Hubbry Logo
Achillea millefoliumAchillea millefoliumMain
Open search
Achillea millefolium
Community hub
Achillea millefolium
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Achillea millefolium
Achillea millefolium
Achillea millefolium
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Achillea millefolium

Secure  (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Achillea
Species:
A. millefolium
Binomial name
Achillea millefolium
Synonyms
Synonymy
  • Achillea albida Willd.
  • Achillea alpicola (Rydb.) Rydb.
  • Achillea ambigua Boiss.
  • Achillea ambigua Pollini
  • Achillea anethifolia Fisch. ex Herder
  • Achillea angustissima Rydb.
  • Achillea arenicola A.Heller
  • Achillea bicolor Wender.
  • Achillea borealis Bong.
  • Achillea californica Pollard
  • Achillea ceretanica Sennen
  • Achillea compacta Lam.
  • Achillea coronopifolia Willd.
  • Achillea crassifolia Colla
  • Achillea cristata Hort. ex DC.
  • Achillea dentifera Rchb.
  • Achillea eradiata Piper
  • Achillea fusca Rydb.
  • Achillea gigantea Pollard
  • Achillea gracilis Raf.
  • Achillea haenkeana Tausch
  • Achillea intermedia Schleich.
  • Achillea lanata Lam.
  • Achillea lanulosa Nutt.
  • Achillea laxiflora A.Nelson
  • Achillea laxiflora Pollard & Cockerell
  • Achillea magna All.
  • Achillea magna L.
  • Achillea magna Haenke
  • Achillea marginata Turcz. ex Ledeb.
  • Achillea nabelekii Heimerl
  • Achillea occidentalis (DC.) Raf. ex Rydb.
  • Achillea ochroleuca Eichw.
  • Achillea ossica K.Koch
  • Achillea pacifica Rydb.
  • Achillea palmeri Rydb.
  • Achillea pecten-veneris Pollard
  • Achillea pratensis Saukel & R.Länger
  • Achillea pseudo-tanacetifolia Wierzb. ex Rchb.
  • Achillea puberula Rydb.
  • Achillea pumila Schur
  • Achillea rosea Desf.
  • Achillea setacea Schwein.
  • Achillea sordida (W.D.J.Koch) Dalla Torre & Sarnth.
  • Achillea subalpina Greene
  • Achillea submillefolium Klokov & Krytzka
  • Achillea sylvatica Becker
  • Achillea tanacetifolia Mill.
  • Achillea tenuifolia Salisb.
  • Achillea tenuis Schur
  • Achillea tomentosa Pursh 1813 not L. 1753
  • Achillea virgata Hort. ex DC.
  • Achillios millefoliatus St.-Lag.
  • Alitubus millefolium (L.) Dulac
  • Alitubus tomentosus Dulac
  • Chamaemelum millefolium (L.) E.H.L.Krause
  • Chamaemelum tanacetifolium (All.) E.H.L.Krause
  • Chamaemelum tomentosum (L.) E.H.L.Krause
  • plus many more names for subspecies, forms, and varieties
Achillea sp.
Achillea sp. in a heart shaped form

Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow (/ˈjæroʊ/) or common yarrow, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Growing to 1 metre (3+1⁄2 feet) tall, it is characterized by small whitish flowers, a tall stem of fernlike leaves, and a pungent odor.

The plant is native to temperate regions of Eurasia and North America. It has been introduced as feed for livestock in New Zealand and Australia. It has some potential uses, including in traditional medicine.

Description

[edit]
Petiolate leaves on lower stems
Illustration from Köhler's Medicinal Plants (1887–1898)

Achillea millefolium is an erect, herbaceous, perennial plant that produces one to several stems 0.2–1 metre (8–40 inches) in height, and has a spreading rhizomatous growth form. Cauline and more or less clasping,[3] the leaves appear spirally and evenly along the stem, with the largest and most petiolate towards the base;[4] they are 5–20 centimetres (2–8 in) long and fernlike, divided bipinnately or tripinnately.

The inflorescence has 4 to 9 phyllaries and contains ray and disk flowers which are white to pink, blooming from March to October.[5] There are generally 3 to 8 ray flowers, which are 3 millimetres (1⁄8 in) long[5] and ovate to round. The tiny disk flowers range from 10 to 40.[5] The inflorescence is produced in a flat-topped capitulum cluster and the inflorescences are visited by many insect species, and has a generalized pollination system.[6] The small achene-like fruits are called cypsela.[3]

The plant has a distinct spicy scent that persists when dried[7] and may be irritating to some.[5]

Chemistry

[edit]

The dark blue essential oil of yarrow contains chemicals called proazulenes.[8]

Chamazulene and δ-Cadinol are chemical compounds found in A. millefolium. The chromophore of azulene was discovered in yarrow and wormwood and named in 1863 by Septimus Piesse.

Yarrow contains isovaleric acid, salicylic acid, asparagine, sterols, and flavonoids.[9] It also contains phenolic acids such as gallic acid, 3, 4-dihydroxy benzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid and flavonoid such as myricetin, hesperidin, quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, rutin, hyperoside.[10]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Subdivision

[edit]

The several varieties and subspecies include:

  • Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium
    • A. m. subsp. m. var. millefolium – Europe, Asia
    • A. m. subsp. m. var. borealis – Arctic regions
    • A. m. subsp. m. var. rubra – Southern Appalachians
  • A. millefolium subsp. chitralensis – western Himalaya
  • A. millefolium subsp. sudetica – Alps, Carpathians
  • Achillea millefolium var. alpicola – Western United States, Alaska[11]
  • Achillea millefolium var. californica – California, Pacific Northwest[12][13][14]
  • Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis – North America[15]
  • Achillea millefolium var. pacifica – west coast of North America, Alaska[16]
  • Achillea millefolium var. puberula – endemic to California[17]

Etymology

[edit]

The genus name Achillea is derived from mythical Greek character Achilles, who by legend, carried it with his army to treat battle wounds.[18] The specific epithet millefolium comes from the featherlike leaves which are minutely divided.[18]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Yarrow is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, being found in Europe, Asia, and North America.[7]

Wenatchee Foothills, Chelan County, Washington

The plant grows from sea level to 3,500 m (11,500 ft) in elevation. Common yarrow is frequently found in the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests. Active growth occurs in the spring.[7][3]

In North America, both native and introduced genotypes, and both diploid and polyploid plants are found.[19] It is found in every habitat throughout California except the Colorado and Mojave Deserts.[20][21] Common yarrow produces an average yield of 110,000 plants per hectare (43,000/acre), with a total dry weight of 11,800 kg/ha (10,500 pounds per acre).[22]

