisdom for a Greco-Roman audience while preserving monotheistic principles, influencing later Jewish and Christian hermeneutics. The Targums, early Aramaic paraphrases of the Hebrew Bible, emerged during the Hellenistic and early Roman periods to aid comprehension among Aramaic-speaking Jews, incorporating interpretive expansions that clarified ambiguities and infused theological insights. Targum Onkelos, the standard translation of the Pentateuch, dates to the 1st–2nd century CE and is attributed to the proselyte Onkelos, a contemporary of Rabbi Gamaliel; it adheres closely to the Hebrew text with a literal style, avoiding anthropomorphic depictions of God while adding occasional haggadic explanations, such as interpretive renderings of proper names like Shinar as Babylon in Genesis. Similarly, Targum Jonathan, covering the Prophets and ascribed to Jonathan ben Uzziel (a pupil of Hillel in the 1st century CE), features more paraphrastic elements from the same era, expanding prophetic oracles with haggadic material to emphasize messianic themes and ethical lessons, though its core likely solidified by the early 2nd century. These Targums served as vital bridges between the sacred text and everyday Jewish life, embedding rabbinic interpretations into public synagogue readings. The , compiled around 200 CE by Rabbi in the , represents the foundational written codification of the , functioning as a legal commentary that elucidates and expands upon biblical commandments through terse, aphoristic rulings. Organized into six orders (sedarim)—Zera'im (agricultural laws), Mo'ed (festivals and ), (marriage and vows), Nezikin (civil and ), (sacrificial rites), and Tohorot (purity laws)—it comprises 63 tractates, each divided into chapters and mishnayot (discrete teachings). Key tractates relevant to biblical include Berakhot in Zera'im, which interprets Torah-based prayer obligations, and in Mo'ed, detailing restrictions derived from Exodus 20–23; these exemplify how the applies scriptural principles to practical halakhah, attributing rulings to earlier for authoritative continuity. As the core text later elaborated in the Talmuds, it preserved pre-200 CE traditions amid Roman , ensuring the interpretive chain from Sinai.

Talmudic and Midrashic

The Talmud represents a cornerstone of rabbinic biblical interpretation, compiling oral traditions into dialectical discussions that elucidate the Hebrew Bible through legal (halakhah) and narrative (aggadah) lenses. The Babylonian Talmud, redacted around 500 CE in the academies of Babylonia, and the Jerusalem Talmud, completed circa 400 CE in the Land of Israel, both expand upon the Mishnah by incorporating amoraic debates on scriptural verses, often deriving practical laws and ethical insights from biblical texts. For instance, Tractate Berakhot in the Babylonian Talmud examines blessings recited from Deuteronomy 6:4-9, exploring their theological implications and ritual applications through layered argumentation. These function as expansive commentaries by weaving biblical citations into broader discussions, prioritizing interpretive depth over linear exposition, which distinguishes them from earlier mishnaic summaries. Later scholars, such as in his 11th-century commentary on the , clarified these biblical portions to aid comprehension, influencing subsequent rabbinic study. Complementing the are the collections, which offer more focused, verse-by-verse homiletic and exegetical treatments of the . Rabbah, a series of ten aggadic works compiled between approximately 400 and 1200 CE, covers the Pentateuch and the Five Megillot, emphasizing narrative expansions and moral lessons drawn from scripture. Halakhic midrashim, such as the Mekhilta on Exodus, systematically derive legal rulings from biblical verses through scriptural proofs and rabbinic reasoning, while aggadic examples like elaborate on stories with parables and ethical derivations to reveal deeper spiritual meanings. These works employ dialectical techniques of sharp, casuistic analysis to resolve apparent contradictions in biblical texts through subtle distinctions, a method later formalized as in medieval Talmudic study. In the , a halakhic on Leviticus from the tannaitic period (circa 200-500 CE), such analysis manifests in debates over purity laws, where rabbis dissect verses like Leviticus 11:1-47 to extrapolate ritual obligations via logical extensions and scriptural cross-references.

