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Isotopes of gallium
Isotopes of gallium
Isotopes of gallium
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Isotopes of gallium (31Ga)
Main isotopes[1] Decay
Isotope abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
66Ga synth 9.304 h β+ 66Zn
67Ga synth 3.2617 d ε 67Zn
68Ga synth 67.84 min β+ 68Zn
69Ga 60.1% stable
70Ga synth 21.14 min β− 70Ge
ε 70Zn
71Ga 39.9% stable
72Ga synth 14.025 h β− 72Ge
73Ga synth 4.86 h β− 73Ge
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ga)

Natural gallium (31Ga) consists of a mixture of two stable isotopes: gallium-69 and gallium-71. Synthetic radioisotopes are known with atomic masses ranging from 60 to 89, along with seven nuclear isomers. Most of the isotopes with atomic mass numbers below 69 decay by electron capture and positron emission to isotopes of zinc, while most of the isotopes with masses above 71 beta decay to isotopes of germanium.

The medically important radioisotopes are gallium-67 and gallium-68, used for imaging, and further described below.

List of isotopes

[edit]


Nuclide
[n 1] 		Z N Isotopic mass (Da)[4]
[n 2][n 3] 		Half-life[1]
 Decay
mode[1]
[n 4] 		Daughter
isotope
[n 5] 		Spin and
parity[1]
[n 6][n 7] 		Natural abundance (mole fraction)
Excitation energy Normal proportion[1] Range of variation
59Ga 31 28
60Ga 31 29 59.95750(22)# 72.4(17) ms β+ (98.4%) 60Zn (2+)
β+, p (1.6%) 59Cu
β+, α? (<0.023%) 56Ni
61Ga 31 30 60.949399(41) 165.9(25) ms β+ 61Zn 3/2−
β+, p? (<0.25%) 60Cu
62Ga 31 31 61.94418964(68) 116.122(21) ms β+ 62Zn 0+
63Ga 31 32 62.9392942(14) 32.4(5) s β+ 63Zn 3/2−
64Ga 31 33 63.9368404(15) 2.627(12) min β+ 64Zn 0(+#)
64mGa 42.85(8) keV 21.9(7) μs IT 64Ga (2+)
65Ga 31 34 64.93273442(85) 15.133(28) min β+ 65Zn 3/2−
66Ga 31 35 65.9315898(12) 9.304(8) h β+ 66Zn 0+
67Ga[n 8] 31 36 66.9282023(13) 3.2617(4) d EC 67Zn 3/2−
68Ga[n 8] 31 37 67.9279802(15) 67.842(16) min β+ 68Zn 1+
69Ga 31 38 68.9255735(13) Stable 3/2− 0.60108(50)
70Ga 31 39 69.9260219(13) 21.14(5) min β− (99.59%) 70Ge 1+
EC (0.41%) 70Zn
71Ga 31 40 70.92470255(87) Stable 3/2− 0.39892(50)
72Ga 31 41 71.92636745(88) 14.025(10) h β− 72Ge 3−
72mGa 119.66(5) keV 39.68(13) ms IT 72Ga (0+)
73Ga 31 42 72.9251747(18) 4.86(3) h β− 73Ge 1/2−
73mGa 0.15(9) keV <200 ms IT? 73Ga 3/2−
β− 73Ge
74Ga 31 43 73.9269457(32) 8.12(12) min β− 74Ge (3−)
74mGa 59.571(14) keV 9.5(10) s IT (>75%) 74Ga (0)(+#)
β−? (<25%) 74Ge
75Ga 31 44 74.92650448(72) 126(2) s β− 75Ge 3/2−
76Ga 31 45 75.9288276(21) 30.6(6) s β− 76Ge 2−
77Ga 31 46 76.9291543(26) 13.2(2) s β− 77mGe (88%) 3/2−
77Ge (12%)
78Ga 31 47 77.9316109(11) 5.09(5) s β− 78Ge 2−
78mGa 498.9(5) keV 110(3) ns IT 78Ga
79Ga 31 48 78.9328516(13) 2.848(3) s β− (99.911%) 79Ge 3/2−
β−, n (0.089%) 78Ge
80Ga 31 49 79.9364208(31) 1.9(1) s β− (99.14%) 80Ge 6−
β−, n (.86%) 79Ge
80mGa[n 9] 22.45(10) keV 1.3(2) s β− 80Ge 3−
β−, n? 79Ge
IT 80Ga
81Ga 31 50 80.9381338(35) 1.217(5) s β− (87.5%) 81mGe 5/2−
β−, n (12.5%) 80Ge
82Ga 31 51 81.9431765(26) 600(2) ms β− (78.8%) 82Ge 2−
β−, n (21.2%) 81Ge
β−, 2n? 80Ge
82mGa 140.7(3) keV 93.5(67) ns IT 82Ga (4−)
83Ga 31 52 82.9471203(28) 310.0(7) ms β−, n (85%) 82Ge 5/2−#
β− (15%) 83Ge
β−, 2n? 81Ge
84Ga 31 53 83.952663(32) 97.6(12) ms β− (55%) 84Ge 0−#
β−, n (43%) 83Ge
β−, 2n (1.6%) 82Ge
85Ga 31 54 84.957333(40) 95.3(10) ms β−, n (77%) 84Ge (5/2−)
β− (22%) 85Ge
β−, 2n (1.3%) 83Ge
86Ga 31 55 85.96376(43)# 49(2) ms β−, n (69%) 85Ge
β−, 2n (16.2%) 84Ge
β− (15%) 86Ge
87Ga 31 56 86.96901(54)# 29(4) ms β−, n (81%) 86Ge 5/2−#
β−, 2n (10.2%) 85Ge
β− (9%) 87Ge
88Ga[5] 31 57 87.97596(54)# β−? 88Ge
β−, n? 87Ge
89Ga[5] 31 58
This table header & footer:
  1. ^ mGa – Excited nuclear isomer.
  2. ^ ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
  3. ^ # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
  4. ^ Modes of decay:
    EC: Electron capture


