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Extrasensory perception
Extrasensory perception
Extrasensory perception
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Extrasensory perception (ESP), also known as a sixth sense, or cryptaesthesia, is a claimed paranormal ability pertaining to reception of information not gained through the recognized physical senses, but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke University botanist J. B. Rhine to denote psychic abilities such as telepathy, psychometry, clairvoyance and their trans-temporal operation as precognition or retrocognition.[1][2]

Second sight is an alleged form of extrasensory perception, whereby a person perceives information, in the form of a vision, about future events before they happen (precognition), or about things or events at remote locations (remote viewing).[3][4] There is no evidence that second sight exists. Reports of second sight are known only from anecdotes. Second sight and ESP are classified as pseudosciences.[5]

History

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Zener cards were first used in the 1930s for experimental research into ESP.
Hubert Pearce with J. B. Rhine

In the 1930s, at Duke University in North Carolina, J. B. Rhine and his wife Louisa E. Rhine conducted an investigation into extrasensory perception. While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J. B. Rhine worked largely in the laboratory, carefully defining terms such as ESP and psi and designing experiments to test them. A simple set of black and white cards was developed, originally called Zener cards[6] – now called ESP cards. They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star. There are five of each type of card in a pack of 25.

In a telepathy experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols. To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses. To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made. Later he used dice to test for psychokinesis.[7][8]

The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. A number of psychological departments attempted, unsuccessfully, to repeat Rhine's experiments. W. S. Cox (1936) from Princeton University with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment. Cox concluded "There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects."[9] Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results.[10]

In 1938, the psychologist Joseph Jastrow wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by Rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal, biased, dubious and the result of "faulty observation and familiar human frailties".[11] Rhine's experiments were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues.[12][13][14][15]

In the 1960s, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life. This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favored forced-choice methodology. Such procedures have included dream telepathy experiments, and the ganzfeld experiments (a mild sensory deprivation procedure).[16][17][18]

Second sight may have originally been so called because normal vision was regarded as coming first, while supernormal vision is a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals.[19] An dà shealladh or "the two sights", meaning "the sight of the seer", is the way Gaels refer to "second sight", the involuntary ability of seeing the future or distant events. There are many Gaelic words for the various aspects of second sight, but an dà shealladh is the one mostly recognized by non-Gaelic speakers, even though, strictly speaking, it does not really mean second sight, but rather "two sights".[a]

Skepticism

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See also: Parapsychology § Scientific reception

Parapsychology is the study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP. Parapsychology has been criticized for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research.[21] The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP and the lack of positive experimental results; it considers ESP to be pseudoscience.[22][23][24][25][26]

The scientific consensus does not view extrasensory perception as a scientific phenomenon.[27][28][29][30][31][32][33] Skeptics have pointed out that there is no viable theory to explain the mechanism behind ESP, and that there are historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies.[34]

There are many criticisms pertaining to experiments involving extrasensory perception, particularly surrounding methodological flaws. These flaws are not unique to a single experimental design, and are effective in discrediting much of the positive research surrounding ESP. Many of the flaws seen in the Zener cards experiment are present in the Ganzfeld experiment as well. First is the stacking effect, an error that occurs in ESP research. Trial-by-trial feedback given in studies using a "closed" ESP target sequence (e.g., a deck of cards) violates the condition of independence used for most standard statistical tests. Multiple responses for a single target cannot be evaluated using statistical tests that assume independence of responses. This increases the likelihood of card counting and, in turn, increases the chances for the subject to guess correctly without using ESP. Another methodological flaw involves cues through sensory leakage, for example, when the subject receives a visual cue. This could be the reflection of a Zener card in the holder's glasses. In this case, the subject is able to guess the card correctly because they can see it in the reflection, not because of ESP. Finally, poor randomization of target stimuli could be happening. Poor shuffling methods can make the orders of the cards easier to predict, or the cards could have been marked and manipulated, again, making it easier to predict which cards come next.[35] The results of a meta-analysis found that when these errors were corrected and accounted for, there was still no significant effect of ESP. Many of the studies only appeared to have significant occurrence of ESP, when in fact, this result was due to the many methodological errors in the research.