Karaite and Medieval

The Karaite movement, emerging in the as a scripturalist Jewish sect, rejected the authority of the and rabbinic oral traditions in favor of direct, literal interpretation of the Tanakh, known as . This approach emphasized grammatical analysis and contextual reading of the biblical text to derive halakhic and theological insights, positioning the written as the sole supreme authority. , regarded as the movement's founder around 750 CE, exemplified this literalism in his Sefer ha-Mitzvot (Book of Precepts), where he interpreted commandments through scripture alone, urging followers to "search well in the Scriptures and do not rely upon my opinion." Later Karaite scholars built on this foundation; Aaron ben Joseph the Elder (c. 1250), a Byzantine Karaite physician and exegete, produced the comprehensive Sefer ha-Mivhar (Book of the Choice), a verse-by-verse commentary on much of the that prioritized independent grammatical and philosophical analysis over rabbinic precedents. In the medieval rabbinic tradition, from the 11th to 13th centuries, commentators synthesized literalism with philosophical inquiry and Talmudic influences, producing enduring works on the and Prophets. (Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki, 1040–1105), the preeminent French exegete, authored the most widely studied verse-by-verse commentary on the and much of the Prophets and Writings, focusing on the plain meaning () while occasionally incorporating midrashic elements for clarity. His method balanced accessibility for students with rigorous textual analysis, drawing briefly on Talmudic methods to resolve ambiguities without subordinating the biblical text. Building on , the —anonymous expansions compiled by 12th- and 13th-century Franco-German scholars (Ba'alei ha-Tosafot)—offered dialectical refinements to his biblical interpretations, often reconciling apparent contradictions through logical debate and midrashic references in commentaries. 's grandson Rashbam (1085–1158) further advanced peshat-focused exegesis in his commentary, prioritizing grammatical and contextual analysis over midrashic derivations. Similarly, (Ramban, 1194–1270) provided a multifaceted commentary on the Pentateuch, integrating literal, homiletical, philosophical, and Kabbalistic insights to address textual difficulties and theological depths. Philosophical depth marked other medieval contributions, notably Moses ' Guide for the Perplexed (completed c. 1190), a Judeo-Arabic treatise that systematically interpreted obscure biblical passages to harmonize Aristotelian with Jewish . explained anthropomorphic descriptions of God and prophetic visions as allegories, aiming to resolve apparent conflicts between reason and revelation for educated readers. In the 12th-century Spanish school, Abraham (1089–1167) advanced grammatical in his commentaries on the , Prophets, and , emphasizing precise Hebrew linguistics, poetics, and scientific insights to uncover the while critiquing overly allegorical readings. His works, such as the short and long versions on the Pentateuch, highlighted etymological analysis and astronomical allusions, influencing subsequent rationalist interpreters.

Modern Era

The Modern Era of Jewish biblical commentaries, spanning the 19th to 21st centuries, reflects a dynamic interplay between traditional and engagement with historical-critical methods, Enlightenment influences, and modern challenges such as and . Orthodox commentaries, for instance, maintain fidelity to rabbinic traditions while providing accessible translations and annotations for contemporary audiences. Prominent among these is the /Mesorah Publications series, launched in the 1980s, which offers comprehensive English of the entire Tanakh alongside anthologized rabbinic commentaries drawn from over 2,000 years of Talmudic and traditional sources. The Stone Edition Tanach, a flagship volume first published in 1996, features a flowing English faithful to classical interpretations like those of , integrated with explanatory notes, maps, and overviews to aid modern study. This series, widely adopted in Orthodox communities, emphasizes spiritual and halakhic insights without incorporating non-traditional critical approaches. In contrast, Conservative and commentaries integrate scholarly analysis, focusing on literary structure, historical context, and philological details to bridge ancient texts with modern sensibilities. The JPS Torah Commentary series, produced by the Jewish Publication Society from the to 1990s, exemplifies this approach, with each volume authored by leading scholars and including the Hebrew text, a new translation, verse-by-verse , and essays on thematic issues. Nahum M. Sarna's contributions on Genesis (1989) and Exodus (1991) highlight ancient Near Eastern parallels, linguistic nuances, and narrative artistry, drawing on both classical Jewish sources and contemporary research to illuminate the 's enduring relevance. Contemporary Jewish interpreters have further enriched this era through innovative midrashic and psychological readings that respond to modernity's existential questions, including those arising from the Holocaust. Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg's works, such as The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis (1995) and Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers (2014), employ narrative techniques inspired by rabbinic midrash, psychoanalytic insights, and literary criticism to explore the unconscious dimensions of biblical characters and stories. These late-20th- and early-21st-century commentaries preserve traditional interpretive layers while addressing themes of human frailty and divine mystery in light of historical suffering. Similarly, post-Holocaust biblical exegesis has drawn on texts like the Book of Lamentations to grapple with theodicy and covenantal rupture, viewing the Shoah as an unprecedented event that prompts reevaluation of suffering in prophetic and poetic scriptures. More recently, as of September 2025, the Koren Shalem Humash was published, incorporating the complete Torah commentaries of Rabbi Lord Jonathan Sacks (1948–2020), offering covenantal and ethical interpretations that engage modern readers with traditional sources and philosophical depth.

