Hubbry Logo
HeshbonHeshbonMain
Open search
Heshbon
Community hub
Heshbon
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Heshbon
Heshbon
Heshbon
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Map of Jordan with mark showing location of Heshbon
Map of Jordan with mark showing location of Heshbon
Heshbon
class=notpageimage|
Location of Heshbon in modern-day Jordan
Tell Hesban

Heshbon (also Hesebon, Esebon, Esbous, Esbus; Arabic: حشبون, Latin: Esebus, Hebrew: חשבון Ḥešbōn, Ancient Greek: Ἐσεβών, Ἐσσεβών, Ἐσβούτα, Ἐσβούς, Ἔσβους, Ἔξβους)[1] were at least two different ancient towns located east of the Jordan River in what is now the Kingdom of Jordan, historically within the territories of ancient Ammon.

The Bronze Age Heshbon of biblical King Sihon has not been identified. The town of Esbus from the Roman and Byzantine period has been identified with a tell (archaeological mound) known in Arabic as Tell Hisban or Tell Ḥesbān.

Location of Tell Hisban

[edit]

The Roman and Byzantine town is believed to have been located at the ruin called Hesbân or Hisban, about 20 km (12 mi) southwest of Amman, and 9 kilometers (5.6 mi) to the north of Madaba, on one of the highest summits of the mountains of Moab. A large ruined reservoir is located east of the place, and below the town there is a fountain.[citation needed]

Biblical reference to Heshbon

[edit]

Ancient Heshbon was beyond, i.e. east of, the Jordan. The city was where the Israelites passed by on their entry to the Promised Land, and was assigned to the tribe of Reuben;[2] afterwards it was given to the Tribe of Gad[3] and became a Levitical city for the Merarites.

Heshbon is mentioned in the Tanakh in the Books of Numbers and Deuteronomy as the capital of Amorite king, Sihon (also known as Sehon).[4] The biblical narrative records the story of the Israelite victory over Sihon during the time of the Exodus under the leadership of Moses. Heshbon is highlighted due to its importance as the capital of Sihon, King of the Amorites:

"For Heshbon was the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab and had taken all his land out of his hand, as far as the Arnon."[5]

Similar passages appear in Deuteronomy and Joshua, with the primary emphasis being the victory of the Israelites over King Sihon at the site of Heshbon. Moses died soon after the victory, after viewing the "promised land" from the top of Mount Nebo.

Following the death of Moses, Heshbon became a town at the border between the lands allocated to the Tribe of Reuben and the Tribe of Gad. Further biblical evidence suggests that the town later came under Moabite control, as mentioned by Isaiah[6] and Jeremiah[7] in their denunciations of Moab, and later under Ammonite occupation as Jeremiah 49:3 strongly suggests.[8]

Heshbon also appears in the Song of Solomon, where the poet likens his love's eyes to "the pools of Heshbon", which refers to the magnificent fish-pools of Heshbon.[9]

Historical reference to classical towns

[edit]

Herodian Es(e)bonitis/Sebonitis: possibly elsewhere

[edit]

The name occurs in Josephus very often under the form Esbonitis or Sebonitis.[10] According to Josephus, Heshbon was in the possession of the Judeans since Alexander Jannaeus the Maccabee (106–79 B.C.) took it and made it a Jewish town. Herod the Great is also said to have had jurisdiction over the town and established a fort there.[11] However, this town might not be identical with Tell Hesban: Josephus tell us that Pheroras, the younger brother of Herod the Great and tetrarch of Perea, had his residence at Esebonitis.[12] This Esebonitis, described as a strongly fortified garrison town, has not been firmly identified and might be identical with either Machaerus, a site well researched by archaeologists and closely resembling Josephus's description of Esebonitis, with Amathus, or with Gadora, the later placed by researchers at Tell Jadur near Salt.[12]

Late Roman Esebon, Esboús

[edit]

After the Great Revolt (A.D. 68–70) the country was invaded by the tribe that Pliny calls Arabes Esbonitae, meaning "Arabs of (H)esebon".[13] Restored under the name of Esboús or Esboúta, it is mentioned among the towns of the Roman Arabia Petraea by Ptolemy.[14]

Byzantine Hesebon

[edit]

Under the Byzantines, as learned from Eusebius' Onomasticon, it grew to be a town of note in the province of Arabia; George of Cyprus refers to it in the seventh century and it was from Hesebon that the milestones on the Roman road to Jericho were numbered.