Dermo-optical perception

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Main article: Dermo-optical perception

In the early 20th century, Joaquin María Argamasilla, known as the "Spaniard with X-ray Eyes", claimed to be able to read handwriting or numbers on dice through closed metal boxes. Argamasilla managed to fool Gustav Geley and Charles Richet into believing he had genuine psychic powers.[36] In 1924, he was exposed by Harry Houdini as a fraud. Argamasilla peeked through his simple blindfold and lifted the edge of the box, so he could look inside it without others noticing.[37]

Science writer Martin Gardner has written that the ignorance of blindfold deception methods has been widespread in investigations into objects at remote locations from persons who claim to possess second sight. Gardner documented various conjuring techniques psychics such as Rosa Kuleshova, Lina Anderson and Nina Kulagina have used to peek from their blindfolds to deceive investigators into believing they used second sight.[38]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Extrasensory perception

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Extrasensory perception (ESP), also referred to as , is the alleged acquisition of information about an external event, object, or individual through means other than the known physical senses. This purported ability encompasses several distinct phenomena, including (the direct transmission of thoughts or information between minds), (perception of remote or hidden objects and events without sensory cues), and (foreknowledge of future occurrences). While ESP has fascinated cultures and individuals for centuries, it remains a topic of intense debate, with proponents claiming it represents an untapped and skeptics attributing reported instances to , fraud, or cognitive biases. The modern study of ESP emerged from 19th-century spiritualism and psychical research societies, which investigated paranormal claims through early experimental methods. In 1930, psychologist J. B. Rhine and his wife Louisa established the at , marking the beginning of rigorous, university-affiliated ESP research in the United States. Rhine popularized the term "extrasensory perception" in his 1934 book Extra-Sensory Perception, where he detailed experiments using —decks featuring five simple symbols—to test subjects' ability to guess cards beyond chance levels, often under controlled conditions to rule out . These efforts, supported by figures like William McDougall, aimed to integrate ESP into mainstream , though the lab operated at Duke until 1965 before relocating as the Rhine Research Center. Despite decades of investigation, holds that ESP lacks empirical validation and is classified as a . Rhine's initial positive results could not be consistently replicated in subsequent studies, and methodological flaws—such as sensory cues, statistical errors, and selective reporting—have undermined claims of success. A comprehensive by Milton and Wiseman (1999) reviewed 30 ganzfeld experiments (a technique isolating subjects to enhance ESP detection) across multiple labs and found effect sizes indistinguishable from chance, with no evidence of anomalous information transfer. Similarly, analyses of mass-media ESP tests involving thousands of participants yielded results no better than random guessing. Mainstream organizations, including the , emphasize that while belief in ESP persists—often linked to intuitive thinking styles and existential anxieties—no mechanism or replicable proof has been established.

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Extrasensory perception (ESP) refers to the alleged acquisition of information about the external world through means other than the known physical senses, such as sight, hearing, touch, , and smell. This purported ability challenges conventional understandings of perception by suggesting direct mental access to knowledge without sensory mediation, as exemplified in claims of mind-to-mind communication () or awareness of remote events (). The term "extrasensory perception" was coined in 1934 by parapsychologist J.B. Rhine in his seminal monograph summarizing early experimental work at . In the field of , ESP phenomena fall under the broader category of "psi," a neutral term introduced in 1948 by psychologists Robert H. Thouless and B.P. Wiesner to describe anomalous mental processes, derived from the Greek psyche (mind or soul). Psi encompasses both receptive processes like ESP and other purported abilities, but emphasizes empirical investigation of these claims. ESP is distinct from psychokinesis (PK), the claimed mental influence over physical objects or events without physical interaction, as ESP focuses solely on information acquisition rather than causation or manipulation in the material world. This separation highlights ESP's emphasis on perceptual anomalies within parapsychological frameworks. Parapsychological claims of ESP pose philosophical challenges to strict materialism, which holds that perception and cognition arise exclusively from physical brain processes and sensory inputs, by implying non-physical mechanisms of knowledge that resonate with dualist views positing an independent mind.