It has been introduced as a feed for livestock in New Zealand[23] and Australia, where it is a common weed of both wet and dry areas, such as roadsides, meadows, fields and coastal places.[23]

Ecology

[edit]
Pollination by Eristalis arbustorum

Several cavity-nesting birds, including the common starling, use yarrow to line their nests. Experiments conducted on the tree swallow, which does not use yarrow, suggest that adding yarrow to nests inhibits the growth of parasites.[24]

Achillea millefolium is a food source for many species of insects, including the larvae of a number of moths,[25] although is not particularly attractive to ladybirds.[26]

Aceria kiefferi (Nalepa, 1891) is a mite that causes galls on A. millefolium.[27]

Cultivation

[edit]
A. millefolium 'Paprika' cultivar
A. millefolium cultivar

Achillea millefolium is cultivated as an ornamental plant by many plant nurseries. It is planted in gardens and natural landscaping settings of diverse climates and styles. They include native plant, drought-tolerant, and wildlife gardens. The plant is a frequent component of butterfly gardens. The plant prefers well-drained soil in full sun, but can be grown in less ideal conditions.[28][29][30]

Propagation

[edit]

For propagation, seeds require light for germination, so optimal germination occurs when planted no deeper than 6 mm (1⁄4 in). Seeds also require a germination temperature of 18–24 °C (64–75 °F). It has a relatively short life in some situations, but may be prolonged by division in the spring every other year, and planting 30 to 46 cm (12–18 in) apart. It can become invasive.[31]

Cultivars

[edit]

The species use in traditional gardens has generally been superseded by cultivars with specific 'improved' qualities.[32] Some are used as drought-tolerant lawns, with periodic mowing.[33][34][35][36] The many different ornamental cultivars include: 'Paprika',[37] 'Cerise Queen', 'Red Beauty',[38] 'Red Velvet',[39] 'Saucy Seduction', 'Strawberry Seduction' (red), 'Island Pink' (pink),[40] 'Calistoga' (white),[41] and 'Sonoma Coast' (white).[42] The following are recipients of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

  • 'Credo'[43]
  • 'Lachsschönheit' (Galaxy Series)[44]
  • 'Martina'[45]
  • 'Lansdorferglut'[46]

The many hybrids of this species designated Achillea × taygetea are useful garden subjects,[47] including: 'Appleblossom', 'Fanal', 'Hoffnung', and 'Moonshine'.[48]

Toxicity

[edit]
See also: List of herbs with known adverse effects

Yarrow can cause allergic skin rashes.[49]

According to the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, yarrow is toxic to dogs, cats, and horses, causing increased urination, vomiting, diarrhea and dermatitis.[50] When consumed by cows, an unfavorable flavor is given to their milk.[51]

Uses

[edit]
Further information: Yarrow oil

Essential oil
Yarrow can produce a dense mat of soft leaves.

Traditional medicine

[edit]
See also: List of plants in The English Physitian

A. millefolium was used in traditional medicine, in part due to its astringent properties and the mild laxative effect of its leaves.[52][53] It was used in ancient times to heal wounds and stop bleeding, and in the 16th century, the crushed leaves were used to stop nosebleeds.[54]

North American varieties were traditionally used by many Native American nations.[55] The Navajo considered it a "life medicine" and chewed the plant for toothaches and used its infusions for earaches. The Miwok in California used the plant as an analgesic and head cold remedy.[55] Native American nations used the plant for healing cuts and abrasions, relief from earaches and throat infections, as well as for an eyewash.[56] Yarrow was used by Plains indigenous peoples to reduce pain or fever and aid sleep.[55] Some Ojibwe people used a decoction of yarrow leaves on hot stones and inhaled it to treat headaches,[57] or applied decoctions of the root onto skin for its stimulating effect.[58]

Food

[edit]

The entire plant is reportedly edible and nutritious, but it is advised not to consume much.[59] The foliage is pungent; both its leaves and flowers are bitter and astringent.[52] The leaves can be eaten young; raw, they can be added to salad.[59] The leaves, with an aniseed-grass flavor, can be brewed as tea.[60]

In the Middle Ages, yarrow was part of a herbal mixture known as gruit used in the flavoring of beer prior to the use of hops.[61] However, medieval Dutch and German city accounts from the gruit area do not mention yarrow.[62] It is noted by the Swedish biologist Linnaeus that the Dalecarnians infused the herb in beer.[63] The flowers and leaves are still used in making some liquors and bitters.[7]

Other uses

[edit]

Yarrow is used as a companion plant, attracting some beneficial insects[64] and repelling some pests.[citation needed]

A. millefolium can be planted to combat soil erosion due to the plant's resistance to drought. Before the arrival of monocultures of ryegrass, both grass and pasture contained A. millefolium at a density of about 0.3 kg/ha.[citation needed] One factor for its use in grass mixtures was its deep roots, with leaves rich in minerals, minimizing mineral deficiencies in ruminant feed. It was introduced into New Zealand as a drought-tolerant pasture.[23]

Yarrow can be used for dying wool; depending on the mordant, the color may be green to yellow.[65]

Culture

[edit]

Yarrow has been found with Neanderthal burials, suggesting its association with human species dates to at least 60,000 years ago.[54]

China

[edit]
A bunch of 50 yarrow A. millefolium subsp. millefolium var. millefolium stalks, used for I Ching divination

Yarrow and tortoiseshell are considered to be lucky in Chinese tradition.[66]

Dried yarrow stalks are used in I Ching divination.[67]

Western world

[edit]

In antiquity, the plant was known as herba militaris for its use in stanching the flow of blood from wounds.[68] In the Classical Greek epic Iliad, Homer tells of the centaur Chiron, who conveyed herbal secrets to his human pupils and taught Achilles to use yarrow on the battlegrounds of Troy.[69] The genus name Achillea is inspired by the alleged use of the herb by Achilles to treat his soldiers' wounds.[54] Other names implying the plant's historical use in healing—particularly in the military—include bloodwort, knight's milfoil, staunchweed, and, from its use in the United States Civil War, soldier's woundwort.[18] Its use in either starting or stopping nosebleeds led to the common name nosebleed.[52][70]

The English name yarrow comes from its Saxon (Old English) name gearwe, which is related to both the Dutch word gerw (alternately yerw)[52] and the Old High German word garawa.[71] In the eastern counties[clarification needed] it may be called yarroway.[52] It was called old man's pepper due to its pungent flavor, while the name field hop came from its use in beer making in Sweden.[52]

