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Gakgung
A Korean Bow (각궁, Gak-gung) that has not been strung
Korean name
Hangul
각궁
Hanja
角弓
Revised RomanizationGakgung
McCune–ReischauerKakkung
alternative name
Hangul
국궁
Hanja
國弓
Revised RomanizationGuggung
McCune–ReischauerKukkung
Korean archery
Hangul
궁술
Hanja
弓術
Revised RomanizationGungsul
McCune–ReischauerKungsul

The Korean Bow (Korean: 각궁, Gak-gung hanja: 角弓, or horn bow) is a water buffalo horn-based composite reflex bow, standardized centuries ago from a variety of similar weapons in earlier use.[1] Due to its long use by Koreans, it is also known as Guk Gung (Korean: 국궁 hanja: 國弓, or national bow). The Korean bow utilizes a thumb draw and therefore employing the use of a thumb ring is quite common. The Korean thumb ring is somewhat different from the Manchu, Mongol, or the Turkic thumb rings, as it comes in two styles, male and female. Male thumb rings are shaped with a small protrusion that sticks out that the bowstring hooks behind (similar to a release aid), while the female thumb ring simply covers the front joint of the thumb as protection from getting blisters (pulling heavy bows repetitively with only the thumb can easily cause blisters to form on the pad of the thumb).[2]

Gungsul, Korean: 궁술, hanja: 弓術, sometimes also romanized as goong sool, literally means "techniques of the bow" or "skill with the bow". It is also referred to as Korean traditional archery. However, goong sool is not a desirable expression. [3] Gungdo, Korean: 궁도, hanja: 弓道, "way of the bow" is another epithet for traditional Korean archery, as used by Koreans.

History of military origin and usage

[edit]
Korean Horseback archery in 5th-century
Oracle bone script version of the yi character

The reflex bow had been the most important weapon for Koreans in wars with Chinese dynasties and nomadic peoples, recorded from the 1st century BC.[4] Legend says the first king and founder of the Goguryeo, Go Jumong, was a master of archery, able to catch five flies with one arrow. Bak Hyeokgeose, the first king of the Silla, was also said to be a skilled archer. The ancient Chinese gave the people of the East (Shandong Peninsula, Huai river basin, Jianghuai, Manchuria, the Korean Peninsula, Japanese archipelago, and eastern Siberia) the name of Dongyi (東夷) being a combination of the two characters for "large" (大) and "bow" (弓). However, it also need to be noted that the term was widely applied by the Chinese to note any foreign tribes in the east associated with large bows.

Yi Sŏng-gye, the founding king of Joseon was known to have been a master archer. In a battle against Japanese pirates, Sŏng-gye, assisted by Yi Bangsil, killed the young samurai commander "Agibaldo" with two successive arrows, one arrow knocking out his helmet, with the second arrow entering his mouth. In his letter to General Ch'oe Yŏng, Sŏng-gye lists as one of five reasons not to invade Ming China as during the monsoon season, glue holding together the composite bow weakens, reducing the effectiveness of the bow.

The founding of Joseon dynasty saw the retention of the composite bow as the mainstay of the Joseon military. Archery was the main martial event tested during the military portion of the national service exam held annually from 1392 to 1894. Under Joseon, archery reached its zenith, resulting in the invention of pyeonjeon, which saw great service against the Japanese in 1592 and against the Manchus in early 1600s.

Until the Imjin wars, archery was the main long-range weapon system. During those wars, the tactical superiority of the matchlock-ignited arquebus became apparent, despite its slow rate of fire and susceptibility to wet weather.[5] However, it was the gakgung, referred to as the "half bow" by the Japanese, that halted the Japanese at the Battle of Haengju as well as at the Battle of Ulsan. Although Joseon adopted the arquebus during the Imjin War, the gakgung retained its position of importance in the military until the reforms of 1894. Under King Hyojong's military reforms, an attempt was made to revive horse archery as a significant element of the military. It was also practiced for pleasure and for health, and many young males — including the king — and some females would spend their free time practicing it.