Early Christian Commentaries

Alexandrian School

The of biblical interpretation, flourishing in the second and third centuries CE in , , emphasized allegorical and typological to uncover spiritual meanings beneath the literal text of , viewing the as a multilayered divine that integrated philosophical insights with Christian . This approach sought to harmonize Old and New Testaments through symbolic readings, often drawing on Platonic ideas to illuminate Christ's role as the and the soul's ascent to . Key figures like , , and produced commentaries that prioritized moral and mystical dimensions over historical-grammatical analysis. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 CE), in his Stromata (Miscellanies), composed around 200 CE, blended Middle Platonic with biblical to present Scripture as a unified pedagogical tool progressing from to divine . He employed a creative hermeneutic that combined literal, figural, and allegorical methods, restricting figurative interpretations primarily to Christ's and the of , while using concepts like clarity (saphēneia) and coherence (akolouthia) to reveal hidden wisdom in texts such as 45:3 and Romans 1. Influenced by Hellenistic , Clement's in Stromata Book 5, for instance, interprets Pauline and Johannine passages alongside prophecies to explore the inseparable link between (pistis) and (gnōsis), portraying as the divine choreographer (chorēgos) ensuring scriptural harmony. This work advanced the Alexandrian by adapting philosophical tools for theological inquiry, influencing later patristic interpretations. Origen (c. 185–254 CE) exemplified the school's allegorical method in his , compiled around 240 CE, a monumental six-column parallel edition of the featuring the Hebrew text, its transliteration, and Greek versions by Aquila, Symmachus, the , and , designed to resolve textual discrepancies and facilitate precise . Beyond , Origen's homilies on Genesis and Exodus, delivered in the 230s CE, delved into spiritual senses that transcended the literal narrative, interpreting events like the creation or the as typological prefigurations of Christ's redemptive work and the soul's journey toward divine union. For example, in his Homilies on Genesis, he allegorized the as the soul's moral landscape, emphasizing ethical transformation over historical events, while his Homilies on Exodus portrayed the as a symbol of the Church and spiritual ascent. These works underscored Origen's tripartite view of Scripture—literal, moral, and spiritual—prioritizing the latter to address philosophical questions about God and salvation. Didymus the Blind (c. 313–398 CE), head of the Catechetical School in the late fourth century, extended this tradition in his commentaries on and Zechariah, completed around 398 CE and preserved in the Tura papyri, using to affirm pro-Nicene Trinitarian doctrine against subordinationist views. In his Commentary on , Didymus linked psalmic imagery to the Holy Spirit's divine role as teacher and seal of God's image (drawing on Wisdom 9:16–18 and Ephesians 1:13–14), portraying the Trinity's persons as co-eternal and co-equal sources of uncreated power, thus refining Origen's participatory framework to emphasize inseparable divine operations. His Commentary on Zechariah similarly employed typological readings, such as interpreting Zechariah 12:10 as a unified Trinitarian grace and distinguishing the Spirit from angels (Zechariah 4:5), to support the Spirit's full divinity and counter Arian hierarchies. These exegeses influenced like and contributed to orthodox by integrating scriptural symbolism with doctrinal precision.

Antiochene School

The Antiochene School, centered in fourth-century Syria, developed a distinctive approach to biblical exegesis that stressed literal, historical, and grammatical interpretation of Scripture, aiming to uncover the text's plain meaning within its original context while applying it to moral and theological instruction. This method contrasted with more symbolic readings prevalent elsewhere, fostering a tradition of commentaries that prioritized textual precision and historical events over abstract spiritualization. Key figures in the school produced works that exemplified these principles, influencing early Christian through their emphasis on Scripture's direct relevance to daily life and doctrine. Diodore of Tarsus (d. c. 390 CE), bishop and teacher who led the school during its peak, composed a commentary on 1–51 that survives as his primary extant exegetical work on the . Written around 390 CE, it articulates the Antiochene commitment to historical by interpreting the as David's personal prayers amid specific trials, such as or kingship, rather than as prophetic oracles detached from context. Diodore introduces "theoria" as a contemplative dimension of interpretation—one that elevates the soul through reflection on the literal historical sense—distinguishing it from by insisting that spiritual insights must arise from the text's grammatical and narrative integrity. Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–428 CE), Diodore's disciple and a prolific scholar, advanced this literal method in his commentaries on the Gospel of John (c. 390–400 CE) and 1–81 (early in his career, c. 370–380 CE). In the Johannine commentary, based on a Syriac translation from c. 460–465 CE, Theodore employs grammatical analysis to explore ' discourses and miracles as historical events with doctrinal implications, using typology sparingly—only when texts explicitly link figures to Christ, such as prefigurations of the incarnation. His commentary similarly restrains messianic applications, viewing most as tied to David's life, the Babylonian , or events like the , thereby emphasizing moral lessons from historical providence over broad prophetic fulfillment. These works faced posthumous condemnation at the Fifth Ecumenical Council () in 553 CE for perceived Nestorian Christological errors, which led to the suppression of many of Theodore's writings, though fragments and translations preserve their influence. John Chrysostom (c. 347–407 CE), ordained in Antioch and shaped by Diodore's teaching, delivered extensive homilies that applied Antiochene principles to pastoral settings, including his series on Matthew (c. 390 CE) and Genesis 1–17 (c. 388–389 CE). The Matthean homilies, preached to Antioch's congregation, dissect the Gospel's narrative through textual and linguistic scrutiny, deriving moral exhortations—such as calls for almsgiving, , and —from ' words and actions as historically recorded events. Similarly, the Genesis homilies interpret creation, the fall, and patriarchal stories literally to underscore ethical living, portraying figures like and as models for repentance and obedience amid human frailty. Chrysostom's approach integrates grammatical with , using Scripture's historical framework to challenge social vices and promote virtue.