In the Hebrides, a leaf held against the eyes was sometimes believed to give second sight.[72] In the witchcraft trial of Elspeth Reoch in March 1616, she was alleged to have plucked "melefour", thought to be another name for yarrow, and said "In nomine Patris, Fiili, et Spiritus Sancti" to become able to cure distemper (disorders of the four humours) and impart the faculty of prediction.[70] For its association with the Abrahamic devil it was called bad man's plaything, devil's nettle, and devil's plaything.[52] Yarrow was thought to bring luck due to being, according to one woman cited by James Britten (c. 1878), "the first herb our Saviour put in His hand when a child".[70] This is apparently a corruption of the Achilles myth[73] in which Jesus uses the plant to heal his adoptive father. For this reason, in France, it was called herbe de St. Joseph, and it has also been called carpenter's weed in this regard.[73][52]

Various other common names include arrowroot, death flower, eerie, hundred-leaved grass, knyghten, old man's mustard, sanguinary,[52] seven-year's love, snake's grass, and soldier. The names milfoil and thousand leaf come refer to the minutely divided leaves.[18] In Spanish, it is known as gordaldo and, in New Mexico and southern Colorado, plumajillo (Spanish for 'little feather').

In Sussex and Devonshire superstition, yarrow was used for finding one's real sweetheart. One would pluck yarrow growing on a young man's grave while reciting:

Yarrow, sweet yarrow, the first that I have found,
in the name of Jesus Christ, I pluck it from the ground;
As Joseph loved sweet Mary, and took her for his dear,
so in a dream this night, I hope, my true love will appear.

and go to sleep with the yarrow under the pillow.[70]

In a similar tradition in Wicklow, girls would pick yarrow on Hallow Eve and recite:

Thou pretty herb of Venus' tree,
Thy true name is yarrow;
Now who my bosom friend may be,
Pray tell thou me to-morrow.

then retire for the night without speaking and go to sleep with an ounce of yarrow sewn in flannel under the pillow.[70]

In Suffolk a leaf was placed in the nose so it would bleed, while reciting

Green 'arrow, green 'arrow, you bears a white blow,
If my love love me, my nose will bleed now;
If my love don't love me, it 'on't bleed a drop,
If my love do love me, 'twill bleed every drop.[70]

In Dublin on May Day or the night before, women would place a stocking full of yarrow under their pillow and recite:

Good morrow, good yarrow, good morrow to thee,
I hope by the yarrow my lover to see;
And that he may be married to me.
The colour of his hair and the clothes he does wear,
And if he be for me may his face be turned to me,
And if he be not, dark and surely may he be,
And his back be turned toward me.[70]
[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Achillea millefolium

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Achillea millefolium, commonly known as common yarrow or yarrow, is a rhizomatous, spreading, upright to mat-forming perennial herb in the Asteraceae family, characterized by its aromatic, finely dissected, fern-like leaves and flat-topped clusters of small white flowers. Native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, Asia, and North America, it typically grows 2 to 3 feet tall with extensive rhizomes that allow it to spread aggressively via underground stems and self-seeding. The species name millefolium derives from Latin, meaning "a thousand leaves," referring to the numerous fine segments of its foliage, while the genus Achillea honors the Greek hero Achilles, who legendarily used the plant to treat soldiers' wounds during the Trojan War. Thriving in full sun and dry to medium moisture conditions, A. millefolium is adapted to a variety of habitats such as grasslands, roadsides, fields, waste areas, and disturbed sites, where it often naturalizes and can become weedy or invasive in some regions. It blooms from June to September (or April to October in some areas), producing showy, long-lasting flowers that attract pollinators like and bees, contributing to its ecological role in early successional and pollinator-supporting ecosystems. Hardy in USDA zones 3 to 9, the plant tolerates poor, dry soils, , deer browsing, and urban conditions, making it resilient but sometimes challenging to control in gardens. Historically and culturally significant, A. millefolium has been used medicinally by Native American tribes and European herbalists to staunch , treat wounds, fevers, colds, and headaches, often as a or from its leaves and flowers. In modern contexts, it serves as an ornamental in cottage, rock, and meadow gardens, with cultivated varieties featuring colors like pink, red, yellow, and gold; it is also employed as a ground cover, fresh or dried cut flower, and in traditional beverages such as yarrow beer brewed since the . Ecologically, it aids in on disturbed sites and supports , though its invasive potential requires management in conservation efforts.

Description

Physical characteristics

Achillea millefolium is a that typically grows to a height of 6–100 cm, forming dense mats through vegetative spread. The stems are erect, usually 1–4 per , simple or branched above, and covered in dense, woolly hairs (lanate-tomentose) that may become glabrous with age. Leaves are alternate, fern-like in appearance due to their 1–2-pinnate into fine, linear segments, measuring 3.5–20 cm long and 5–35 mm wide, with blades oblong to lanceolate and surfaces glabrate to densely hairy. The is primarily rhizomatous, often with stolons, enabling extensive horizontal spread and formation. Inflorescences consist of 10–100+ capitula arranged in flat-topped, corymbiform arrays 5–10 cm across, each head 3–6 mm in diameter. Individual flower heads feature (3–)5–8 ray florets with white to pinkish (occasionally purplish) corollas, laminae 1.5–3 mm long, surrounding 10–30 bisexual disc florets with whitish to yellowish corollas 2–4.5 mm long. Flowering occurs from late spring to autumn, typically May–October in temperate regions, varying by latitude and local conditions. Reproduction includes production via small achenes (cypselae) 1–2 mm long with broadly winged margins, which are dispersed by wind.

Chemical composition

Achillea millefolium contains a diverse array of phytochemicals, with essential oils comprising 0.2–0.6% of dry weight in aerial parts, primarily extracted from flowers and leaves via hydrodistillation. These oils are dominated by monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, including (up to 12.8%), (up to 9.1%), 1,8-cineole (up to 9.2%), (up to 6.2%), and (up to 5.3%), as identified in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses of European populations. A 2023 study on Polish samples detected over 68 volatile compounds in flower oils and 70 in herb oils, representing 95–96% of total composition, with monoterpenoids like bornyl acetate (up to 9.2%) more prevalent in herb material. Flavonoids, including , , quercetin derivatives, and glucosides such as apigenin-7-O-glucoside, are abundant in leaves and flowering tops, contributing to the plant's biochemical profile. lactones, such as achillicin, millefolide, and guaianolides (e.g., 8-hydroxyachillin, psilostachyin C), occur at 0.1–0.5% dry weight and are key secondary metabolites, with proazulene precursors like achillicin linked to formation. Phenolic acids, including , (as caffeoylquinic acids), and , are present throughout the plant, often as glycosides. Minor constituents include alkaloids like achilleine and coumarins such as , alongside and that enhance properties. Composition varies by plant part, with yields and content higher in flowers (0.6%) than in (0.2%), and sesquiterpenoids more concentrated in material. Environmental factors influence profiles; for instance, levels are elevated in European samples compared to North American or Iranian populations, where β-thujone (up to 55%) or 1,8-cineole (up to 20%) may dominate. A 2023 GC-MS analysis confirmed over 50 volatile compounds across samples, underscoring intraspecific variability.