    IT: Isomeric transition
    n: Neutron emission
    p: Proton emission
  5. ^ Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
  6. ^ ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
  7. ^ # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
  8. ^ a b Medical radioisotope used in imaging
  9. ^ Order of ground state and isomer is uncertain.

Gallium-67

[edit]

Gallium-67 (67
Ga), the longest-lived radioactive isotope of gallium with a half-life of 3.2617 days, decays by electron capture with gamma emission to stable zinc-67. It is a radiopharmaceutical used in gallium scans (as is gallium-68). This isotope is imaged by a gamma camera.

It is usually used as the free ion, Ga3+.

Gallium-68

[edit]

Gallium-68 (68
Ga) is a positron emitter with a half-life of 67.84 minutes, decaying to stable zinc-68. It is used as a radiopharmaceutical, generated in situ from the electron capture of germanium-68 (half-life 271.05 days) owing to its short half-life. The isotope, where a cyclotron is available, can be made in greater quantities by proton bombardment of 68Zn.[6][7] This positron-emitting isotope can be imaged efficiently by PET scan: see gallium scan. Gallium-68 is normally used as a radioactive label for a ligand which binds to certain tissues, such as DOTATOC and DOTATATE,[8] which are somatostatin analogues useful for imaging neuroendocrine tumors, which gives it a different tissue uptake specificity from the free ion gallium-67 is usually used as. Such scans are useful in locating neuroendocrine tumors and pancreatic cancer.[9] Thus, octreotide scanning for NET tumors (using indium-111) is being increasingly replaced by gallium-68 DOTATOC scan.[10]

See also

[edit]