Distinction from Other Phenomena

Extrasensory perception (ESP) fundamentally differs from normal sensory perception in that it purportedly involves the acquisition of information through mechanisms independent of the five recognized physical senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell—which operate via detectable physical stimuli such as light waves, sound vibrations, or chemical interactions. For instance, visual perception relies on electromagnetic radiation entering the eye and stimulating retinal cells, whereas ESP is claimed to bypass such channels entirely, allowing direct apprehension of distant or hidden information without physical mediation. ESP is also distinguished from certain related paranormal claims that incorporate anomalous but still sensory-like modalities. , for example, refers to the alleged ability to identify colors or objects through direct skin contact; while sometimes investigated as a potential psi phenomenon, it is often distinguished from core ESP due to possible involvement of tactile or physical inputs rather than fully transcending sensory apparatus. Similarly, aura reading involves perceiving supposed energy fields surrounding individuals, often described as an enhanced form of visual or synesthetic experience rather than a non-sensory process, setting it apart from the core definition of ESP as devoid of any physical sensory involvement. Non-paranormal psychological explanations offer alternative accounts for experiences resembling ESP, such as techniques employed by mentalists, where vague statements and observations of subtle behavioral cues create the illusion of insightful knowledge. further contributes, as individuals tend to recall instances where perceived intuitions align with outcomes while disregarding discrepancies, mimicking extrasensory accuracy without invoking means. These mechanisms highlight how everyday cognitive processes can simulate ESP-like phenomena. Within , ESP is categorized as a core component of psi phenomena—encompassing anomalous and action—that involves the anomalous acquisition of information, which can include purported interactions with discarnate entities in survival-related abilities like (though this raises debates between super-ESP from living sources and direct post-mortem communication).

Types of Extrasensory Perception

Telepathy

Telepathy refers to the purported direct transfer of thoughts, feelings, or information from one mind to another without the use of known sensory channels or physical interaction. It is classified as a primary form of extrasensory perception (ESP), involving interpersonal communication distinct from perceiving external objects or events. Within parapsychology, telepathy is divided into subtypes based on intentionality and timing. Active telepathy involves deliberate transmission or reception of information, often in controlled settings where one individual (the agent) consciously sends a thought or image to another (the percipient). In contrast, latent telepathy, also known as unconscious or deferred telepathy, occurs without conscious effort and may involve a time lag between the event and its perception, such as receiving impressions of past or future thoughts. These distinctions highlight telepathy's proposed variability, from spontaneous emotional exchanges to structured attempts at mind-to-mind linkage. Early historical claims of telepathy emerged through organized investigations in the late . In 1882, the (SPR) formed a committee to study "thought-transference," conducting initial experiments with the Creery sisters in , where percipients reportedly identified hidden cards and objects at rates exceeding chance expectations. These trials, led by researchers including William Barrett, Edmund Gurney, and , involved 382 attempts over several days, yielding successes such as five consecutive correct guesses of playing cards with odds against chance estimated at over 1 in a billion. However, in 1888, two of the sisters confessed to using secret signals such as eye movements and foot tapping in some trials, leading to the discrediting of the overall findings, though the method could not fully explain all reported isolated successes. The SPR's work established thought-transference as a foundational concept in parapsychological inquiry, influencing subsequent claims of non-sensory mental communication. Purported mechanisms for telepathy have drawn analogies from physics in modern parapsychology, though these remain speculative. Some researchers propose models likening telepathic links to , where distant particles exhibit correlated states instantaneously, suggesting a non-local transfer of mental without signal . For instance, a 2010 quantum model posits that entangled quantum states in neural processes could enable such mind-to-mind correlations, framing telepathy as an extension of subatomic interconnectedness. Examples of this include crisis telepathy reported among identical twins, where one twin senses the other's distress during emergencies, such as injury or illness, often interpreted as an unconscious emotional transmission amplified by genetic similarity. Accounts describe twins experiencing shared physical sensations, like pain or anxiety, during life-threatening events separated by distance. A notable example of claimed telepathic ability is documented in Upton Sinclair's 1930 book Mental Radio, which details informal experiments conducted with his wife, Mary Craig Sinclair, over three years. In these trials, Upton created drawings in a separate room or at distances up to 40 miles, while Mary attempted to replicate them mentally, achieving 65 exact matches and 155 partial successes out of 290 attempts, far surpassing chance levels. The experiments focused on artistic imagery, such as objects and scenes, and were later analyzed by parapsychologists Walter Franklin Prince and William McDougall, who affirmed the results as evidence of telepathic transmission. Sinclair's work emphasized the role of emotional bonds in facilitating such "mental radio" exchanges.