Taxonomy

Classification

Achillea millefolium belongs to the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order , family , genus , and species A. millefolium. This placement reflects its position as a vascular within the daisy family, characterized by composite flower heads and alternate leaves typical of . The species exhibits significant infraspecific variation, leading to recognition of several , including A. m. subsp. millefolium (predominantly Eurasian), subsp. pacifica (North American, often synonymous with subsp. lanulosa), and subsp. sudetica (found in ). These are distinguished by differences in pubescence, indumentum density, and geographic distribution, though boundaries remain debated due to hybridization. The evolutionary history involves allopolyploidy, with origins traced to hybridization between diploid progenitors such as A. asiatica and A. alpina, resulting in polyploid cytotypes ranging from tetraploid to octoploid. Phylogenetically, A. millefolium is situated within the tribe of the subfamily Asteroideae, forming a circumboreal complex confirmed by genetic studies including in the using markers like matK and ITS regions. Close relatives include A. ptarmica and A. ageratum, sharing morphological traits like pinnatifid leaves and capitula arrangement, with molecular evidence supporting reticulate evolution through hybridization and across the genus. Within the , which encompasses over 100 species worldwide, A. millefolium is classified in section Achillea, one of several infrageneric sections defined by floral and characters. Recent revisions post-2020, incorporating molecular data such as AFLP and genome sequencing, have refined boundaries and circumscriptions, addressing and hybridization while confirming the section's coherence through shared levels and biogeographic patterns.

Etymology

The genus name Achillea derives from the Greek mythological hero Achilles, who, according to legend recounted in Homer's , used plants of this genus to treat wounds sustained by soldiers during the . This association with healing led to the name's adoption in , formalized by in in 1753. The specific epithet millefolium originates from Latin, combining mille ("thousand") and folium ("leaf"), in reference to the plant's finely dissected, feathery foliage that resembles numerous tiny leaflets. This binomial Achillea millefolium thus evokes both the legendary warrior and the plant's distinctive morphology. Common English names reflect historical and folkloric uses, with "yarrow" tracing back to the Old English gearwe, akin to the Old High German garawa, possibly denoting readiness or provision in herbal contexts. "Milfoil" stems from the French millefeuille, echoing the Latin epithet for its "thousand leaves," while "soldier's woundwort" and "nosebleed" allude to its reputed hemostatic properties in English folklore, where it was stuffed into nostrils to staunch bleeding. Pre-Linnaean herbal traditions further illuminate the name's evolution; in the 1st century CE, the Greek physician Dioscorides referred to the plant as Achilleion in De Materia Medica, linking it explicitly to Achilles for its wound-treating virtues. Regional variants proliferated in medieval texts, such as "herba militaris" in Latin herbals, emphasizing its military associations. In other cultures, etymological ties persist; in Chinese, it is known as 蓍 (shī), a term rooted in ancient divination practices where the plant's stalks were used for I Ching oracle readings, highlighting its role beyond medicine. Ethnobotanical research has documented indigenous North American names like "gordaldo" among Hispanic-influenced groups and various tribal terms tied to ceremonial and healing uses, without altering the core scientific nomenclature.

Distribution

Native range

Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow, has a circumboreal native range across the temperate regions of the , encompassing and . In , it is distributed from and the southward to the Mediterranean Basin, extending eastward through Asia Minor and to . In , the species occurs from southward to and eastward to the Atlantic coast, including much of the continent's temperate zones. Fossil evidence supports the long-standing presence of in these regions, with pollen records dating to the Pleistocene epoch (approximately 2.5 million to 11,700 years ago) found in northern hemispheric deposits, including the Yukon Territory in . Paleoecological data indicate that the species colonized via the Bering during the Pleistocene, establishing distinct populations before human-mediated dispersal. Archaeological records confirm pre-Columbian use by Native Americans, with evidence of the indigenous North American taxon in traditional practices predating European contact. The native climatic zones of Achillea millefolium include temperate grasslands, meadows, and steppes, where it thrives across an altitudinal gradient from to 3,000 meters. This broad elevational tolerance reflects its adaptation to varied temperate environments in its original distribution. Genetic studies provide for the native status and of populations, revealing distinct Eurasian and North American genotypes. Phylogeographic analyses of chloroplast DNA support a monophyletic North American separate from Eurasian relatives, with patterns indicating survival in distinct refugia during Pleistocene Ice Ages, such as Beringian and southern unglaciated areas. These findings underscore the ' pre-human origins in both continents, with limited across the .

Introduced ranges

Achillea millefolium was introduced to and in the late 1800s by European settlers primarily as for and to establish pastures on cleared lands. In , the species was intentionally introduced to southern and the region of during the 1900s, often through ornamental plantings and seed trade. Introductions to , particularly , occurred in the 20th century, with records indicating establishment as an by the mid-century; saw introductions as early as 1942. These expansions were frequently facilitated by contaminated commercial seeds and ornamental horticultural trade, allowing unintended dispersal beyond intended sites. Today, A. millefolium is naturalized across temperate zones worldwide, including all states of the and throughout , where it thrives in disturbed habitats from to high elevations. In the southern hemisphere, it has become widespread in (especially southern and eastern regions), , parts of such as and , and southern including . The exhibits rapid dynamics in introduced ranges, primarily through vegetative spread via extensive rhizomes and prolific production, with each plant capable of generating thousands of wind-dispersed that remain viable for years. It is designated as invasive or weedy in several regions, including grasslands, where it colonizes disturbed sites like overgrazed rangelands and roadsides, as noted in 2022 USDA reports. Recent monitoring efforts, including a 2024 study resurveying historical populations across climatic gradients, have tracked ongoing persistence and in introduced and native-adjacent areas, revealing phenotypic changes such as increased height in warmer sites. Climate models indicate potential for further southern expansion in temperate and subtropical zones due to warming temperatures, enhancing suitability in urban and disturbed ecosystems.