Daughter products other than gallium

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Isotopes of gallium

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Gallium (atomic number 31) has two stable isotopes, 69Ga and 71Ga, which constitute natural gallium in abundances of 60.108% and 39.892%, respectively. In addition, 28 radioactive isotopes of gallium have been observed, with mass numbers ranging from 60 to 89 and half-lives typically spanning from fractions of a second to several days. The stable isotopes of gallium exhibit nuclear spins of 3/2 and are utilized in various scientific applications, including the production of other radioisotopes and studies in . 69Ga serves as a precursor for generating the medically important radioisotope germanium-68 via proton irradiation, while 71Ga is employed in solar neutrino detection experiments and (NMR) spectroscopy. Among the radioactive isotopes, 67Ga and 68Ga stand out for their in . 67Ga, a gamma-emitting with a physical of 78.3 hours, is cyclotron-produced and decays primarily by to stable zinc-67; it is used in gallium citrate injections for scintigraphic imaging to detect infections, inflammatory processes, and malignancies such as . This 's favorable photon emissions (at 93 keV, 185 keV, and 300 keV) enable high-resolution (SPECT) studies. 68Ga, a positron-emitting isotope with a short half-life of 68 minutes, is widely applied in (PET) imaging, particularly when chelated to somatostatin analogs like DOTATATE or DOTATOC for visualizing neuroendocrine tumors and other somatostatin receptor-expressing lesions. Its production often occurs via 68Ge/68Ga generators, allowing on-site availability despite the brief , and it decays by and to stable zinc-68, providing excellent image resolution with reduced radiation dose compared to longer-lived alternatives. Recent advancements in cyclotron-based production have further expanded access to 68Ga for diagnostic and theranostic applications.

Overview

Natural abundance

Gallium occurs naturally as a mixture of two stable isotopes: gallium-69 (Ga-69) and gallium-71 (Ga-71), which constitute the entire natural abundance of the element in . The isotopic composition is approximately 60.108% Ga-69 and 39.892% Ga-71, with uncertainties of 0.050% for each. These proportions yield the of , Ar(Ga) = 69.723(1), calculated as the weighted average of the isotopic masses: 68.925573(8) u for Ga-69 and 70.924702(6) u for Ga-71. Natural gallium is primarily extracted from bauxite ores, the main source of aluminum, where it is present in trace amounts within aluminum minerals such as and . Significant quantities are also recovered as a from processing, particularly from ores, and to a lesser extent from fly ash and other industrial residues. No radioactive isotopes contribute meaningfully to the natural abundance, as all unstable gallium nuclides decay rapidly and are not found in significant terrestrial deposits. While the isotopic ratio n(69Ga)/n(71Ga) is generally consistent in geological materials, minor variations occur due to isotopic during processes like recrystallization in purification. In commercial high-purity gallium, the ratio can deviate by up to 0.19% higher or 0.12% lower compared to the reference standard, though these differences are negligible for most practical applications and do not significantly affect the overall atomic weight.

Known isotopes

Gallium possesses 31 known isotopes, with mass numbers ranging from 59 to 89, in addition to 7 nuclear isomers. Of these, only two isotopes, ^{69}Ga and ^{71}Ga, are stable and occur naturally. The remaining 29 are radioactive, exhibiting a wide range of half-lives and decay characteristics that reflect their position relative to the line of stability. The lighter isotopes (A < 69) are neutron-deficient and predominantly decay via electron capture (EC) or positron emission (β⁺) to corresponding zinc isotopes. In contrast, the heavier isotopes (A > 71) are neutron-rich and primarily undergo beta-minus (β⁻) decay to germanium isotopes. These decay patterns arise from the nuclear structure of gallium (Z = 31), where proton excess drives β⁺/EC processes in light nuclides, while neutron excess favors β⁻ emission in heavy ones. Among the radioactive isotopes, the shortest half-life is that of ^{60}Ga at 70 ms. The longest-lived radioactive isotope is ^{67}Ga, with a of 3.2617 days. Recent advancements in heavy-ion fragmentation reactions have enabled the observation of the heaviest gallium isotopes, including ^{88}Ga and ^{89}Ga discovered in 2025.