Clairvoyance and Precognition

, often described as "clear seeing," refers to the purported extrasensory perception of information about distant or hidden objects, events, or locations that cannot be obtained through normal sensory channels. This ability is distinguished from , which involves mind-to-mind communication, as clairvoyance focuses on direct perception of physical or environmental targets independent of other individuals' thoughts. Examples include claims of locating lost items or describing concealed scenes, such as in early experimental setups where subjects attempted to identify hidden cards or objects. Precognition, in contrast, involves the anticipation of future events or outcomes without any logical inference or prior knowledge, allowing individuals to acquire non-inferential information arising from events that have not yet occurred. This form of extrasensory perception emphasizes forward-looking foresight, often reported through dreams, visions, or sudden intuitions about impending incidents. A related subtype, , pertains to the perception of past events after they have transpired, though it receives less emphasis in parapsychological literature compared to precognition's prospective nature. In the 1920s, the conducted pioneering tests using free-response and quantitative methods, where participants described hidden targets like drawings or objects screened from view, aiming to quantify hits beyond chance levels. These experiments, led by researchers such as , explored the reliability of such perceptions through controlled trials. Precognitive dreams gained attention through J.W. Dunne's 1927 book An Experiment with Time, in which he documented personal experiences of dreams that accurately foreshadowed future personal events, such as disasters or daily occurrences, and proposed a method for readers to track similar instances. During the 1970s, the U.S. government explored —a claimed application of —as part of the Stargate Project, a classified program investigating psychic methods for intelligence gathering, such as visualizing distant sites or hidden facilities. The project, involving trained viewers attempting to describe remote targets, was declassified in 1995, revealing operational trials spanning over two decades.

Historical Context

Ancient and Pre-Modern Beliefs

In ancient civilizations, concepts akin to extrasensory perception (ESP) manifested through prophetic visions and oracles, interpreted as divine communications beyond ordinary senses. In the , dreams and visions served as channels for foreknowledge and guidance, such as Abraham's vision foretelling future events (Genesis 17) or Isaiah's encounter with divine seraphs (), viewed as direct revelations from that transcended human perception. Similarly, the Delphic in , established around the 8th century BCE as Apollo's sanctuary, functioned as a primary site for where the priestess entered trance-like states to deliver ambiguous prophecies, consulted by civic leaders for insights into the gods' will and future outcomes. These practices underscored a widespread belief in mediated extrasensory access to hidden knowledge, central to religious and communal . Indigenous cultures worldwide incorporated shamanic trance states as mechanisms for ESP-like interactions with the spirit world, enabling healing, prophecy, and divination. Shamans across societies, from Siberian Evenki to Mesoamerican groups, achieved altered states of consciousness through drumming, chanting, psychedelics like balche in Yucatec rituals, or dreams among Huastec practitioners, allowing them to perceive and communicate with spirits for communal guidance. In ancient Greece and Rome, oracles were broadly accepted as valid conduits for supernatural insight, influencing state affairs, though philosophical skepticism emerged; Cicero's De Divinatione (44 BCE), a dialogue between his brother Quintus (defending divination) and himself, critiqued oracles and prophecies as superstitious, arguing they lacked rational evidence and often relied on coincidence or fraud. During the medieval and periods in , ESP-related beliefs intertwined with fears of , often framed as demonic rather than divine gifts. The (1487), authored by (with attributed co-author Jacob Sprenger), portrayed witches as women empowered by pacts with demons to perform supernatural feats, including causing impotence or storms through spells, shape-shifting, and nocturnal flights to sabbaths, justifying inquisitorial trials across . These abilities were seen as inverted extrasensory powers, enabling harm and deception under satanic influence, fueling witch hunts until the 17th century. Non-Western traditions also embedded ESP concepts in spiritual frameworks. In ancient Hindu texts like Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (c. 2nd–4th century CE), siddhis represented yogic accomplishments granting extrasensory perceptions, such as (knowledge of others' thoughts), of distant objects, and the eight mahasiddhis including (laghima) and atomization (animā), attained through or austerity but warned against as distractions from enlightenment. In Chinese cosmology, —the vital energy constituting all existence—was believed perceivable through divination practices like the (c. 1000 BCE), where interpreting hexagrams revealed patterns of cosmic change, akin to extrasensory attunement to yin-yang flows for foresight and harmony.