Latin and Syriac Traditions

The Latin and Syriac traditions in early Christian biblical commentary emerged in the fourth and fifth centuries, emphasizing practical application, translational accuracy, and theological depth amid doctrinal controversies, bridging earlier Alexandrian and Antiochene influences through a synthesis of allegorical and literal methods tailored to liturgical and communal needs. These commentaries often integrated with translation efforts, reflecting the cultural and linguistic contexts of the Western and the Eastern Syriac communities. St. Jerome (c. 347–420 CE), a pivotal figure in the Latin tradition, produced the , a Latin of the from Hebrew and Greek originals, completed around 405 CE, which became the standard text for the Western Church and facilitated exegetical work by prioritizing fidelity to the Hebrew sources. His Hebrew learning, acquired from Jewish teachers in and , informed this translation and his commentaries, allowing him to critique and correct earlier versions like the . In his Commentary on Isaiah (c. 410–420 CE), Jerome expounds on the prophetic text verse by verse, drawing on Hebrew etymology and rabbinic insights while debating Origen's allegorical interpretations, which he initially translated but later rejected amid the Origenist controversies with Rufinus. St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) contributed extensively to Latin exegesis through works like De Civitate Dei (The City of God, completed c. 426 CE), a monumental theological treatise that weaves biblical commentary into a narrative of history, providence, and human destiny, countering pagan critiques of Christianity with scriptural proofs from both Testaments. His Enarrationes in Psalmos (c. 392–420 CE), comprising over 400 sermons on the Psalms, employs a pastoral, rhetorical style that interprets the texts christologically and morally, with later sections incorporating anti-Pelagian exegesis to emphasize grace over human merit in salvation. These works underscore Augustine's focus on the Psalms as a guide for Christian living and doctrinal defense. In the Syriac tradition, (c. 306–373 CE), known as the "Harp of the ," authored prose commentaries on the Pentateuch, including those on Genesis and Exodus, which elucidate the texts through a balanced rooted in Syriac liturgical practice and Semitic symbolism. His hymns (madrashe), such as those on the Nativity and Paradise, integrate biblical commentary poetically, employing typology—where Old Testament events prefigure Christ—to convey theological mysteries in rhythmic, paradoxical language unique to the Eastern rite's emphasis on divine incomprehensibility. This approach, sung in communal worship, preserved Syriac Christian identity distinct from Greek philosophical influences.

Medieval Christian Commentaries

Greek and Byzantine

The Greek and Byzantine tradition of biblical commentaries in the medieval period emphasized catenas, compilations of excerpts from patristic authors arranged verse by verse to form continuous interpretations that preserved and synthesized early Christian . These works emerged as a distinctive Eastern approach, prioritizing the harmony of authoritative voices over individual innovation, and flourished particularly after the amid the consolidation of Byzantine theological orthodoxy. Catenas allowed scholars to navigate the vast patristic heritage efficiently, often adapting excerpts to address contemporary doctrinal needs while maintaining fidelity to scriptural meaning. This method built on the interpretive foundations of earlier patristic schools, such as those in and Antioch, but evolved into a more systematic, chain-like format suited to monastic and ecclesiastical study. A seminal example is the work of (c. 475–538), whose Catena on the Octateuch (early ) represents one of the earliest and most influential compilations in this genre. Procopius, a rhetorician associated with the Christian School of Gaza, gathered excerpts primarily from , , and other patristic sources to provide detailed, historical-literal on Genesis through Kings, focusing on moral and typological insights for the historical books of the . Unlike later catenas that merely juxtaposed fragments, Procopius' approach innovatively wove sources into a cohesive narrative, blending rhetorical analysis with theological depth to make the text accessible for Byzantine readers; his commentary influenced subsequent chains on the Pentateuch and historical narratives. Byzantine commentators extended this tradition through original syntheses that incorporated catenistic elements. Oecumenius (fl. 6th century), likely from , authored the earliest known full Greek commentary on the , composed around the mid-6th century, which emphasized ethical and ecclesial applications over millennial speculations amid the challenges of Justinian's era. Drawing selectively from earlier fathers like Hippolytus and while adding his own historical interpretations, Oecumenius viewed the as a guide for Christian perseverance, rejecting overly allegorical readings in favor of a balanced, non-apocalyptic exegesis that aligned with orthodox ; this work, preserved in manuscripts from and Athos, became a foundational reference for later Eastern interpreters. In the , (c. 650–740), a hymnographer and bishop, contributed to biblical exegesis through poetic and liturgical forms that functioned as meditative commentaries. His Great Canon of Repentance (c. 700 CE), chanted during , weaves a comprehensive "walk through the " by interspersing troparia with references to Old and figures, emphasizing themes of lament, sin, and redemption drawn from books like Lamentations and the Prophets. As a "sung ," this work integrates exegetical insights into hymnody, using biblical narratives—such as Jeremiah's laments over —to evoke personal metanoia, thereby extending catenistic synthesis into devotional practice for Byzantine liturgy. Following the iconoclastic controversies (726–843 CE), in the addressed renewed imperial and doctrinal tensions through scholarly reviews and theological compendia. Photius (c. 810–893), of , compiled the Bibliotheca (c. 860 CE), a vast of 279 book reviews that frequently incorporates biblical references and exegetical discussions to critique or endorse patristic commentaries on Scripture. In this post-iconoclastic context, Photius used scriptural citations—particularly from the Gospels and —to defend Trinitarian orthodoxy and imperial theology against lingering heresies, evaluating works like those of for their alignment with canonical interpretation; while not a verse-by-verse commentary, the Bibliotheca served as an influential meta-exegetical tool, guiding Byzantine readers in discerning authentic biblical tradition.