Transition to recreational sport

[edit]
Standard gungdo target

In 1899, the visiting Prince Heinrich of Prussia expressed his astonishment to Emperor Gojong at a traditional archery demonstration. The Prince, hailing from a militarized Prussian culture, sought out demonstrations of Korean martial arts, and Archery was the most impressive among the arts demonstrated. He was familiar with Turkish and Hungarian Archery of Europe, which were similar to Korean Archery. Prince Heinrich suggested making the art into a national sport. The emperor, convinced by the Prince, decreed "let people enjoy archery to develop their physical strength" and established an archery club. In the subsequent standardization of Korean archery, the nature of the bow and the arrow was standardized, as was the range of the targets. Korean traditional archery now uses one specific type of composite bow, bamboo arrows, and a standard target at a standard distance of 120 bo (about 145 m or 160 yards). Korean Archery as a sport developed under the Japanese Occupation, its textbook, "Joseon eui Goongdo" being published in 1920.

Tradition says that a noted general of the Joseon Dynasty settled in Yecheon about 300 years ago, and handed down his expertise and knowledge. "Today, it is estimated that bowyers from Yecheon and its environs produce approximately 70% of Korea's traditional horn composite bows ...Yecheon has produced numerous Olympic medalists and world champion archers". The city has the Jinho International Archery Field.[6]

Construction and competition

[edit]
Master Heon Kim

The Gakgung is a highly reflexed version of the classic Eurasian composite bow. The core is bamboo with sinew backed to prevent the bow breaking and to add a pulling strength to the limbs, with oak at the handle. On the belly is water buffalo horn which significantly increases the power by pushing the limbs. This combination of horn which pushes from the belly and sinew that pulls from the back is the defining strength of the bow. The siyahs, the stiffened outer ends of the limbs, are made of either mulberry or black locust and V-spliced onto the bamboo. The glue is made from isinglass. Over the sinew backing is a special birch bark that is imported from Northeast China. It is soaked in sea water for about one year. It is applied to the back using diluted rubber cement (using benzene as the solvent). No sights or other modern attachments are used.

The draw weights vary, but most are above twenty kilograms (approximately 44 pounds). A modern version is made of laminated fiberglass; for most competitions, either bow may be used, with carbon-fiber arrows, but for national competitions, only the composite bow and bamboo arrows may be used. Korean archers have also been very successful in Olympic and other competitions with more modern types of bow.[7]

The sukgung, a kind of crossbow, and the Gak-gung are small but very powerful bows. A sukgung can shoot up to 400 m (440 yards) while a Gak-gung can shoot up to 350 m (380 yards).[citation needed]

The art of constructing traditional Korean bows was designated an important Intangible Cultural Property in 1971.[8]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Gakgung

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Gakgung (각궁), meaning "horn bow" in Korean, is a traditional asymmetrical composite reflex bow developed in ancient Korea, primarily constructed from horn reinforced with , wood, and animal tendons, and glued using fish bladder . This short, powerful bow, typically measuring around 47 inches in length, was designed for and excels in delivering arrows with exceptional range and accuracy, with a maximum of up to 500 meters and effective combat distance of 350 meters. Historically, the Gakgung originated during the Kingdom (37 BCE–668 CE), where it became a cornerstone of Korean military prowess, enabling horseback archers to defend against invasions from the Sui (598–614 CE) and Tang (645 CE) dynasties. Legendary figures such as Jumong, the founder of (58 BCE–19 CE), and Admiral , who utilized it during the 1597 , exemplified its tactical importance in warfare and hunting across Korea's rugged terrain. In modern times, the Gakgung has transitioned from a weapon of war to a symbol of and competitive sport, influencing Korea's dominance in Olympic archery since the late , with gold medals won in every Olympics since , including all four recurve events in 2024. Depictions in ancient tomb murals, such as the Suryeopdo, highlight its artistic and symbolic significance, often associating it with kingship and solar mythology in . Today, authentic replicas are crafted using traditional methods, underscoring the bow's enduring legacy in preserving Korea's martial and artisanal traditions.