Modern Emergence in the 19th-20th Centuries

The modern emergence of extrasensory perception (ESP) as a formalized concept began in the mid-19th century amid the rise of spiritualism, a movement that popularized claims of communication with spirits and phenomena. In 1848, sisters Margaret and in Hydesville, New York, reported mysterious rapping sounds in their home, which they interpreted as messages from the deceased using a code similar to the Morse alphabet. This event, promoted by their older sister Leah, sparked widespread interest and led to public séances where mediums claimed to demonstrate telepathic and clairvoyant abilities, framing ESP as a bridge between the living and the spirit world. Spiritualism rapidly spread across and , attracting figures from and who viewed these manifestations as potential evidence of non-physical perception, though the later confessed to producing the sounds via toe-cracking before retracting the admission. By the late 19th century, efforts to study ESP shifted toward systematic investigation through psychical research. In 1882, the (SPR) was established in by a group of scholars including philosopher , physicist William Fletcher Barrett, and classics scholar , aiming to apply scientific methods to phenomena like and apparitions of the dead. Sidgwick, as the first president, emphasized rigorous inquiry to distinguish genuine ESP from fraud or hallucination, leading to early reports on thought-transference experiments and ghostly sightings that influenced public discourse on psychic abilities. The SPR's work, including the 1886 publication of Phantasms of the Living by Myers, Gurney, and Podmore, documented cases suggesting extrasensory communication, establishing psychical research as a precursor to modern . The early 20th century saw parapsychology institutionalize as a distinct field, particularly through J.B. Rhine's efforts at Duke University. In 1930, Rhine, a botanist turned researcher, founded the Parapsychology Laboratory at Duke with his wife Louisa, focusing on empirical tests of ESP under controlled conditions. Collaborating with perceptual psychologist Karl Zener, Rhine introduced Zener cards in the early 1930s—decks featuring five symbols (circle, cross, waves, square, star)—to quantify telepathy and clairvoyance through guessing tasks, as detailed in Rhine's 1934 book Extra-Sensory Perception. These experiments aimed to measure psi abilities statistically, positioning parapsychology as a legitimate scientific endeavor despite ongoing debates. Mid-20th-century developments further solidified the field's structure with the founding of professional organizations. In 1957, the Parapsychological Association (PA) was established at the initiative of J.B. Rhine and other researchers, serving as an international body for scientists studying psi phenomena, including ESP. The PA's formation facilitated annual conventions and peer-reviewed publications, promoting standardized methodologies and interdisciplinary collaboration in . This era marked ESP's transition from fringe spiritualism to an organized area of inquiry, influencing subsequent research into perceptual anomalies.

Scientific Research and Evidence

Early Experimental Approaches

The Society for Psychical Research (SPR), established in 1882, pioneered laboratory-based investigations into extrasensory perception through its Thought-Transference Committee, focusing on telepathic phenomena in the 1880s and 1890s. Key figures including Edmund Gurney, Frederic W.H. Myers, and Henry Sidgwick designed protocols where an "agent" concentrated on a simple target—such as a playing card, number, or drawn object—while a screened "percipient" in an adjacent or distant room attempted to identify it verbally or in writing. These experiments emphasized repetition for statistical evaluation, with early trials involving household objects or standard card decks to test thought transference under controlled conditions, often conducted in private homes or SPR facilities to minimize external interference. In the 1930s, parapsychologist J.B. Rhine advanced these methods at University's Parapsychology Laboratory by introducing a standardized quantitative framework using , a 25-card deck featuring five suits of symbols: a circle, cross, square, star, and three wavy lines. Rhine's protocols tested (guessing hidden cards) and (guessing cards viewed by a sender), with subjects providing guesses for entire decks or runs of 25 cards, recorded on separate sheets to prevent immediate feedback. The baseline chance hit rate was 20% due to the five-symbol design, allowing for clear deviation analysis; for instance, in the 1933–1934 Pearce-Pratt distance series, subject Hubert Pearce, separated by up to 250 yards from the cards, recorded 558 correct guesses out of 1,850 trials, exceeding chance expectations. Rhine incorporated mechanical shufflers and sealed envelopes to enhance reliability across thousands of trials. Field-based approaches emerged in the 1960s with Montague Ullman's studies at in , New York, blending sleep laboratory techniques with ESP testing from 1964 onward. Participants, selected for creative or psychic interests, underwent EEG and eye-movement monitoring to detect REM sleep phases; upon awakening, they recounted dreams, which were transcribed verbatim. Simultaneously, an agent in an isolated room concentrated on transmitting details from one of 12 emotionally evocative art prints, selected randomly before the session. Independent judges, blind to the target, ranked dream content against all prints for thematic matches, with hits determined by high correspondence scores. Throughout these early efforts, experimenters identified methodological challenges, including —unintended visual or auditory cues, such as glimpses of cards through screens or experimenters' subtle reactions—and cueing from inadequate randomization, like predictable shuffling patterns. In SPR setups, initial trials revealed risks of deliberate signaling or inadvertent hints between participants in close proximity, prompting stricter isolation and verification procedures. Rhine's team countered these by relocating subjects to separate buildings, employing automated devices for card handling, and withholding result confirmations until sessions ended, aiming to isolate extrasensory elements from ordinary perceptual influences.