Latin Scholastic

The Latin Scholastic tradition of biblical commentaries emerged in the medieval Western Church, particularly from the 12th to 14th centuries, as scholars employed dialectical methods to harmonize scripture with emerging Aristotelian philosophy and patristic . These works, primarily in Latin and based on Jerome's translation, emphasized systematic analysis, literal interpretation, and theological synthesis to address doctrinal questions within settings like and . Scholastics such as Anselm of and compiled comprehensive glosses and catenae that integrated diverse sources, fostering a rigorous, logical approach to scripture that influenced for centuries. A foundational text in this tradition is the , a comprehensive Latin catena on the entire compiled around 1100 CE by Anselm of (d. 1117), with contributions from his brother and student Gilbert of . This work interweaves marginal and interlinear glosses drawn from patristic authorities like Augustine, , and Gregory the Great, providing a standardized interpretive framework that became the standard Bible commentary in medieval schools and monasteries. Its structure prioritized the literal sense while allowing for moral and allegorical insights, serving as a teaching tool that shaped scholastic across . Thomas Aquinas further advanced this scholastic method in his Catena Aurea (Golden Chain), completed around 1260 CE, which focuses on the four by synthesizing quotations from over eighty patristic and early medieval commentators. Unlike purely compilatory works, Aquinas organized these excerpts with subtle logical structuring influenced by Aristotelian principles of argumentation, aiming to resolve apparent contradictions and illuminate theological truths for preachers and theologians. This commentary exemplifies the integration of ancient with scholastic dialectics, emphasizing harmony among Gospel accounts while underscoring Christ's divinity and moral teachings. Nicholas of Lyra's Postilla super totam Bibliam (c. 1320 CE), a vast literal and moral commentary on the , built on these foundations by blending the literal-historical sense with spiritual applications, often incorporating Jewish from to support Christian interpretations. As a Franciscan , Lyra stressed the primacy of the literal sense as the foundation for all others, using it to uncover both historical events and typological meanings, which provided a balanced alternative to overly allegorical approaches. His work's emphasis on scriptural clarity and accessibility profoundly influenced figures like , who praised its exegetical precision and used it as a reference in his own commentaries.

Eastern and Syriac

The Eastern and Syriac traditions of medieval biblical commentary, rooted in non-Chalcedonian monastic communities, emphasized liturgical and typological interpretations that connected Scripture to ecclesial worship and ascetic life. These works often built upon earlier Syriac patristic foundations, continuing the poetic and symbolic style of in a more systematic form. Unlike the more philosophical or dialectical approaches in other traditions, Eastern and Syriac exegesis prioritized moral edification and communal prayer, drawing on texts and local liturgical cycles to illuminate the Bible's spiritual depths. A prominent example is the comprehensive biblical commentaries of Dionysius bar Salibi (d. 1171 CE), a Jacobite (Syriac Orthodox) metropolitan whose works represent a pinnacle of medieval Syriac scholarship. His commentaries, completed around 1171 CE, cover the historical books, prophets, and poetic sections, integrating Jacobite theology with literal, allegorical, and moral interpretations derived from earlier Syriac fathers like and local traditions. Bar Salibi's approach synthesizes diverse sources, including Greek patristic influences filtered through Syriac lenses, to emphasize Christ's fulfillment of types within the Jacobite liturgical context, making his work a key resource for monastic study in the region. In the following century, Gregory Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286 CE), another Syriac Orthodox polymath and Maphrian of the East, produced the "Storehouse of Secrets" (Syriac: Hawārē d-Rāzē), a multi-volume commentary on the entire composed around 1280 CE. Focusing on the Pentateuch in its initial sections, Bar Hebraeus offers philological analysis, doctrinal exposition, and philosophical annotations influenced by Aristotelian logic and Islamic Peripatetic thought, while maintaining a commitment to Syriac Orthodox . This work exemplifies the tradition's blend of exegesis with broader intellectual pursuits, providing verse-by-verse insights that served both clerical education and liturgical preparation in Eastern monasteries. Parallel developments occurred in Armenian and Coptic traditions, where biblical interpretation intertwined with historical and hagiographical narratives to preserve ethnic and confessional identity amid Islamic rule. Vardan Arevelts'i (d. 1271 CE), an Armenian vardapet and historian, crafted a historical-biblical synthesis in his "Historical Compilation" (c. 1270 CE), which weaves events into a chronicle of Armenian , using exegetical insights to underscore in national struggles. In the Coptic sphere, similar integrative works emerged, such as anonymous or attributed commentaries in Bohairic Coptic and Arabic that linked Genesis and Exodus to monastic lives of saints, though fewer complete texts survive due to linguistic shifts to Arabic. These efforts highlight the Eastern traditions' role in sustaining biblical engagement through adaptive, contextually rich .