The Byzantine town is mentioned in the 3rd century CE Mosaic of Rehob.[citation needed]

Early Arab period

[edit]

At the beginning of the Early Arab period, Hesebon was still the chief town of the Belka, a territory corresponding to the old kingdom of Sihon. It seems never to have been taken by the Crusaders.

History of excavation

[edit]

In 1968, archaeological excavations were undertaken at the site of Tell Hesban (alternatively spelled Tall Hisban). This excavation was the beginning of what became called the "Heshbon Expedition". This archaeological work was sponsored by Andrews University and under the authority of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR). The Heshbon Expedition continued with excavation seasons through 1976. Following the cessation of Heshbon Expedition excavations, archaeological work at the site continued in 1996 under the Madaba Plains Project consortium. The site continues to be excavated into the 2010s; work is also ongoing to support archaeological tourism at the site.[15]

Archaeological findings

[edit]

Not the Bronze Age Heshbon?

[edit]

The lack of evidence for occupation during the Bronze Age led excavators to conclude that the site is not Sihon's Heshbon.[15] William Dever's response was "The site was excavated in 1968–1976 in a large interdisciplinary project sponsored by a group of Seventh Day Adventist scholars who perhaps intended to “prove” the biblical traditions of the Israelite conquest of the site. Much to their consternation, however, the town turned out to be founded only in the Iron II period—long after any supposed conquest. There were only a few scattered remains of the 12th–11th century B.C. (pottery, but no architecture), and no trace whatsoever of occupation in the 13th century B.C. The excavators resolutely published their results, however, and reluctantly conceded that something was drastically wrong with the biblical story about Heshbon."[16]

According to Øystein S. LaBianca and Bethany Walker, the excavations found remains from the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age periods, but intensive reuse of the site by later occupants resulted in most remains from those periods being found in secondary deposits.[17]

Roman-period Esbus

[edit]

Classical period remains, however, confirmed its status as the Roman-period city of Esbus.[15]

Byzantine period

[edit]

Two churches have been discovered from the Byzantine era, and both churches produced impressive remains of mosaic floors.[18] Particularly interesting is the nilotic (using motifs originating in the environs of the river Nile) mosaic of the presbytery of the North Church where the mosaicists have created a motif of a turtledove set on a nest made of an imaginary flower.[19]

Ecclesiastical history

[edit]

Hesebon is a titular see of the ecclesiastical province of Arabia, suffragan of Bostra.

Christianity took root there at an early period. Michel Le Quien (Oriens christianus II, 863–64), and Pius Bonifacius Gams (Series Episcoporum, 435) mention three bishops between the fourth and seventh centuries:

  • Gennadius, present at the Council of Nicaea (Heinrich Gelzer, Patrum Nicaen. Nomina, p. lxi)
  • Zosys of Esbusa signature of the Council of Ephesus in 431.
  • Zosius, whose name occurs in the lists of Chalcedon
  • Theodore, champion of orthodoxy against monothelism, who received (c. 649) from Pope Martin I a letter congratulating him on his resistance to the heresy and exhorting him to continue the struggle in conjunction with John of Philadelphia. To the latter the pope had entrusted the government of the patriarchates of Antioch and Jerusalem.

Konrad Eubel (Hierarchia Catholica, II, 168) mentions two Latin titulars of Hesebon in the latter part of the fifteenth century.