Contemporary Studies and Meta-Analyses

Contemporary research on extrasensory perception (ESP) since the 1970s has emphasized refined experimental protocols and quantitative syntheses to evaluate claims of psi phenomena. The ganzfeld procedure, involving to facilitate telepathic transmission, emerged as a prominent method during this period. In a of 28 ganzfeld studies conducted between 1974 and 1981, Charles Honorton reported an overall hit rate of 35%, significantly exceeding the 25% expected by chance, with a combined z-score indicating a small but statistically significant of approximately 0.20. Subsequent refinements, including automated judging and double-blind protocols, have been applied in over 100 experiments, maintaining similar effect sizes in proponent-led reviews. Remote viewing experiments, which test by having participants describe distant or hidden targets, were systematically investigated through government-sponsored programs at from 1972 to 1995. Physicists and Harold Puthoff led early efforts, reporting successful trials where viewers accurately sketched remote sites, such as a Soviet facility, with judges matching descriptions to targets at rates better than chance (e.g., rankings of 1-2 out of 10 possibilities). The program, part of the broader Star Gate initiative, involved over 100 sessions and influenced later protocols, though operational applications yielded mixed outcomes. In the realm of precognition, psychologist Daryl Bem's 2011 study in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology presented nine experiments suggesting retroactive influences, where participants performed better on tasks after stimuli that had not yet occurred, with effect sizes ranging from 0.22 to 0.36 (p < 0.05 across conditions). A 2015 meta-analysis by Bem and colleagues of 90 replication attempts from 33 laboratories reported an overall effect greater than 6 sigma (Hedges' g = 0.09), supporting anomalous anticipation in randomized future events. However, independent large-scale replications in the 2010s and 2020s, such as a 2022 study with over 2,000 participants, failed to detect significant effects, highlighting persistent replication challenges. Integration with has explored physiological correlates of ESP tasks, particularly through (EEG). In 2004 experiments, Dean Radin examined event-related potentials in isolated subject pairs during telepathy-like tasks, finding correlated EEG responses (e.g., P300 components) in 3 of 13 pairs at distances up to 15 miles, with odds against chance of 1 in 1,000. Meta-analyses of EEG studies on anomalous perception from 2001 to 2019 have confirmed small effect sizes suggestive of potential brain-based markers for psi, though mechanisms remain debated. Broader meta-analyses post-2000 have synthesized ESP data across protocols. A 2023 review of 36 years of forced-choice ESP experiments (1987-2022) across 59 studies found a modest overall effect (z = 6.12, p < 10^{-9}), consistent with earlier syntheses but emphasizing the need for preregistered designs. Similarly, a 2021 meta-analysis of telepathy-focused ESP trials from the prior two decades reported a significant but small (g = 0.15), underscoring ongoing quantitative support amid methodological refinements. As of 2025, recent pre-registered studies continue to explore forced-choice designs, though large-scale replications remain inconsistent. These analyses reflect a field grappling with while advancing toward more rigorous, technology-integrated investigations.