Reformation and Post-Reformation Commentaries

Protestant Reformers

The of the produced biblical commentaries that emphasized , prioritizing direct scriptural over medieval scholastic traditions and promoting accessibility through translations. These works arose amid intense theological debates in the 1520s and 1530s, where reformers rejected anti-scholastic approaches that layered allegorical interpretations, instead advocating a grammatical-historical method to uncover doctrines like justification by faith alone. Martin Luther's commentaries exemplified this shift, beginning with his 1519 lectures on Galatians, delivered at the University of and published shortly thereafter, which robustly defended justification by faith against works-righteousness and papal authority. In these lectures, Luther portrayed Paul's as an of freedom, contrasting the law's condemnation with the gospel's liberating grace, influencing subsequent Protestant . Later, from 1535 to 1545, Luther delivered extensive lectures on Genesis, transcribed by students and emphasizing God's creative sovereignty and human fallibility as foundations for faith, often weaving in pastoral applications to controversies. These Genesis commentaries, spanning over a decade, critiqued medieval catenas for obscuring scriptural clarity with patristic compilations. John Calvin, building on Luther's foundations, authored systematic commentaries on every book of the between approximately 1540 and 1564, starting with his influential 1540 exposition of Romans, which provided verse-by-verse analysis underscoring and God's sovereignty. Calvin's Romans commentary, dedicated to King Francis I, integrated historical context and doctrinal precision to refute Catholic sacramentalism, establishing a model for Reformed that balanced literal interpretation with theological depth. His broader series, often revised during lectures at the Geneva Academy, promoted vernacular study to empower lay readers, aligning with the Reformers' goal of scripture's universal accessibility.

Catholic Responses

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant in the 16th and 17th centuries emphasized the reinforcement of scriptural interpretation through , the authority of the Church, and the decrees of the (1545–1563), which affirmed the Vulgate's authenticity and the canonicity of while promoting scholarly aligned with patristic and conciliar teachings. This period saw the production of extensive biblical commentaries by Catholic theologians, particularly , aimed at defending orthodox doctrines against Protestant challenges by integrating philological analysis, historical context, and ecclesiastical . These works sought to provide comprehensive, accessible resources for and , countering Protestant emphases on individual interpretation through a return to collective, authoritative . A pivotal figure in this effort was (1542–1621), a Jesuit cardinal whose Disputationes de controversiis Christianae fidei (1586–1593) systematically defended Catholic teachings using extensive biblical arguments against , including . Bellarmine's exegesis particularly focused on the to uphold its canonicity and utility for justifying works alongside faith, directly refuting Lutheran dismissals of the text as an "epistle of straw," and extended to ecclesiological themes such as drawn from passages like :18. His approach relied on scriptural proofs combined with patristic citations to affirm the Church's interpretive authority, making his work a cornerstone of that influenced subsequent . Jesuit scholars further advanced this tradition through detailed verse-by-verse commentaries that revived patristic methods, often building briefly on medieval catenas like those of by expanding them with contemporary linguistic scholarship. Juan de Maldonado (1534–1583), a Spanish Jesuit , exemplified this in his Commentarii in quatuor Evangelistas (1596, posthumous), a philologically rigorous analysis of the Gospels that collated ' opinions while addressing Protestant critiques of Catholic interpretations, such as in John 6. Maldonado's work emphasized historical-grammatical to demonstrate the harmony between Scripture and tradition, earning it widespread use in Jesuit colleges and contributing to a broader revival of allegorical and moral senses rooted in early Christian interpreters. Cornelius à Lapide (1567–1637), another Jesuit, produced the monumental Commentaria in Scripturam Sacram (1614–1639), a multi-volume "Great Commentary" covering the entire and embodying Trent's call for orthodox interpretation by synthesizing literal, tropological, and anagogical senses with references to over 100 patristic and medieval authorities. This exhaustive resource, which became a standard Catholic reference for centuries, responded to Protestant by underscoring the necessity of magisterial guidance, particularly in defending Marian doctrines and the sacraments through texts like and the Johannine corpus. À Lapide's method, blending erudition with piety, reinforced the Counter-Reformation's goal of equipping the faithful against doctrinal fragmentation.