Habitat and ecology

Preferred habitats

Achillea millefolium thrives in well-drained sandy or loamy soils and tolerates poor, dry conditions, as well as slightly alkaline soils with a range of 6.0 to 8.0. It establishes effectively in infertile and various-textured soils but avoids waterlogged areas, where it is susceptible to . The plant prefers full sun to partial shade and exhibits strong once established, enabling it to persist in arid environments with minimal . It flourishes across a wide climatic range, corresponding to USDA hardiness zones 3 to 9, where it benefits from warm temperatures above 50°F for optimal growth. In natural settings, Achillea millefolium commonly occupies microhabitats such as roadsides, meadows, pastures, and disturbed sites. As an early successional species, it readily colonizes areas following disturbances like fires or , where its competitive seedlings and ability allow rapid establishment. Key adaptations include an extensive with rhizomes that enhance resistance by accessing moisture in layers. Recent ecological studies highlight its higher density in nitrogen-poor grasslands, supporting its role in low-input, nutrient-limited ecosystems.

Ecological interactions

Achillea millefolium plays a significant role in ecological networks through its interactions with pollinators, primarily facilitated by the nectar-rich disc florets of its composite flower heads. The plant attracts a diverse array of insects, including bees, butterflies, hoverflies, and other beneficial pollinators such as tachinid flies, which visit the flowers for nectar and pollen. These interactions support pollinator populations in open habitats, where the flat-topped inflorescences provide accessible landing platforms. Herbivory on A. millefolium involves both vertebrates and invertebrates, though the plant's bitter foliage and aromatic compounds often deter heavy browsing. Birds, such as goldfinches, consume the mature seeds, contributing to seed dispersal while exerting selective pressure on seed production. Mammals like deer and rabbits typically avoid the plant due to its unpalatable taste and strong odor. Among insects, larvae of case-bearing moths in the genus Coleophora (e.g., C. argentula) feed on seeds within protective cases attached to seed heads, potentially reducing viable seed output. Other herbivores include various beetles, true bugs, and gall-forming mites, which interact with the plant in disturbed grasslands, though specific impacts vary by region. The species forms symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), which colonize its roots and enhance nutrient uptake, particularly , in nutrient-poor soils. These associations improve the plant's competitiveness against subordinate and influence seed success under varying nutrient conditions. Additionally, A. millefolium exhibits allelopathic effects through secondary metabolites released from its tissues, inhibiting the and growth of nearby grasses and weeds, such as those in agricultural fields. Recent studies underscore A. millefolium's contribution to in dynamic ecosystems, with research documenting its role in supporting communities in grasslands and restored habitats. For instance, a 2024 investigation into revealed ongoing adaptations that sustain interactions with diverse herbivores and pollinators amid environmental changes. Observations in semi-natural sites have recorded over 50 associated with the , emphasizing its value in disturbed areas for maintaining ecological balance.

Conservation status

Achillea millefolium is classified as Least Concern on the , reflecting its extensive native range across and , where it faces no widespread major threats. This status is supported by its abundance in diverse habitats and resilience to common disturbances. In introduced ranges outside its native distribution, the is often regarded as a weed and subject to management efforts; for instance, non-native cultivars are listed as invasive or problematic in certain U.S. states, including and Washington, where they can outcompete local in disturbed areas according to 2023 assessments. In contrast, it is actively promoted in restoration initiatives for degraded grasslands, valued for its role in stabilizing soils, supporting pollinators, and aiding recovery in projects across . Conservation measures include ex situ preservation through seed banking, with Achillea millefolium accessions stored in the to safeguard against potential losses. Climate change presents emerging challenges, with ecological models projecting northward range expansions and potential declines at southern native margins by 2050 due to warming and altered patterns, though populations demonstrate through phenotypic shifts like increased height in warmer conditions.

Cultivation

Propagation methods

Achillea millefolium can be propagated effectively through seed , which is commonly performed in spring or early autumn to align with natural cycles. For optimal results, seeds benefit from stratification for approximately one month, enhancing under direct and warm conditions (around 22°C), where typically occurs within one to two weeks. Without stratification, may still reach 90-100% in controlled nursery settings, but field direct into disturbed —such as at a depth of ¼ inch and rates of 1-2 pounds per acre—proves reliable for naturalizing in erosion-prone areas. Vegetative propagation offers a faster alternative, particularly through division of rhizomes in early spring when plants are dormant, allowing for easy separation of clumps with a sharp spade to ensure each section includes and shoots. This method rejuvenates established plants and promotes vigorous growth without the variability of traits. Stem cuttings, taken as segments in , root successfully in 2-3 weeks when kept under high humidity with mist and placed in well-draining, warm exposed to . cuttings can also be used in spring or fall, inserted directly into similar conditions for reliable establishment. In commercial native plant nurseries, Achillea millefolium is routinely produced via seeds or plugs in containers, with spacing of 30-60 cm to accommodate its spreading habit while facilitating air circulation. Minimal fertilization is required post-establishment, leveraging the plant's tolerance to poor soils, though initial applications of balanced nutrients support seedling vigor. As of 2024, MnDOT native seed mixes including A. millefolium emphasize no-till direct seeding methods for erosion control plantings, using drills to place seeds into existing vegetation without soil disturbance to preserve microbial communities and enhance long-term site stability.

Cultivars and hybrids

Achillea millefolium has given rise to numerous cultivars and hybrids prized in for their enhanced ornamental qualities, including vibrant flower colors and improved growth habits compared to the wild species. These selections often feature stronger stems, more upright forms, and larger inflorescences, making them suitable for garden borders and mass plantings. Popular cultivars include 'Cerise Queen', which produces masses of long-lasting, bright cherry-pink flower clusters with white centers atop fern-like green foliage, reaching 1-2 feet in height. 'Paprika' is a spreading, mat-forming variety noted for its deeply dissected, aromatic medium-green leaves and red blooms. 'Moonshine' stands out with its compact, clump-forming habit, silvery-gray foliage, and lemon-yellow flowers. Among hybrids, 'Rainbow Tricolor' displays dense clusters of small yellow flowers edged in reddish-pink, maturing to 2 feet tall with a similar spread. Breeding efforts focus on diversifying flower colors beyond the species' typical white, achieving compact growth for smaller gardens—as seen in 'Little Moonshine', which tops out at about 12 inches—and resistance to common diseases like powdery mildew. Most cultivars trace their origins to European breeding programs dating back to the 1800s, with significant advancements in the , such as the hybrids introduced from in 1986. Many hybrids are sterile, reducing unwanted seeding and promoting tidier garden performance through vegetative propagation. Recent introductions, like those in the Seduction series including 'Saucy Seduction' (patented in 2010), emphasize pollinator attraction with bright rose-pink flowers on compact plants, supporting bees and butterflies in garden settings.