Skepticism and Criticisms

Methodological and Scientific Critiques

Critics of extrasensory perception (ESP) research have highlighted numerous methodological flaws that undermine the validity of experimental findings. Common issues include inadequate controls against fraud and , where participants or experimenters might unconsciously or deliberately convey information through non-extrasensory channels. For instance, in many studies, insufficient safeguards allow for subtle cues, such as experimenter bias in judging responses or participant via unmonitored actions. errors further compromise results, as early ESP experiments often relied on manual shuffling or pseudorandom methods prone to patterns detectable by participants, leading to inflated hit rates that mimic ESP but stem from statistical artifacts. The file-drawer effect exacerbates these problems, with negative or null results disproportionately unpublished, skewing meta-analyses toward apparent positive effects; estimates suggest that dozens of unreported studies would be needed to nullify some reported significances in . A persistent lack of replication across independent laboratories has also drawn sharp scrutiny. The 1988 National Research Council report, after reviewing decades of parapsychological experiments including those on and , concluded that no scientific justification exists for ESP claims due to inconsistent and non-replicable outcomes, with methodological defects present in the majority of studies examined. For example, only a fraction of trials succeeded under rigorous , and even prominent protocols like the ganzfeld procedure have been criticized for vulnerability to despite attempts at . This failure to achieve reliable replication violates core scientific standards, rendering ESP phenomena unsubstantiated despite occasional positive results in proponent-led research. Theoretically, ESP poses profound incompatibilities with established physics, particularly in forms like that appear to violate by allowing future events to influence the present. No known mechanism accommodates non-local required for or , as such processes would exceed the and contravene relativity and principles. further limits ESP plausibility, as acquiring knowledge without sensory input defies and constraints in known physical systems. Bayesian analyses reinforce this skepticism, assigning ESP an extremely low given its contradiction with well-corroborated physical laws; even strong evidential support from experiments would require extraordinary replication to overcome such priors, a threshold unmet in .

Specific Case Debunkings

One prominent claim of extrasensory perception involved , or the alleged ability to perceive colors and read text using the skin, particularly the fingertips, without visual input. In the , Soviet researchers, including neurologist I.M. Goldberg, reported that Rosa Kuleshova, a 22-year-old woman from , could accurately identify colors and read printed material while blindfolded by running her fingers over surfaces. These demonstrations gained widespread attention in the , with Kuleshova appearing on national television in 1963, reaching over 40 million viewers. However, subsequent investigations revealed that her blindfolds were inadequately secured, allowing her to peek through gaps or around the edges, thus relying on normal vision rather than skin-based perception. Skeptics, including , highlighted how the setup enabled subtle cheating, such as tilting her head to view the material, debunking the claims as fraudulent. Similar vulnerabilities appeared in related demonstrations, such as those by other Soviet claimants in the and . For instance, skeptic tested a claimant of seeing without sight in 2001 using swimmer's goggles sealed with aluminum foil and to prevent peeking; the participant initially succeeded but failed after enhancements to the . This exposure underscored how methodological laxity, including inconsistent blindfolding, had propped up the illusion of skin vision across multiple cases. In the realm of mediumship, Italian medium Eusapia Palladino (1854–1918) was a central figure in late-19th-century spiritualism, renowned for producing physical phenomena like table levitations, spirit hands, and apportations during séances attended by scientists such as and Pierre and Marie Curie. Investigations in the 1890s, including controlled sittings in and , exposed her use of accomplices, hidden threads, and her own limbs to manipulate objects; for example, she was caught freeing her hands from restraints to move tables and produce "ectoplasmic" effects with or concealed in her clothing. , in his 1924 book A Magician Among the Spirits, analyzed Palladino's methods based on eyewitness reports and replicated her tricks using identical fraudulent techniques, such as foot-based manipulations and pre-arranged signals with assistants, confirming her phenomena as stage illusions rather than supernatural. Palladino's exposures were part of a broader pattern in mediumship frauds, where mediums employed cheesecloth soaked in chemicals to simulate ectoplasm or used confederates for auditory cues, as documented in multiple scientific critiques of the era. Other notable debunkers in this tradition include mentalist Derren Brown, who has exposed fraudulent psychic claims through demonstrations of psychological illusions and trickery. For instance, Brown investigated medium Sally Morgan, revealing evidence of hot reading techniques, such as the use of earpieces to receive information from assistants, to simulate communication with the dead—a form of alleged ESP. Through his performances and analyses, Brown illustrates how cold reading, suggestion, and misdirection can mimic extrasensory abilities without any paranormal involvement. The U.S. government's Stargate Project (1978–1995), a classified program exploring remote viewing as a form of clairvoyance for intelligence gathering, represented a high-profile ESP initiative funded by the CIA and DIA. Remote viewers, including participants like Joseph McMoneagle, claimed to describe distant or hidden targets, such as Soviet facilities, based on psychic impressions. In 1995, the American Institutes for Research conducted an independent evaluation at the CIA's request, reviewing over 20 years of experiments and operational records; the panel, led by statistician Jessica Utts and skeptic Ray Hyman, concluded that while some laboratory results showed statistical anomalies, remote viewing produced no actionable intelligence of value and was unreliable for practical applications. The review highlighted vague descriptions that could fit multiple targets and a lack of consistent hits in real-world scenarios, leading to the program's termination in September 1995. Contemporary claims of faced similar scrutiny in the . In 2011, psychologist published "Feeling the Future" in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, reporting nine experiments suggesting participants could anticipate random events, such as erotic images appearing on screens, with effect sizes indicating (p < 0.05 across studies). However, a 2012 pre-registered replication by Stuart Ritchie, , and Christopher French, involving three independent attempts with 150 participants, failed to reproduce the retroactive facilitation of recall effect, yielding non-significant results (combined p = 0.84). The replicators attributed Bem's original findings to questionable research practices, such as selective reporting and p-hacking—analyzing data in multiple ways until significance emerged—rather than genuine , a conclusion supported by subsequent meta-analyses showing diminished effects upon preregistration.