Hazboun family

[edit]

The Hazboun family have long history roots from Heshbon.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Heshbon

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Heshbon was an ancient city located east of the Jordan River in the Transjordan region, now identified with the archaeological site of Tell Hisban in central Jordan, approximately 20 kilometers southwest of Amman. It is prominently featured in the Hebrew Bible as the capital of the Amorite king Sihon, whose defeat by the invading Israelites marked a key event in the conquest narratives of Numbers 21:26–30 and Deuteronomy 2:24–37. Archaeological evidence indicates that the site was first settled as a small, unfortified village around the 12th century BCE, with no substantial urban occupation prior to the Iron Age II period (10th–8th centuries BCE). Throughout its history, Heshbon transitioned through control by multiple regional powers, reflecting its strategic importance as a political, , and economic hub. After the Israelite conquest, it was allotted to the tribes of and Gad (Numbers 32:3, 37; 13:17), but by the BCE, it fell under Moabite rule as described in the , where King Mesha of claims to have reclaimed and fortified it. Subsequent periods saw Ammonite dominance in the 7th–6th centuries BCE, marked by a prosperous settlement featuring a fort and the use of a large (constructed in the 9th or BCE and capable of holding over 2 million liters of ) supporting and . The city was destroyed by around the BCE and remained largely abandoned for about 300 years before reoccupation in the Hellenistic and Roman eras, when it was known as Esbus and served as a district capital with minted coinage. It continued as a Christian bishopric from the 4th to 7th centuries CE and later as an Arab village into the medieval period. Archaeological excavations, primarily conducted by from 1968 to 1976 under Siegfried H. Horn, have uncovered evidence of Heshbon's role as a "granary of the empires" due to its cereal production, particularly during the Mamluk period (13th–14th centuries CE) when state investments led to urbanization and large storage facilities. Recent studies, including those by Bethany J. Walker, emphasize its agricultural significance from the Assyrian era through the 19th century, providing insights into regional economic history on the Madaba Plains. Today, Tell Hisban remains a key site for understanding biblical Transjordan and the interplay of polities like and , with ongoing excavations including a 2025 season by the University of Bonn's Department of Islamic .

Geography and Identification

Location of Tell Hisban

Tell Hisban, the primary associated with ancient Heshbon, is situated on the Plains in central at coordinates approximately 31°48′N 35°48′E and an elevation of 885 meters above . The site occupies a prominent position on the edge of a fertile highland plateau, overlooking the to the west. The surrounding landscape features expansive flat fields to the south and east, ideal for , while steep slopes descend to the northwest via Hisban, which serves as a key water source through its seasonal flows and associated springs. Tell Hisban lies about 20 kilometers southwest of and 10 kilometers north of , integrating it into the modern agricultural and transportation networks of the region. The nearby modern village of Hisban utilizes the tell and surrounding areas for farming, reflecting the site's ongoing role in local sustenance. Geologically, Tell Hisban consists of a limestone mound rising 20-30 meters above the plain, supporting terraced fields that enhance retention and management in this semi-arid environment. The area's fertile s have historically positioned it as a "granary of empires," yielding grains and olives due to the plateau's rich alluvial deposits and reliable from nearby wadis and springs.

Relation to Biblical Heshbon

Scholarly consensus identifies the of Tell Hisban with the biblical of Heshbon, a view established by 19th-century explorers such as Henry Baker Tristram, who in 1872 linked the site's location and name to biblical descriptions during his travels in the region. This identification rests primarily on the phonetic similarity between the modern Arabic "Hisban" and the Hebrew "Heshbon," as well as the site's position approximately 20 kilometers east of the , aligning with ancient Transjordanian geography. Modern archaeologists, including those from the Plains , maintain this near-universal agreement, emphasizing that while excavations at Tell Hisban revealed limited I remains—potentially challenging some biblical timelines—the toponymic and locational evidence remains compelling. Alternative proposals for Heshbon's location have been minor and largely dismissed by scholars due to inconsistencies with biblical territorial descriptions. For instance, some early 20th-century suggestions pointed to sites like Tell Jalul, farther north near modern , based on its larger size and potential occupation, but this was rejected because it lies outside the core Moabite-Amorite zone east of the and lacks the preserved name similarity. These alternatives, often arising from excavation discrepancies at Tell Hisban, fail to account for the enduring toponymic continuity that favors the traditional identification. The toponym "Heshbon" likely derives from the Hebrew root חשב (ḥ-sh-b), meaning "to reckon," "devise," or "think," suggesting connotations of or in its Canaanite origins, possibly as "place of reckoning" or a form implying "little thinker." This name persisted through historical layers, evolving into Greek "Esbus" during the and Arabic "Hisban" in later eras, reflecting linguistic stability across . Geographically, Tell Hisban fits biblical depictions of Heshbon as a Moabite city with strategic access to water sources, positioned on a plateau east of the overlooking fertile valleys. Its proximity to springs in Hisban may correspond to the "waters of Nimrim" referenced in prophetic texts, providing vital resources in an otherwise arid region and supporting the site's role as a contested settlement.