Historical Background

Origins and Early Military Use

The gakgung, a composite reflex bow constructed primarily from horn and sinew, emerged in ancient Korea during the period around the 1st century BC, serving as a primary weapon for warfare against invading Chinese dynasties and nomadic tribes. This bow's design allowed for greater power and range compared to earlier wooden bows, enabling Korean forces to engage effectively in defensive operations across the peninsula's rugged landscapes. Its introduction is first associated with the kingdom of , where it became integral to military tactics amid frequent border conflicts. Key historical figures and legends underscore the gakgung's early cultural and military significance. Go Jumong, the legendary founder of in 37 BC, was renowned for his archery prowess; his name translates to "skilled archer," and myths depict him using a bow to shoot fish from a river or catch multiple flies with a single arrow, symbolizing divine skill that helped establish the kingdom. Similarly, Bak Hyeokgeose, the founder of around 57 AD, was attributed with exceptional archery abilities in foundational legends, reinforcing the bow's role as a symbol of and martial excellence in early Korean states. These narratives, preserved in ancient texts like the , highlight how archery mastery was tied to royal legitimacy and national defense. The gakgung's compact size—typically around 1.2 meters (47 inches) in length—facilitated adaptations for , allowing units to maneuver swiftly in Korea's mountainous terrain while delivering powerful volleys. warriors, often horse-riding archers, employed it effectively in battles such as the defense against invasions in the early , where infantry and archers inflicted heavy casualties on larger Chinese forces during engagements like the River in 612 AD. Baekje forces also utilized the bow in similar conflicts, as evidenced by records of King Geunchogo gifting gakgung arrows to Japanese emissaries in the , demonstrating its strategic value in regional and warfare. These early uses established the gakgung as a pivotal tool for repelling nomadic incursions and imperial expansions, shaping Korea's military identity before later dynastic developments.

Joseon Era and Military Significance

During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), the gakgung underwent standardization as the primary for use, crafted with consistent materials like buffalo horn, sinew, and wood to ensure reliability across the armed forces. This refinement positioned it as the mainstay weapon for both and units, emphasizing long-range accuracy and rapid fire in battlefield tactics. proficiency with the gakgung became integral to the national service examinations (mugwa), held annually until 1894, where it served as the core martial test to select officers and cultivate physical and mental discipline among conscripts. Success in these exams, which required hitting targets at distances up to 145 meters, was essential for and promotion, reflecting the dynasty's Confucian emphasis on martial virtue alongside scholarly pursuits. A key innovation associated with the gakgung was the development of , or "baby arrows," short bolts fired via a bamboo overdraw tube (tongah) attached to the bow, allowing full draw length for enhanced velocity and range up to 500 meters. Invented during the late amid escalating threats, these arrows were employed for signaling commands across battlefields and , their high-pitched whistle upon flight demoralizing enemies while coordinating troop movements. Pyeonjeon proved particularly effective against armored foes, penetrating Japanese samurai plate during defensive actions, and were integrated into standard military arsenals as a versatile tool for both precision strikes and intimidation. The gakgung's military significance peaked during the Imjin Wars (1592–1598), where Korean archers, leveraging the bow's superior range and rate of fire over Japanese matchlocks, repelled invaders in key engagements like the and naval clashes at Myeongnyang. Archers stationed on fortress walls and turtle ships unleashed volleys that halted Japanese advances, with skilled units capable of rapid fire, contributing to the eventual expulsion of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's forces. In the subsequent Manchu invasions of the 17th century, including the 1627 and 1636–1637 campaigns, gakgung-equipped infantry and cavalry provided fierce resistance despite ultimate defeat, aiding Ming allies with auxiliary archer contingents and delaying Manchu conquests through guerrilla tactics in mountainous terrain. Joseon founder Yi Seong-gye (r. 1392–1398), a renowned general turned king, exemplified the gakgung's prestige through his legendary prowess, which bolstered his rise to power and inspired military reforms prioritizing bowmanship. Military training protocols centered on the gakgung emphasized rigorous drills for in stationary volleys and for in mounted shooting, often conducted via the daesaui ritual where the king and officers practiced together to foster unity and skill. These sessions, held seasonally at palace ranges, integrated Confucian ethics with practical exercises, requiring soldiers to master draws, aims, and releases under simulated combat conditions to prepare for defensive warfare.