Cultural and Societal Impact

Extrasensory perception (ESP) has been a recurring motif in , often intertwined with themes of the and the human mind's hidden potentials. Edgar Allan Poe's "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar" (1845) depicts a mesmerizing experiment on a dying man, involving that blurs the boundaries between life, death, and of . In film, ESP frequently drives narrative tension and moral dilemmas. M. Night Shyamalan's The Sixth Sense (1999) centers on a child psychologist aiding a boy who communicates with the dead, presenting as a burdensome gift that reveals hidden truths about the living world. Steven Spielberg's Minority Report (2002), adapted from Philip K. Dick's story, features "pre-cogs" with precognitive visions used to preempt crimes, raising ethical questions about and in a dystopian society. Television and comics have amplified ESP through ensemble casts and serialized adventures. The Marvel Comics X-Men series, starting in 1963, showcases Professor X's telepathic prowess to read and influence minds, positioning mutants with ESP-like abilities as both heroes and societal outcasts. Netflix's Stranger Things (2016–present) draws on sensory deprivation experiments to depict Eleven's extrasensory powers, including remote viewing and telekinesis, as tools for battling otherworldly threats. These portrayals have solidified enduring tropes in media, such as the "" archetype, where individuals with ESP assist in solving mysteries through or visions, as seen in various narratives from the mid-20th century onward.

Public Beliefs and Surveys

Public belief in extrasensory perception (ESP) remains notable in contemporary societies, though levels vary by region and have shown fluctuations over time. In the United States, a 2005 Gallup poll found that 41% of Americans believed in ESP, making it the most commonly endorsed phenomenon among those surveyed. By 2025, this figure had declined to 24%, reflecting broader toward claims, with belief in ESP ranking as the most accepted among eight tested phenomena but still met with majority doubt. Demographic patterns indicate higher openness to beliefs, including ESP, among women (40%) compared to men (28%), and among those who infrequently attend religious services (40%) versus weekly churchgoers (78% skeptical). Globally, surveys reveal comparable yet regionally divergent patterns. A 2005 Gallup poll showed similar levels of paranormal belief, including ESP, across the , , and the , with ESP being the top endorsement in each. In , belief tends to be lower in ; for instance, a 2024 study in reported that 41% of adults affirm in phenomena, but rates for specific claims like ESP are generally subdued compared to more religious regions. A study on highlighted lower endorsement of beliefs in , attributing this to higher . Societal factors significantly influence acceptance of ESP. Studies from the consistently demonstrate an inverse correlation between analytical and belief in ESP, with greater analytical thinking associated with reduced endorsement of claims. Conversely, exposure to media portrayals of events has been linked to increased belief; a 2023 analysis found that heavier consumption of television, , and podcasts featuring themes predicts stronger convictions in phenomena such as UFOs. Recent trends suggest a resurgence in interest in ESP amid broader discussions of and following 2020. A 2023 Pew Research Center survey indicated that 70% of U.S. adults identify as spiritual in some form, with 22% describing themselves as , potentially fueling openness to phenomena like ESP as tools for personal insight. Similarly, 2024 data from the showed that 60% of adults view faith or as important to their , correlating with heightened exploration of non-traditional beliefs such as ESP in wellness contexts.

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