Biblical References

Hebrew Bible Mentions

Heshbon is mentioned 38 times in the Hebrew Bible, primarily in the Pentateuch, the Book of Joshua, and the prophetic books. These references portray Heshbon as a significant Amorite city east of the Jordan River, central to narratives of Israelite conquest and later territorial disputes. In the key conquest narrative, Heshbon served as the capital of the Amorite king Sihon, who refused passage to the Israelites under Moses, leading to its capture after battle. This event is detailed in Numbers 21:21-35, where the Israelites seize Heshbon and its villages, followed by a proverbial taunt: "Fire went out from Heshbon, a blaze from the city of Sihon. It consumed Ar of Moab, the citizens of Arnon's heights." Deuteronomy 2:24-37 recounts the command to engage Sihon and the subsequent victory, emphasizing divine support, while Joshua 12:2-5 lists Sihon's kingdom, including Heshbon, among the defeated kings. The "fire from Heshbon" motif symbolizes the city's destruction and becomes a recurring emblem of judgment. Following the conquest, Heshbon was allocated to the tribe of Reuben as part of their inheritance east of the Jordan. Numbers 32:1-5 and 37 describes the Reubenites' request for the land, with Heshbon named among fortified cities they rebuilt, and Joshua 13:15-17 confirms its assignment within Reuben's territory, alongside Dibon and Jahaz. Later texts indicate Moabite claims on Heshbon, as seen in the oracles against Moab in Isaiah 15-16 and Jeremiah 48, portraying it as a contested border site. Prophetic literature features Heshbon prominently in laments over 's downfall. In 16:8-9, the mourns: "For the fields of Heshbon languish, and the vine of Sibmah; the lords of the nations have struck down its branches, which reached to Jazer and strayed to the desert; its shoots spread abroad and passed over the sea," linking Heshbon's agricultural prominence to divine judgment. 48:2, 34-45 similarly depicts Heshbon as the "heart" of Moab's plotting and ruin, with verses 34-35 calling for cries from Heshbon's heights and 45 echoing the fire motif: "Fire went out from Heshbon, flame from the city of Sihon. It devoured the forehead of Moab, the crown of the heads of the boisterous ones." In additional contexts, Heshbon appears as a boundary marker in tribal allotments, such as Joshua 13:26, which delineates it within Gad's territory alongside Ramath-mizpeh. It is also evoked in poetic taunts associating the "daughters of Sihon" with the city's subjugation, reinforcing themes of conquest in Numbers 21:27-30.