Decline and Revival as a Sport

The Gabo Reforms of 1894 marked the beginning of the gakgung's decline as a military tool, as these modernization efforts abolished the traditional examinations that had long incorporated proficiency as a requirement for military officers, effectively phasing out traditional weapons in favor of Western-style armaments. This shift rendered the gakgung obsolete in official military contexts, transitioning its practice from a compulsory martial discipline to a fading cultural remnant among civilians. The gakgung's revival as a began in 1899 during the visit of Prince Heinrich of Prussia to the , where he witnessed a traditional demonstration and expressed admiration to Emperor Gojong, prompting imperial support for reestablishing archery fields and fraternities like Hwanghakjeong and Cheongryongjeong. This external endorsement created momentum for promoting as a national recreational activity, with Gojong providing financial backing to reactivate dormant clubs. In the early 20th century, archery associations emerged to formalize civilian practice, including the establishment of the Korean Archery Association in 1922, which organized the first national competitions in the 1920s and standardized rules for non-military shooting, such as regular meetings, target distances, and mutual aid systems within archery fraternities known as Sage. These organizations, evolving from pre-reform military groups, emphasized competitive events and community support, helping to sustain the gakgung amid Japanese colonial pressures. Following the , traditional experienced a resurgence in the 1950s and 1960s as part of broader efforts to reconstruct , with fraternities updating their bylaws in 1956 to adapt to postwar society and promote cultural continuity through civilian clubs and tournaments. This period saw increased participation in gungdo () as a symbol of resilience and heritage, bridging military legacy with modern recreation. In 1971, the South Korean government designated the art of constructing traditional Korean bows, including the gakgung, as Important Intangible No. 47 under the name "gungsijang," recognizing its craftsmanship and cultural value to preserve the practice amid rapid industrialization.

Design and Construction

Materials and Components

The gakgung's composite structure relies on a layered combination of natural materials that balance tension, compression, and flexibility for high power output. The core typically consists of , valued for its elasticity and used as the central layer to provide structural integrity. Water buffalo horn forms the belly (inner face), providing exceptional compression strength due to its dense, layered composition that resists under pressure. This horn-sinew-wood allows the bow to store significant energy, enabling long-range performance despite its compact size. Animal sinew, sourced from deer or , is glued to the back (outer face) as a reinforcement layer, enhancing tensile strength and preventing limb breakage by distributing stress evenly. The handle, known as the yanggan, and the rigid ear tips or siyahs are fashioned from hardwoods such as or mulberry, which offer durability and a stable grip while maintaining the bow's overall reflexed shape. These wooden elements form the structural foundation around which the horn and sinew are applied. horn, a critical component imported for use in traditional , contributes to the bow's power. Lamination is achieved using , a traditional adhesive derived from fish bladders (often sturgeon), prized for its strong bonding properties and resistance to moisture, ensuring the layers remain intact over time. For added protection against environmental wear and aesthetic appeal, a thin overlay of is applied to the sinew backing; this material, imported from , is typically soaked in to improve pliability before application. Traditional gakgung bows measure approximately 125 cm in strung length, with draw weights commonly exceeding 20 kg (44 lbs) to deliver arrow speeds suitable for distances up to 400 .

Assembly Process and Variations

The traditional assembly of the gakgung begins with of its core materials, which are meticulously shaped and layered to create the bow's distinctive design. Horn strips from are soaked in water to soften them, then carefully shaped and layered onto the wooden core, typically made from mulberry or , while sinew from ox tendons is boiled, shredded, and applied to the back for added tension and strength. These layers are glued together using , a traditional fish-derived , and bound tightly with or cord under to ensure , followed by an extended period that can last several months to allow the materials to set and cure properly. The seasonal timing is crucial for optimal and curing, as cooler autumn temperatures harden the fish glue, while spring dehydration prevents warping. Once the core is formed, the siyahs—rigid, recurved tips at each end—are attached to enhance the bow's energy storage and release, often carved from harder woods like and integrated during the shaping phase over a fire to bend the limbs precisely. The entire process is highly labor-intensive, requiring over 3,700 manual adjustments per bow and typically spanning 6 to 12 months, with steps aligned to seasons: trimming materials in summer, gluing in autumn, dehydration in spring, and final stringing and refinement afterward. This craftsmanship is centered in Yecheon, , a historic hub for bowyers, where skilled artisans preserve techniques passed down through generations; the art of gakgung making was designated Important Intangible Cultural Property No. 47 by the South Korean government in 1996 to safeguard it against decline. Historical variations of the gakgung adapted its design for specific military needs, such as shorter horse bows used by units, which featured reduced lengths for maneuverability on horseback while maintaining the composite structure for power. A related weapon, the sukgung crossbow, incorporated similar composite materials with a mechanical prod and trigger mechanism, achieving an effective range of up to 400 meters due to its tensioned construction. These modifications highlight the bow's versatility in pre-modern warfare, with the reflex design allowing for efficient energy storage and release. In modern times, adaptations have focused on durability and accessibility, replacing traditional horn and sinew with laminated or synthetic composites bonded by modern glues, which reduce production time and costs while preserving the bow's ergonomic shape. These versions often feature lower draw weights, starting at around 20-30 pounds for beginners, compared to historical bows exceeding 50 pounds, enabling wider participation in sport archery without compromising the core reflex profile. Such innovations have extended the gakgung's effective field shooting range to approximately 350 meters, emphasizing stored energy release for long-distance accuracy in contemporary competitions.