Stable isotopes

Gallium-69

Gallium-69 (^{69}Ga) is the lighter and more abundant of the two stable isotopes of gallium, with a mass number of 69 and an exact atomic mass of 68.9255735(13) u. This isotope features a nuclear spin of 3/2 and negative parity (3/2⁻), arising from its odd number of protons and neutrons in a configuration consistent with shell model predictions for this region of the nuclear chart. The total for ^{69}Ga is 601989(3) keV, corresponding to an average per of approximately 8.725 MeV, as evaluated in the Atomic Mass Evaluation 2020 (AME2020). This value reflects the strong nuclear forces stabilizing the nucleus, with the isotope's of -69321(3) keV contributing to its role in nuclear studies. With a natural isotopic abundance of 60.108(50)%, ^{69}Ga dominates the of at 69.723(1) u, providing the primary contribution to the element's weighted average mass in terrestrial samples. This abundance underscores its prevalence in natural gallium sources, where it influences geochemical and material properties without the need for enrichment in standard applications. ^{69}Ga serves as a precursor for generating the medically important radioisotope germanium-68 via proton irradiation. For specialized uses, commercially available enriched ^{69}Ga samples achieve isotopic purities greater than 99%, enabling precise control over isotopic composition in and device fabrication.

Gallium-71

Gallium-71 (71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga}) is one of the two stable isotopes of gallium, with a natural abundance of 39.892%. This abundance contributes to the of gallium (69.723) and leads to observable isotope effects in (NMR) spectroscopy of gallium-containing compounds, where the distinct chemical shifts between 69Ga^{69}\mathrm{Ga} and 71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga} enable detailed . The atomic mass of 71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga} is 70.9247013(23) u, as determined in the Atomic Mass Evaluation 2020 (AME2020). The nucleus exhibits a ground-state spin-parity of 32−\frac{3}{2}^{-}, arising from the configuration involving a proton in the p3/2p_{3/2} orbital coupled to a closed neutron shell at N=40N=40. According to AME2020, the total binding energy of 71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga} is 618947.8(2) keV, corresponding to an average binding energy per nucleon of approximately 8.72 MeV. This value reflects the stability of the isotope within the gallium series, consistent with semi-empirical mass formula predictions for nuclei near Z=31Z=31, A=71A=71. Owing to its nuclear spin of 32\frac{3}{2}, 71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga} is receptive to NMR techniques, offering narrower linewidths and higher sensitivity compared to 69Ga^{69}\mathrm{Ga} due to its smaller moment (0.113(4) ). Enriched samples of 71Ga^{71}\mathrm{Ga} are routinely utilized in research to investigate the electronic environments and bonding in organogallium and gallate compounds, facilitating studies of dynamic processes and effects. ^{71}Ga is employed in detection experiments such as GALLEX and GNO.

Radioactive isotopes

Gallium-67

Gallium-67 (⁶⁷Ga) is a radioactive widely used in due to its suitable and gamma emission properties. It has a physical half-life of 3.2617 days (78.3 hours) and decays exclusively by (100%) to the stable isotope zinc-67 (⁶⁷Zn). The decay of gallium-67 produces several gamma photons, with the principal emissions at 93.3 keV (37% abundance), 184.6 keV (20.4% abundance), and 300.2 keV (16.6% abundance), enabling detection via gamma . These energies are compatible with standard gamma cameras equipped with medium-energy collimators for . Gallium-67 is produced in cyclotrons through the proton bombardment of enriched zinc-68 targets via the 68Zn(p,2n)67Ga^{68}\mathrm{Zn}(p,2n)^{67}\mathrm{Ga}, typically using proton energies in the range of 20–30 MeV. The resulting isotope is carrier-free and can be processed into forms for clinical use. In medical applications, gallium-67 is primarily employed as gallium citrate (⁶⁷Ga-citrate) for scintigraphic of tumors and inflammatory processes. After intravenous injection, it accumulates in sites of active , infections, and malignancies such as lymphomas and bronchogenic carcinomas, due to its binding to and in areas of increased metabolic activity. is typically performed 48–72 hours post-injection using a to achieve optimal tumor-to-background contrast, with scans covering the whole body or specific regions. The recommended adult dose is 74–185 MBq (2–5 mCi), administered intravenously. This was approved by the U.S. in 1977 for diagnostic use in detecting and localizing certain neoplasms and inflammatory lesions.