New Testament and Prophetic Contexts

In the , Heshbon receives no direct mention, but its location in the region of places it within the broader geographical context of ' early ministry east of the . The of John identifies beyond the (John 1:28) as the site of John the Baptist's activities, including the , situated in near the Jordan's eastern bank, an area encompassing ancient sites like Heshbon along the King's Highway. This regional association underscores Heshbon's proximity to pivotal events in the life of , though the text focuses on the baptismal locale rather than the city itself. Prophetic literature extends Heshbon's significance beyond its historical conquest narratives, portraying it as a focal point of divine judgment on and neighboring peoples. In 's oracle against Moab (Isaiah 15:1–9), Heshbon is depicted as raising a cry of distress alongside Elealeh, with its armed warriors trembling amid widespread devastation, symbolizing the collapse of Moabite strongholds (Isaiah 15:4). similarly invokes Heshbon in multiple prophecies of doom, where enemies plot Moab's destruction there (Jeremiah 48:2), its inhabitants join in lamentation from the city's heights (Jeremiah 48:34), and a consuming fire emerges from Heshbon to devour the nation's prideful strongholds (Jeremiah 48:45). These passages highlight Heshbon's role in oracles against foreign nations, emphasizing themes of retribution and the futility of human fortresses against God's . Symbolically, Heshbon embodies Moabite hubris and inevitable downfall in prophetic rhetoric, particularly through adapted ancient proverbs. Jeremiah 48:45–46 reworks a taunt from the conquest era (Numbers 21:27–30), transforming the "fire from Heshbon" into a metaphor for inescapable judgment that scorches Moab's "crown of the head" and "temples," representing the shattering of its arrogant aspirations. This imagery not only evokes Heshbon's strategic position as a contested border city but also serves as an emblem of how pride invites divine reversal, a recurring motif in judgments against Israel's adversaries. Geographically, Heshbon appears in a poetic context in the Song of , where its famed pools evoke natural beauty and serenity. The lover praises the beloved's eyes as "pools in Heshbon, by the gate of Bath Rabbim," alluding to the city's abundant springs and reservoirs that made it a lush oasis amid arid terrain (Song of Solomon 7:4). This metaphorical usage ties Heshbon's real hydrological features—evident in archaeological remains of water systems—to ideals of clarity, depth, and allure, contrasting sharply with its prophetic depictions of ruin.

Historical Development

Pre-Classical Periods

Archaeological evidence indicates only sparse pottery sherds from the (c. 3000–1200 BCE) at Tell Hesban, suggesting limited regional activity but no established settlement at the site itself. Surveys in the Hesban region have identified pottery at multiple nearby sites, indicating participation in broader trade networks extending to and . These ceramic remains, including forms typical of Levantine production, point to regional exchange systems. The site was first settled as a small, unfortified village around the BCE. Extra-biblical textual evidence from the BCE includes possible allusions to a toponym "Hašabu," which scholars have tentatively linked to Heshbon or a nearby locale in Transjordan, reflecting Egyptian administrative interests in the region during the New Kingdom. In I (c. 1200–1000 BCE), Tell Hesban reemerged as an outpost associated with Amorite or early Moabite groups, positioned along key trade routes in Transjordan. According to biblical chronology, this aligns with the kingdom of Sihon, an Amorite ruler centered at Heshbon around the 13th century BCE, exerting regional influence over caravan paths connecting the to the eastern deserts. Biblical narratives briefly reference the Israelite conquest of this territory, framing it as a pivotal expansion eastward. By II (c. 1000–586 BCE), the site experienced shifts in control, initially under Israelite tribes such as and Gad, before Moabite forces recaptured it; the , inscribed around 840 BCE by Moab's King , explicitly records the conquest of Israelite-held territories including Heshbon, followed by its rebuilding as a fortified center dedicated to the god . Later in Iron Age II, by the 7th century BCE, Ammonite influence became prominent at Heshbon, as evidenced by an inscribed in Ammonite script discovered at Tell Hesban, indicating administrative or commercial activity under Ammonite oversight, along with a fort and a large capable of holding over 2 million liters of water that supported and . Assyrian imperial records from the 8th–7th centuries BCE document extensive campaigns in Transjordan, including subjugation of Moabite and Ammonite polities, which likely incorporated Heshbon into the broader network of states and corridors under Assyrian . The city was destroyed by fire around 582 BCE, likely during Babylonian campaigns, and remained largely abandoned for about 300 years. These extra-biblical sources underscore Heshbon's strategic role in the geopolitical dynamics of the region during this era.