Toxicity

Toxic compounds

Achillea millefolium contains several compounds associated with toxicity, primarily thujone in its essential oils and sesquiterpene lactones throughout the plant material. Thujone, a monoterpenoid ketone present as α- and β-isomers, is neurotoxic and functions as a GABAA receptor antagonist, disrupting inhibitory neurotransmission and potentially inducing convulsions or other neurological disturbances. Concentrations of are higher in the leaves and flowers, where essential oils are most abundant, with reported levels varying widely by chemotype, geography, and growth conditions—ranging from 0.4% to 55.3% of total oil composition for β-thujone. In leaf extracts, thujone occurs at lower levels of 3–240 ppm. The achilleine, found in the aerial parts, contributes to overall , particularly in animals, though specific mechanisms remain less characterized. Sesquiterpene lactones, such as achillin, leucodin, and alpha-peroxyachifolid, act as potent allergens by serving as haptens that sensitize skin immune cells, leading to reactions characteristic of . These lactones are also more concentrated in leaves and flowers, with variability influenced by environmental factors; their presence underscores the need for caution in handling or using yarrow-based products. Quantification of these toxic compounds in herbal preparations typically employs standard analytical methods, including (HPLC) for sesquiterpene lactones and (GC) or GC-mass spectrometry for in essential oils, ensuring compliance with safety thresholds like the of 3–7 mg per day (equivalent to approximately 0.04–0.1 mg/kg body weight for a 70 kg adult) for .

Effects on humans and animals

Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow, can induce skin irritation and in humans, particularly among those sensitized to plants in the family, such as or daisies. These reactions manifest as redness, itching, or rashes upon topical exposure, with case reports documenting in individuals handling the plant or its extracts. Oral of large amounts, exceeding typical medicinal doses, may lead to gastrointestinal disturbances including nausea and , attributed to the presence of and other volatile compounds. Yarrow is contraindicated during due to its potential as a uterine , which may increase the risk of or preterm labor; animal studies in rats at doses equivalent to 56 times the human therapeutic level showed reduced fetal body weight and elevated placental weights, supporting caution in human use. In animals, yarrow exhibits low palatability, often deterring grazing by livestock such as sheep and cattle, though forced consumption can result in skin irritation or loss of condition, especially in light-colored animals exposed to sunlight. Yarrow is toxic to dogs, cats, and horses, potentially causing vomiting, diarrhea, hypersalivation, and dermatitis upon ingestion or contact. Chronic exposure through ingestion has been linked to potential liver strain in herbivores due to thujone accumulation, though acute toxicity remains low with oral LD50 values for yarrow extracts exceeding 2,000 mg/kg in rats. For thujone specifically, a key toxic component, the oral LD50 in rodents is approximately 230 mg/kg, indicating neurotoxic potential at high exposures. Rare poisoning cases in humans include symptoms such as and dry mouth from excessive yarrow consumption (e.g., 5 cups daily for a week), and convulsions associated with overuse of thujone-rich essential oils in the , though such incidents are uncommon and typically resolve with supportive care. In veterinary contexts, photosensitization has been reported in sheep grazing on yarrow-infested pastures, leading to upon sun exposure, as documented in animal health reports up to 2022. Regulatory safety thresholds address content, with the limiting it to 0.5 mg/kg in non-alcoholic beverages produced from certain thujone-containing herbs such as Artemisia species to mitigate risks. Yarrow essential oils should be diluted in carrier oils for topical applications, with patch testing recommended for sensitive users to prevent irritation.

Uses

Medicinal applications

Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow, has been employed in traditional European since the for its purported healing properties, particularly as a for and to staunch . Documented in early pharmacopeias, it was also used internally as teas to alleviate digestive cramps and spasms, as well as to reduce fevers through its effects. These applications stem from its historical role in herbal remedies for gastrointestinal discomfort and minor inflammatory conditions. In modern , yarrow exhibits activity, with compounds like contributing to the inhibition of (COX-2), thereby modulating inflammatory pathways. Its essential oils demonstrate antimicrobial effects against pathogens such as , inhibiting bacterial growth through disruption of cell membranes. Additionally, including exert effects by enhancing activity, promoting relaxation in preclinical models. A double-blind randomized demonstrated its efficacy in relieving primary symptoms at a dose of 500 mg/day of hydroalcoholic extract over three cycles. Common formulations include herbal teas prepared from 1-2 g of dried infused in 250 ml of boiling water, taken 2-3 times daily for digestive support; tinctures at 2-4 ml up to three times daily; and topical creams for skin applications. A 2025 in vitro study demonstrated yarrow extract's modulation of , promoting growth and short-chain production, with potential protection against . Yarrow is recognized in regulatory herbal monographs, such as the ESCOP document, for the supportive treatment of small superficial wounds and mild skin inflammations when applied externally. Ongoing research explores its anticancer potential, with showing cytotoxic effects on breast and cell lines by inducing and inhibiting migration.

Culinary uses

Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow, has edible parts primarily consisting of its young leaves and flowers, which are incorporated into various culinary preparations. The young leaves possess a bitter and flavor, making them suitable for addition to salads, soups, or as a herb in dishes. The flowers, often harvested when fresh, serve as garnishes or are infused into beverages, contributing an earthy note to recipes. Historically, yarrow played a significant role in as a component of , a mixture used to bitter and preserve ales before became standard in the . In pre-hop European traditions, yarrow was combined with herbs like sweet gale and wild rosemary to flavor fermented beverages, providing both bitterness and properties. Nutritionally, yarrow leaves and flowers are low in calories and rich in vitamins A and C, , , magnesium, calcium, , and niacin, while also containing antioxidants such as that contribute to its health-supporting profile when consumed. In Native American culinary traditions, yarrow was used sparingly as a potherb or mild in dishes, adding a subtle bitter flavor without overpowering other ingredients. Modern foraging practices have revived its use in recipes like yarrow , where blanched leaves are blended with nuts, , and oil to create a vibrant, nutrient-dense for pastas or spreads; however, its strong bitterness necessitates moderation to avoid overwhelming the . Recent ethnobotanical reports highlight yarrow's niche role in wild food movements, particularly in herbal infusions and as a agent in contemporary cuisine, though it remains non-staple due to its intense taste.