Techniques and Cultural Role

Traditional Shooting Methods

The traditional shooting method for the gakgung employs the thumb draw technique, where the archer uses the thumb to pull the bowstring, facilitated by protective thumb rings known as gungjil. These rings, historically crafted from horn but also from , bone, or metal, shield the thumb from the string's pressure during the draw. Gungjil come in two variants: the male type, featuring a small protrusion that hooks the string behind it for a cleaner release similar to a mechanical aid, and the female type, which simply encases the thumb's front joint for basic protection. The archer's stance, known as seonju or upright posture, involves standing with feet shoulder-width apart, body aligned straight, and minimal lateral tilt to maintain stability during the shot. From this position, the extends fully to ear level, leveraging the gakgung's reflex design for maximum power storage, followed by a that minimizes body movement to ensure flight consistency. Breath control—inhaling during setup, holding steady at full draw, and exhaling on release—combined with mental focus on target alignment, forms a core aspect of the technique, drawing from Korean philosophical traditions emphasizing harmony with natural rhythms and inner discipline. Arrows used in traditional gakgung shooting feature shafts fletched with feathers for stabilization, typically measuring around 80-90 cm in length to match the bow's draw. A specialized variant, , incorporates a tube (tong-a) for enhanced range and velocity, integrating functional signaling capabilities into the design. Historical training for gakgung archers centered on rigorous drills, where recruits practiced daily draws, releases, and target hits as part of examinations and elite warrior preparation from the period through the era. These sessions incorporated progressive exercises, starting with empty draws and advancing to full shots, often under the guidance of masters to instill discipline and precision, influenced by neo-Confucian ideals of moral and physical cultivation. For safety and , the gakgung's symmetric reflex-deflex allows ambidextrous use without major adjustments, accommodating left- or right-handed archers by simply switching the arrow's side. Common injuries include abrasions (mitigated by properly fitted gungjil), strains from improper draw length, and elbow overuse; preventions involve gradual strength building in training, custom ring sizing, and adherence to upright form to distribute load evenly across the body.

Modern Practices and Significance

In contemporary Korea, gungdo, the traditional using the gakgung bow, follows standardized rules set by organizations such as the Korea Gungdo Association, emphasizing precision and at a primary distance of 145 meters to targets measuring 2 meters wide and 2.66 meters high. Competitions typically involve three sets of five arrows, with each shot limited to 30 seconds, and scoring awards one point per hit on the target face, promoting a focus on accuracy over speed. variations adapt these principles to shorter ranges, such as 30 or 50 meters, particularly in university and recreational settings, allowing broader accessibility while retaining core gakgung mechanics. The gakgung's ergonomic design and shooting principles have profoundly influenced South Korea's dominance in Olympic recurve archery, where national teams have secured gold medals in every Games since , amassing 31 of 55 individual and golds as of the 2024 Paris Olympics (including golds in the women's , mixed , men's individual, and women's individual events). This success stems from the gakgung's compact form and thumb-draw technique, which inform modern regimens emphasizing mental focus and biomechanical efficiency, contributing to unbroken streaks like the women's event wins since 1988. Expansions in inclusivity have bolstered participation, with dedicated programs for women since the early integrating gungdo into community and school curricula, alongside youth adaptations featuring lighter bows and shorter sessions to engage younger practitioners. International adaptations further extend access, enabling non-Koreans to train in gungdo through global clubs and workshops. As a symbol of national pride, known as gukgung or "national bow," the gakgung embodies Korean resilience and harmony, celebrated in annual events like the Yecheon Traditional Festival, which draws participants worldwide to showcase gungdo skills amid cultural performances. Its construction techniques were designated South Korea's Important No. 142, linking to broader traditions like gungsi ( scoring marks) that underscore ethical and philosophical values in practice. Globally, training centers such as the World Kuk Gung Federation in the United States offer instruction in authentic gakgung methods, fostering cross-cultural exchange. However, modern challenges include material sustainability, with shortages of horn and skilled craftsmen threatening traditional production, alongside efforts to boost youth engagement through school clubs and summer camps to sustain interest.

References

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