Classical and Hellenistic Periods

The site experienced a gap in occupation during the Persian period (c. 539–332 BCE), with no significant archaeological evidence of settlement under Achaemenid control. The Hellenistic era (c. 332–63 BCE) marked a phase of reoccupation at Tell Hesban, with two identified strata dating roughly from 250 BCE to 63 BCE, associated with post-exilic resettlement and later Maccabean influences. The site appears to have been a fortified farmstead featuring four corner towers, perimeter walls, and defensive structures around the tell's base, alongside rock-cut silos used for storage near threshing floors. Artifacts such as a preserved Hellenistic lamp and pyramid-shaped weights found in these caverns suggest agricultural and settled community activities amid regional conflicts, including the Maccabean revolts and struggles between Seleucid and Ptolemaic powers in Transjordan. Nabataean interactions with the involved routes passing near Tell Hesban, positioning it as a peripheral settlement without significant Nabataean architectural remains or direct cultural imprints at the site. As the transitioned toward Roman dominance before the era (pre-37 BCE), Tell Hesban experienced decline, with debates in ancient sources like regarding the location of "Esbonitis," possibly linking it to a site in or even near , though archaeological evidence points to continuity at the tell rather than full relocation.

Roman and Byzantine Periods

Following the Roman conquest of the region in 63 BCE, Heshbon was incorporated into the province of Arabia established by Emperor in 106 CE, where it was known as Esbus or Esebon. Archaeological evidence from Tell Hisban reveals extensive building activity during this period, including monumental stairways over 40 feet wide in Area D, domestic caves with pillar-supported walls, and a temple on the acropolis possibly depicted on coins minted at Esbus under Emperor around 218–222 CE. The site featured well-constructed roadways and plazas with curbing, alongside rock-cut tombs of the loculus type sealed by , one dated to the reign of Nabataean king Rabbel II (71–106 CE). In sources, the toponym appears as Esbonitis or Sebonitis, potentially referring to a nearby Judean settlement rather than the main site at Tell Hisban. In the late Roman period (c. 3rd–4th centuries CE), Esbus is listed as Esboús in Ptolemy's (Book V, 17.6), indicating its status as an administrative center in Provincia Arabia with evidence of local coinage and a presence tied to regional fortifications. Excavations uncovered coins from Roman emperors such as and Aretas IV, alongside Nabataean issues, suggesting active trade and integration into imperial networks. The town's infrastructure supported connectivity, with traces of a Roman road traced from Esbus toward Livias (modern Tell er-Ram), marked by milestones, guard towers, and road stations. During the Byzantine era (324–636 CE), Hesebon emerged as a prominent bishopric in the province of Arabia, with bishops attending major councils, including Patrophilus at the in 451 CE. The site reached an economic peak, evidenced by lime kilns in Area B for construction and large quantities of amphorae containing fish bones, pointing to consumption of sauce as part of trade and local diet. production likely contributed to prosperity, given the fertile Madaba Plains and the site's position on pilgrimage routes linking to via the Roman road. Multiple churches were constructed, including a triple-apsed structure on the reusing elements, with apses, pillar foundations, and floors; another appeared in the north sector. The site's decline began with the Sassanid Persian invasion of in 614 CE, which disrupted regional stability and economy, though no direct destruction layers were found at Tell Hisban. This was followed by the Arab conquest in 636 CE after the Battle of Yarmouk, leading to partial abandonment of the urban center by the mid-7th century, with occupation shifting to lower slopes before a longer hiatus.