Ornamental and industrial uses

Achillea millefolium is widely utilized in ornamental due to its adaptability and aesthetic appeal. It thrives in mixed borders, cottage gardens, rock gardens, and coastal landscapes, where its fern-like foliage and clustered flower heads provide texture and color from to varieties. The plant's tolerance for poor, well-drained soils and full sun makes it ideal for drought-tolerant and low-maintenance meadows, requiring minimal irrigation once established. Additionally, its nectar-rich blooms attract pollinators such as bees and , enhancing in and gardens. The flowers of Achillea millefolium serve as a natural source for dyes, producing to when mordanted appropriately, a practice employed in traditional coloring. In industrial applications, essential oils extracted from Achillea millefolium are incorporated into and skincare products for their properties, helping to soothe irritated skin in creams and lotions. These oils, rich in compounds like and lactones, contribute to formulations aimed at reducing and promoting skin health without therapeutic claims. Achillea millefolium extracts demonstrate potential as natural insecticides, with recent studies showing repellent effects against mosquitoes at concentrations as low as 1%, achieving up to 24% mortality in targeted pests after 48 hours of exposure. This positions the plant as a candidate for eco-friendly in agricultural and urban settings. Beyond aesthetics and extracts, Achillea millefolium aids in environmental restoration through , its deep rhizomatous roots stabilizing sunny hillsides and disturbed sites in conservation projects. The global market for yarrow-related products, including herbal extracts and ornamental , reflects growing , with the overall yarrow sector projected to reach approximately USD 823 million by 2034, driven partly by in native plant nurseries for landscaping.

Cultural significance

In Eastern traditions

In (TCM), Achillea millefolium, known as Ya Luo, is classified as a cool with pungent and slightly bitter flavors, entering the , , and meridians to move and blood, thereby addressing conditions involving stagnation and heat. Though not a classical in ancient TCM, it has been incorporated into modern practices. It is traditionally employed to cool the blood and arrest bleeding, particularly for issues like epistaxis, , and , aligning with its astringent properties that promote . In traditional medicine, it is used for gastrointestinal disturbances, including , where it helps alleviate spasms and through its effects on intestinal . Symbolically, A. millefolium holds significance in , often paired with as a token of good fortune and , reflecting its enduring presence in cultural narratives of and . Its stalks have been integral to rituals since ancient times, particularly in practices, where 50 dried yarrow stalks are manipulated through elaborate counting rituals to generate hexagrams for guidance, protection, and insight into life's changes. These ceremonial uses underscore its role in warding off misfortune and fostering spiritual harmony. Contemporary TCM continues to integrate A. millefolium into formulas, such as combinations with licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) to mitigate inflammation, as evidenced in clinical trials where the duo reduced radiotherapy-induced dermatitis severity. Recent studies have validated its anti-hemorrhagic effects, with a 2023 randomized trial demonstrating that topical A. millefolium ointment significantly improved hemorrhoid symptoms, including bleeding and discomfort, over 10 days of treatment. Ethnobotanical surveys note its use in the Ural region for hemostatic applications in internal bleeding and other ailments.

In Western traditions

In Western traditions, Achillea millefolium, commonly known as yarrow, holds a prominent place in mythology tied to the Greek hero Achilles, who legendarily used the plant to staunch the bleeding wounds of his soldiers during the , earning it a reputation as a battlefield healer. This association influenced Carl Linnaeus's 1753 naming of the genus in honor of the warrior. In medieval European herbals, yarrow was revered for its vulnerary properties; Nicholas Culpeper's The Complete Herbal (1653) describes it as an astringent remedy for wounds, bruises, and , aligning with its longstanding as the "herb of the warrior" in folk medicine. Yarrow featured extensively in British folklore for divination and love rituals, where it was known as the "yarrow oracle," with young women reciting charms while picking the to foresee marital prospects or true love. In rural American traditions, inherited from , yarrow leaves were commonly stuffed into the nostrils as a folk remedy to halt , reflecting its styptic qualities and earning it the vernacular name "nosebleed plant." Symbolically, yarrow embodies , , and across Western lore, often carried as an amulet to ward off or scattered at thresholds for safeguarding homes. This protective essence appears in 19th-century literature, such as William Wordsworth's Yarrow poems (1803–1831), which evoke the Scottish Yarrow valley—named after the plant—as a site of restorative natural beauty and emotional renewal. In contemporary Western spiritual practices, yarrow has seen revival in and , where it is burned or used in baths for purification rituals to cleanse negative energies and strengthen personal boundaries. Recent highlight its enduring role among indigenous North American groups, such as the Blackfeet (Siksika), who incorporate yarrow in ceremonial contexts for spiritual protection and healing rites.