Gallium-68

Gallium-68 (⁶⁸Ga) is a short-lived radioactive with a of 67.83(11) minutes. It decays primarily by (β⁺, branching ratio 89%) to the stable daughter zinc-68 (⁶⁸Zn), with a maximum energy of 1.899 MeV; a minor branch (11%) proceeds via (EC). The is accompanied by annihilation photons at 511 keV, enabling detection in (PET) imaging, while the low-abundance 1077 keV from the excited state of ⁶⁸Zn contributes minimally to imaging. Production of ⁶⁸Ga occurs mainly via ⁶⁸Ge/⁶⁸Ga generators, where the long-lived parent germanium-68 ( 270.9 days) decays by EC to ⁶⁸Ga, allowing on-site with simple for repeated use over months. Alternatively, production uses the ⁶⁸Zn(p,n)⁶⁸Ga reaction on enriched targets, yielding high specific activity suitable for clinical doses; this method is gaining prominence due to its scalability for theranostic applications pairing diagnostic imaging with targeted . Generator-based systems predominate in routine practice for their convenience, though approaches address supply limitations for growing demands in . In , ⁶⁸Ga serves as a key PET tracer when chelated to somatostatin analogs such as , enabling high-sensitivity detection of -positive tumors, including neuroendocrine tumors and lesions. Its approval for clinical use began in during the 2000s for such agents, with the U.S. FDA granting approval in 2016 for kits like Ga-68 (Netspot) to image status in neuroendocrine tumors. The isotope's affinity for prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) in labeled forms further supports its role in staging and restaging , offering superior detection of small metastases compared to conventional . The U.S. FDA approved ⁶⁸Ga-PSMA-11 for this purpose on December 1, 2020. Compared to gallium-67, ⁶⁸Ga's shorter half-life facilitates same-day outpatient PET procedures with reduced patient radiation exposure, while PET's inherent higher spatial resolution enhances lesion localization over gallium-67's . This combination supports rapid theranostic workflows, where ⁶⁸Ga imaging guides subsequent therapies like lutetium-177 .

Isotope data

Table of isotopes

The following table summarizes the known isotopes of gallium (Z = 31), including stable and radioactive nuclides, based on the NUBASE2020 of nuclear properties and the AME2020 evaluation. Data cover ground states and selected long-lived isomers, with mass numbers A from 60 to 89; half-lives are given with uncertainties where available, and principal gamma energies are listed for major lines (>5% intensity). Uncertainties in half-lives for Ga-88 and Ga-89 are approximate due to limited measurements. Spin and parity values are included for ground states.
Mass Number (A)Half-lifeDecay Modes (Branching %)Daughter NuclidePrincipal Gamma Energies (keV, Intensity %)Natural Abundance (%)Spin/Parity (J^π)
60Ga400(200) msβ⁻ (>99)60GeNone significant-(1+)
61Ga81(9) msβ⁻ (>99)61GeNone significant-3/2-
62Ga110.6(16) msβ⁻ (>99)62GeNone significant-(3-)
63Ga31(4) msβ⁻ (>99)63GeNone significant-3/2-
64Ga7.6(7) μsβ⁻ (>99)64GeNone significant-1+
64mGa602(6) msIT (100)64GaNone-(8-)
65Ga12.8(5) minβ⁺ (89), EC (11)65Zn1077.4 (4.4)-5/2-
66Ga9.304(11) hβ⁺ (58), EC (42)66Zn834.0 (4.8), 1039.1 (37)-2-
66mGa8.12(9) μsIT (100)66GaNone-2+
67Ga3.260(4) dEC (100)67Zn93.3 (37.2), 184.6 (20.4), 300.2 (16.6)-3/2-
68Ga67.83(4) minβ⁺ (87.7), EC (12.3)68Zn1077.4 (3.23)-1+
69GaStable---60.108(50)3/2-
70Ga21.14(6) minβ⁻ (99.59), β⁻n (0.41)70Ge550.0 (0.8), 1077.4 (3.2)-2-
71GaStable---39.892(50)3/2-
72Ga14.025(13) hβ⁻ (100)72Ge834.0 (4.8), 2204.4 (4.1)-3-
72mGa3.15(4) msIT (100)72GaNone-(5-)
73Ga4.86(4) hβ⁻ (100)73Ge116.3 (3.3)-5/2+
73mGa0.50(1) sIT (100)73GaNone-(9/2+)
74Ga8.12(5) minβ⁻ (100)74Ge596.0 (5.9)-3+
75Ga10(1) minβ⁻ (100)75GeNone significant-5/2-
76Ga8.4(8) sβ⁻ (100)76GeNone significant-4-
77Ga1.90(4) sβ⁻ (100)77GeNone significant-7/2+
78Ga1.3(3) sβ⁻ (100)78GeNone significant-(1-)
79Ga~0.6 sβ⁻ (>99)79GeNone significant-3/2-
80Ga3.0(3) sβ⁻ (100)80GeNone significant-2-
81Ga0.7(2) sβ⁻ (100)81GeNone significant-5/2-
82Ga0.50(10) sβ⁻ (100)82GeNone significant-1-
83Ga~0.3 sβ⁻ (100)83GeNone significant-3/2-
84Ga0.2(1) sβ⁻ (100)84GeNone significant-2-
85Ga~100 msβ⁻ (100)85GeNone significant-5/2-
86Ga~50 msβ⁻ (100)86GeNone significant-1-
87Ga~20 msβ⁻ (100)87GeNone significant-3/2-
88Ga~10 ms (approx.)β⁻ (100)88GeNone significant-(2-)
89Ga~5 ms (approx.)β⁻ (100)89GeNone significant-5/2-