Rationalist and Enlightenment

The Rationalist and Enlightenment era marked a shift toward critical-historical approaches to biblical interpretation, challenging traditional views of scriptural authority in response to the literalism emphasized during the . Baruch Spinoza's Theological-Political Treatise, published anonymously in 1670, pioneered a rational and historical-critical analysis of the , arguing that its books were composed by multiple human authors over time rather than through direct divine dictation. Spinoza examined the historical, social, and linguistic contexts of the texts to determine their meanings, asserting that prophets were not infallible but ordinary individuals with imaginative faculties, thereby undermining claims of and prophetic authority. This work positioned the as a historical document aimed at promoting moral obedience rather than conveying universal truths about God or nature, influencing later secular and rationalist scholarship. In a Catholic context, Richard Simon's Critical History of the Old Testament (1678) advanced by positing that the Pentateuch was not solely authored by but compiled from various sources and edited centuries later, drawing on rabbinic s and textual variants to support his claims. As an Oratorian priest, Simon sought to defend Catholic reliance on against Protestant by highlighting the Bible's human transmission history, yet his methods questioned dogmas on inspiration. The work faced immediate suppression; the French government seized and burned copies at the urging of figures like Bishop , and it was placed on the Index of Prohibited Books in 1682 for allegedly promoting skepticism. Despite this, Simon's rigorous textual analysis laid foundational principles for modern . Enlightenment thinkers like Johann Salomo Semler further developed historical methods in the 1770s, advocating a rational study of the free from doctrinal presuppositions and distinguishing between the historical content of scripture and its theological application. In works such as Free Investigation of the Canon (1771–1775), Semler rejected the doctrine of verbal inspiration, viewing the as a collection of human writings reflecting diverse cultural contexts rather than a unified divine word, which separated —focused on the original authors' ideas—from imposed by the church. This approach emphasized empirical historical research over confessional biases, paving the way for objective biblical scholarship in Protestant circles.

Modern Commentaries by Tradition

Catholic

Catholic biblical commentaries from the 19th to 21st centuries have increasingly incorporated historical-critical methods while remaining faithful to the Church's magisterium, particularly following Vatican I's emphasis on doctrinal authority and Vatican II's encouragement of scholarly exegesis in Dei Verbum. This approach seeks to elucidate the Scriptures' historical context, literary form, and theological depth without undermining Catholic tradition. A notable 19th-century example is John MacEvilly's An Exposition of the Gospels, first published in 1857 but revised and reissued in 1898 after Vatican I, providing a critical, exegetical, doctrinal, and moral commentary on . As Archbishop of , MacEvilly drew on patristic sources and contemporary scholarship to offer accessible insights for and , emphasizing the harmony of the Gospel narratives with Church teaching. In the , the series, initiated in by the theology faculty of the University of and completed in 2005, exemplifies this balanced methodology across the Old and New Testaments. Each volume includes the text alongside extensive annotations that integrate historical and literary analysis with patristic interpretations from the , references to magisterial documents, and spiritual reflections from saints like St. , making it a staple for Catholic study. Pope Benedict XVI's Jesus of Nazareth trilogy (2007–2012) represents a high-profile 21st-century contribution, offering a meditative yet scholarly commentary on the Gospels that engages historical-critical questions—such as the —while subordinating them to Christological and ecclesial truths. The three volumes cover ' infancy and public ministry, drawing on biblical scholarship, patristic , and liturgical tradition to present Christ as the fulfillment of Scripture, explicitly as a personal reflection rather than an official papal document. Post-Vatican II developments are evident in the Sacra Pagina series, launched in the 1990s by Liturgical Press under the editorship of Daniel J. Harrington, S.J., which provides verse-by-verse commentaries on the using historical-critical tools like and analysis. Volumes on the Pauline letters, such as Brendan Byrne's Romans (1996) and Frank J. Matera's Galatians (1992), highlight Paul's theology in its first-century context while affirming its alignment with Catholic doctrine on grace, justification, and the Church, authored by an international team of Catholic scholars. More recent contributions include the Catholic Commentary on Sacred Scripture (CCSS) series, with New Testament volumes completed by 2023, offering accessible yet scholarly exegesis for pastoral use; for example, Pablo T. Gadenz's Ephesians (2021) integrates historical context with connections to the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