References

  1. https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/achillea_millefolium.shtml
  2. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=b282
  3. https://floranorthamerica.org/Achillea_millefolium
  4. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_acmi2.pdf
  5. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_acmio.pdf
  6. https://www.env.gov.bc.ca/fia/documents/native_seed_manual/26achillea_millefolium.pdf
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10708006/
  8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12073657/
  9. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3232110/
  10. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8018854/
  11. https://journals.ashs.org/view/journals/hortsci/52/6/article-p827.xml
  12. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:2294-2
  13. https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000042097
  14. https://www.sussexflora.org.uk/2020/09/achillea-millefolium-yarrow/
  15. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01315.x
  16. https://bioone.org/journals/willdenowia/volume-36/issue-1/wi.36.36105/Multidisciplinary-studies-on-Achillea-sensu-lato-Compositae-Anthemideae--new/10.3372/wi.36.36105.pdf
  17. https://www.eddmaps.org/species/subject.cfm?sub=3749
  18. https://ijhs.ut.ac.ir/mobile/article_79157.html?lang=en
  19. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12288161/
  20. https://plantaedb.com/taxa/phylum/angiosperms/order/asterales/family/asteraceae/genus/achillea
  21. https://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2718&context=botany
  22. https://bioone.org/journals/willdenowia/volume-46/issue-1/wi.46.46110/Chromosome-numbers-and-karyotypes-within-the-genus-Achillea-Asteraceae/10.3372/wi.46.46110.full
  23. http://floranorthamerica.org/Achillea
  24. https://www.chem.uwec.edu/putnam/notes-Achillea-millefolium.html
  25. https://fermanagh.bsbi.org/achillea-millefolium-l
  26. https://anps.org/2020/02/13/know-your-natives-yarrow/
  27. https://weedguide.cfaes.osu.edu/singlerecord.asp?id=34
  28. https://www.ahpa.org/herbs_in_history_yarrow
  29. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=3&taxon_id=200023010
  30. https://www.adkinsarboretum.org/programs_events/ipp/yarrow.html
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226940149_Yarrow_Achillea_millefolium_L_A_Neglected_Panacea_A_Review_of_Ethnobotany_Bioactivity_and_Biomedical_Research1
  32. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=acmi2
  33. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00264.x
  34. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.2636
  35. https://oregonflora.org/taxa/index.php?taxon=2414
  36. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/plantmaterials/mtpmcpg13974.pdf
  37. https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-12-2
  38. https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/achillea_millefolium.htm
  39. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/achmil/all.html
  40. https://calscape.org/Achillea-millefolium-%28Common-Yarrow%29
  41. https://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/subject.cfm?sub=3749
  42. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.07.22.604595v1
  43. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70146
  44. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/ACMI2/characteristics
  45. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/cs_acmi2.pdf
  46. https://seedalliance.org/2024/yarrow-a-plant-profile-and-seed-historian-report-by-katya-wesely/
  47. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1618866722003557
  48. https://www.lancswt.org.uk/blog/guest/species-spotlight-yarrow-wildflower-many-talents
  49. https://www.somersetmoths.org/species/coleophora-argentula
  50. https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/plant_insects/plants/achillea_millefolium.html
  51. https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2435.2002.00675.x
  52. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23064770/
  53. https://www.primescholars.com/articles/allelopathic-effects-of-yarrow-achilla-millefalium-on-the-weeds-of-cornzeamays-l.pdf
  54. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/am-pdf/10.1002/ecs2.70146
  55. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1439179125000271
  56. https://eunis.eea.europa.eu/species/153013
  57. https://xerces.org/blog/these-are-my-most-trusted-native-plants-for-restoration-and-heres-why
  58. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6520460/
  59. https://npn.rngr.net/renderNPNProtocolDetails?selectedProtocolIds=asteraceae-achillea-11
  60. https://nwdistrict.ifas.ufl.edu/hort/2024/02/29/the-art-of-propagating-yarrow-a-guide-to-successful-growth/
  61. https://www.epicgardening.com/yarrow-plant/
  62. https://newmoonnursery.com/nursery-plants/achillea-millefolium/
  63. https://www.dot.state.mn.us/environment/erosion/vegetation.html
  64. https://www.smgrowers.com/products/plants/plantdisplay.asp?plant_id=27
  65. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=241837&isprofile=1&basic=Achillea
  66. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=241832
  67. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=456690&isprofile=0&basic=achillea
  68. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=366348&isprofile=0&gen=Achillea
  69. https://beyondbehnkes.com/all-about-achillea/
  70. https://www.chicagobotanic.org/downloads/planteval_notes/no5_yarrow.pdf
  71. https://www.gardendesign.com/plants/yarrow.html
  72. https://www.swiftgreenhouses.com/plant/Achillea-Millefolium-Seduction-Saucy
  73. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=269939&isprofile=0&gen=Achillea
  74. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC18101/
  75. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.97.9.4417
  76. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10703637/
  77. https://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/Achill_062013tr.pdf
  78. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1868717/
  79. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/draft-assessment-report-achillea-millefolium-l-flos_en.pdf
  80. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/public-statement/draft-public-statement-use-herbal-medicinal-products-containing-thujone_en.pdf
  81. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-151/yarrow
  82. https://www.drugs.com/npp/yarrow.html
  83. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14745991/
  84. https://www.ivis.org/library/veterinary-toxicology/toxicants-cause-skin-damage-by-primary-photosensitization
  85. https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/yarrow
  86. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11101-020-09671-y
  87. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1091581816677717
  88. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/14/7/1137
  89. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1334
  90. https://wholesalebotanics.com/blogs/benefits/yarrow-oil
  91. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-opinion/draft-european-union-herbal-monograph-achillea-millefolium-l-herba-revision-1_en.pdf
  92. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5581423_Yarrow_Achillea_millefolium_L_sI_Pharmaceutical_quality_of_commercial_samples
  93. https://academicjournals.org/journal/AJPP/article-full-text-pdf/8F8178430301
  94. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378874111008567
  95. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26238568/
  96. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40345999/
  97. https://www.escop.com/downloads/millefolii-herba-yarrow/
  98. https://www.jafs.com.pl/Apoptotic-and-anti-migratory-effects-of-Achillea-millefolium-ndichloromethane-extract%2C187176%2C0%2C2.html
  99. https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Yarrow_10398.php
  100. https://www.orlandosentinel.com/1985/07/18/yarrow-used-as-medicine-as-well-as-cooking/
  101. https://thingscope.cs.columbia.edu/yarrow-flowers
  102. https://zythophile.co.uk/2014/02/28/was-it-ever-gruit-britain-the-herb-ale-tradition/
  103. https://brewers.aethelmearc.org/GruitNotes.html
  104. https://agrifoodscience.com/index.php/TURJAF/article/view/4088
  105. http://www.nativetech.org/plantgath/yarrow.htm
  106. https://foragerchef.com/cooking-with-yarrow/
  107. https://herbsocietyblog.wordpress.com/2024/02/12/yarrow-herb-of-the-year-2024/
  108. https://www.gardenia.net/plant/achillea-millefolium-white-yarrow
  109. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/achillea-millefolium/
  110. https://gardendelivery.com/plant-guides/achillea
  111. https://www.motherearthnews.com/diy/crafting/diy-yarrow-yellow-dyes-ze0z1801zmos/
  112. https://dutchhealthstore.com/achille-millefolium-yarrow-a-wonderful-ingredient-in-skincare/
  113. https://www.polarismarketresearch.com/press-releases/yarrow-market
  114. https://cbcb.cdutcm.edu.cn/TCMKD/herb_detail/3333
  115. https://carahealth.com/herbal-monographs/yarrow-achillea-millefolium
  116. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3847392/
  117. https://www.whiterabbitinstituteofhealing.com/herbs/yarrow/
  118. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-change/
  119. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335518984_The_Efficacy_of_Licorice_Root_Glycyrrhiza_glabra_and_Yarrow_Achillea_millefolium_in_Preventing_Radiation_Dermatitis_in_Patients_with_Breast_Cancer_A_Randomized_Double-Blinded_Placebo-Controlled_Clinic
  120. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210803323000350
  121. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343608352_Achillea_asiatica_Serg_Achillea_filipendulina_Lam_Achillea_millefolium_L_Achillea_setacea_Waldst_Kit_Asteraceae
  122. https://sites.evergreen.edu/plantchemeco/yarrow-the-healing-herb-of-achilles/
  123. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/49513/49513-h/49513-h.htm
  124. https://blog.metmuseum.org/cloistersgardens/2009/06/23/midsomer-magick/achillea-millefolium2/
  125. https://achs.edu/blog/get-to-know-yarrow-a-diverse-species-with-a-rich-history/
  126. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45567/yarrow-visited-september-1814
  127. https://www.livingthroughnature.com/blog/yarrow-folklore-medicine-and-magic
  128. https://hashilthsa.com/news/2025-06-02/yarrow-most-widely-used-medicinal-plant-world
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.