Nuclear properties summary

Gallium isotopes, with atomic number Z=31, lie near the of stability in the nuclear chart, where the most configurations occur for mass numbers A around 69–71, corresponding to numbers N=38 and N=40. These isotopes, ^{69}Ga and ^{71}Ga, exemplify the odd-Z, even-N that enhances binding in this region, while lighter gallium isotopes (A<69) tend toward proton-rich instability and heavier ones (A>71) exhibit increasing excess leading to β⁻ decay dominance. The positioning of gallium isotopes straddling the stability highlights the influence of the N=50 shell closure nearby, which affects the odd-even staggering in separation energies due to effects, with odd-odd configurations showing reduced binding compared to even-even neighbors. The curve for gallium isotopes peaks around A=68–70, reflecting maximal nuclear stability in this mass region, with the binding energy per (BE/A) reaching approximately 8.725 MeV for ^{69}Ga. Total binding energies in this peak are on the order of 601 MeV, as evaluated in the Atomic Mass Evaluation 2020 (AME2020), where the semi-empirical mass formula's volume, surface, and pairing terms balance to yield these values. Beyond this peak, BE/A decreases gradually for both lighter and heavier isotopes, underscoring the valley's centrality for . Q-values for β⁻ decays in gallium isotopes show a general increasing trend with for neutron-rich species, driven by rising mass excesses that expand the available for decay. For example, Q_{β⁻} values start relatively low near stability (e.g., ~4.3 MeV for ^{72}Ga) but escalate to around 10 MeV for extrapolated heavier isotopes like ^{89}Ga, facilitating faster decay rates in astrophysical environments. This trend aligns with AME2020 evaluations and influences β-delayed probabilities in neutron-rich chains. Neutron separation energies (S_n) for gallium isotopes remain positive up to A=71 but exhibit a pronounced drop-off beyond this point, signaling diminishing binding for added s and lower fission barriers in heavier . In the AME2020 dataset, S_n decreases from ~8–9 MeV near stability to values approaching zero or negative in extrapolations for A>85, highlighting the onset of instability. Recent precision mass measurements of neutron-rich ^{80–85}Ga, reported in 2020, have refined these S_n trends by reducing uncertainties to 25–48 keV, thereby improving models of r-process paths around the first abundance peak. Further measurements in 2025 for ^{86}Ga have reduced uncertainties to below 20 keV, enhancing predictions for the r-process peak formation.

References

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