Eastern Orthodox

Eastern Orthodox biblical commentaries from the 19th to 21st centuries emphasize continuity with patristic interpretations, integrating mystical theology and hesychastic prayer to illuminate Scripture's spiritual depths for contemporary believers. These works often draw directly from Church Fathers like St. Basil the Great and St. John Chrysostom, applying their insights to modern contexts while preserving the Orthodox emphasis on theosis and the sacramental nature of creation. A key 19th-century contribution is St. Theophan the Recluse's A Spiritual , or Reflections on God (c. 1880s), which excerpts and comments on using patristic sources to guide readers toward unceasing and inner purification. This meditative commentary, rooted in Theophan's ascetic life, weaves together verses from the with explanations from early Fathers, fostering a personal encounter with amid daily struggles. In the , Fr. advanced ecumenical dialogues through his writings on Genesis, notably in Byzantine Theology (1974), where he explores creation and from an Orthodox anthropological perspective, contrasting it with Western views to promote unity. Meyendorff's analysis highlights the patristic understanding of humanity's fall as ancestral rather than inherited guilt, emphasizing God's restorative work in Christ for all creation. The 21st-century Orthodox Study Bible (2008), with its Ancient Faith Edition released in 2019, represents a comprehensive effort, providing notes on the entire drawn from to address modern issues, such as ecological in Genesis's creation accounts. These annotations interpret the Hexaemeron through lenses like St. Basil's, portraying the cosmos as a divine symphony calling believers to harmonious care for the environment.

Protestant

Protestant biblical commentaries from the 19th to 21st centuries encompass diverse approaches within evangelical, mainline, and fundamentalist traditions, emphasizing personal faith, scriptural authority, and confessional diversity while drawing briefly from principles of direct engagement with the . In the , evangelical commentaries gained prominence through devotional and expository works that supported revival movements. Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary on the Whole Bible, originally published between 1706 and 1721, experienced renewed popularity and multiple revised editions during the among evangelicals, serving as a foundational resource for preaching and personal study due to its practical, verse-by-verse insights. Charles H. Spurgeon's The Treasury of David, a seven-volume exposition on the issued from 1865 to 1885, exemplifies this era's focus on pastoral application and homiletical depth, compiling original commentary alongside quotations from historical theologians to aid preachers in the evangelical tradition. The 20th century saw commentaries shift toward socio-historical analysis integrated with theological reflection, often produced by denominational presses like Westminster . The Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching series, launched in the mid-20th century, prioritizes the biblical text's relevance for contemporary ministry, blending critical scholarship with preaching-oriented exposition; for instance, Christopher R. Seitz's volume on 1-39 (1993) examines the book's final form through theological lenses while addressing its historical and cultural contexts. Fundamentalist contributions in this period reinforced literal interpretation and inerrancy, as seen in dispensational works like the notes in the (1909, revised 1917), which provided verse annotations emphasizing premillennial and prophetic fulfillment. Entering the 21st century, evangelical commentaries have increasingly incorporated archaeological and research for accessible audiences. N.T. Wright's for Everyone series, comprising 18 volumes published from 2004 to 2011, offers fresh translations and commentaries that contextualize the texts within first-century , highlighting themes of God's kingdom and integrating scholarly insights for lay readers and church leaders. Recent works include the Exegetical Commentary on the series, with volumes like Michael F. Bird's Romans (2024) providing verse-level analysis alongside theological and applicational sections for pastors and scholars.

Ecumenical and Secular

The Anchor Yale Bible series, initiated in the 1950s and published by , represents a landmark ecumenical project in biblical scholarship, drawing contributions from Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim scholars across international contexts to produce verse-by-verse commentaries on the , , and . This collaborative approach emphasizes philological accuracy, historical context, and literary analysis, transcending denominational boundaries to foster broader interpretive dialogue. For instance, the commentary on the , originally authored by Marvin H. Pope in 1965 and revised in subsequent editions, incorporates parallels and comparative ancient Near Eastern literature to explore themes of and divine justice, reflecting the series' commitment to interfaith scholarly rigor. Secular critical editions have similarly advanced non-confessional , prioritizing historical-critical methods over theological presuppositions. The , first published in 1965 by and updated through multiple editions including the fifth in 2018, serves as a prominent example, featuring extensive annotations, essays on textual history, and introductions that situate biblical books within their socio-political and cultural milieus. Edited by an ecumenical team led by scholars like Michael D. Coogan, it includes contributions from diverse academic perspectives, such as archaeological insights into ancient and analyses of redactional layers in the Gospels, making it a staple for university-level study and critical inquiry. In the 21st century, interfaith efforts have increasingly highlighted Jewish-Christian dialogues on New Testament texts, bridging historical divides in interpretation. Amy-Jill Levine, a Jewish New Testament scholar at Vanderbilt University, has contributed significantly through works like The Jewish Annotated New Testament (2007, revised 2017, co-edited with Marc Z. Brettler and published by Oxford University Press), which assembles Jewish scholars to annotate the New Testament, offering perspectives on parables, miracles, and messianic themes that resonate with both Jewish and Christian readers. Her subsequent books, such as Short Stories by Jesus: The Enigmatic Parables of a Controversial Rabbi (2014, HarperOne), further exemplify this approach by re-examining Gospel parables like the Prodigal Son within first-century Jewish contexts, promoting mutual understanding and addressing longstanding supersessionist readings. These initiatives fill gaps in post-2000 ecumenical scholarship by emphasizing shared scriptural heritage without doctrinal allegiance. Recent editions, such as the sixth edition of the New Oxford Annotated Bible (2022), continue to incorporate updated archaeological findings and textual scholarship.

References

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