Early Islamic and Medieval Periods

Following the Arab conquest in the CE, Heshbon, known as Hesbān, continued as an agricultural village under Umayyad rule (635–750 CE), with state-owned lands cultivated primarily by Christian peasants and supported by irrigation systems such as qanats. The site remained significant within the jund () of , and churches likely persisted alongside emerging mosques, reflecting gradual Islamic influence without immediate conversion of ecclesiastical structures. Under the Abbasids (after 750 CE), administrative shifts to contributed to a decline in prosperity by the late 9th to 10th century, though the village endured as a partially inhabited site amid broader regional changes. The 13th-century geographer described Hesbān as a ruined yet still occupied location, underscoring its intermittent vitality. During the Fatimid (969–1071 CE) and Seljuk (after 1071 CE) periods of the , Hesbān experienced further decline due to political instability, foreign dynastic rule, and disruptions from regional conflicts, including raids that affected agricultural continuity. Settlement persisted at a reduced scale, with the site's strategic position in Transjordan maintaining some economic ties, though evidence of major activity is sparse. In the Crusader era (1099–1187 CE), Hesbān gained brief importance as part of the Lordship of Kerak (Oultrejourdain), serving as a defensible outpost with possible fortifications amid Frankish-Muslim contests; chronicler Baha' al-Din referenced it as a retreat point for Saladin's forces in 1187 CE. The Ayyubid (1187–1250 CE) and (1250–1517 CE) eras marked a revival, particularly under the Mamluks, when Hesbān became the capital of the and a vital waystation on pilgrim and trade routes from to , facilitating caravans and barid (postal) communications. A with towers and a governor's residence occupied the tell summit, while a village on the western slope included domestic structures, a , and possibly a madrasah, supporting orchards, mills, and production as noted by 14th-century sources like Abu al-Fida'. Ottoman tax registers from 1538 CE recorded a small of seven households, but by 1596 CE, the site was listed as khali (abandoned), signaling decline from plagues, warfare, and dominance. Post-medieval abandonment accelerated in the , with the ruins used for quarrying until modern archaeological work began.

Archaeological Investigations

Early Explorations

The initial identification and exploration of Tell Hesban, ancient Heshbon, began in the amid growing European interest in biblical topography. In 1863–1864, English clergyman and naturalist Henry Baker Tristram visited the site during his travels in , noting the preservation of the ancient name among local , who referred to the nearby spring as ʿAin Ḥusban, linking it directly to the biblical Heshbon mentioned in the . Tristram's observations emphasized the site's strategic location on a hill overlooking the Dead Sea and its association with Moabite territory, contributing to early confirmations of its historical significance. Building on such accounts, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Survey of Eastern Palestine, conducted by Claude Reignier Conder in 1881–1882, provided a more systematic examination. Conder mapped the ruins of Esbus (modern Hisban), describing extensive surface remains including massive walls, cisterns, and rock-cut features that he attributed to Roman and Byzantine periods, while identifying the site with biblical Heshbon through toponymic continuity and scattered sherds indicative of earlier occupations. His survey noted Greek inscriptions on stones amid the debris, further supporting the site's classical heritage, though no extensive digs were undertaken at the time. Local Ottoman inhabitants recognized the area as Hisban, reflecting longstanding vernacular memory of its ancient past. In the early , American archaeologist Nelson Glueck led expeditions under the American Schools of Oriental Research, surveying Transjordan in the 1930s. During his 1933–1934 campaign, Glueck examined Tell Hesban, collecting surface pottery that included sherds alongside predominant Roman and Byzantine wares, and documenting substantial defensive walls from the Roman-Byzantine era crowning the tell. These findings reinforced the site's multilayered history without formal excavation, highlighting its role as a regional center. Preceding the major 20th-century excavations, the Jordanian Department of Antiquities initiated preliminary surveys in the , focusing on mapping key features such as the prominent and associated water systems, including aqueducts and reservoirs that underscored the site's from antiquity. These efforts laid groundwork for later systematic work by documenting the site's condition under Jordanian administration.

Major Expeditions (1968-1976)

The Heshbon Expedition, sponsored by , was launched in 1968 under the leadership of Siegfried H. Horn, a of Old Testament and archaeology, to determine through systematic excavation whether Tell Hisban (modern Tall Ḥisbān) represented the ancient biblical city of Heshbon mentioned in the . The initiative aimed to uncover evidence of Iron Age occupation linked to Israelite history while documenting the site's full stratigraphic sequence across millennia. Conducted under the auspices of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, the project spanned five seasons: 1968, 1971, 1973, 1974, and 1976. The expeditions employed stratigraphic excavation methods to preserve and analyze occupational layers, dividing the tell into multiple areas for targeted digs, including Area A on the () and areas on the western slope such as the medieval village (Field C). While prioritizing remains to address biblical correlations, the work encompassed all periods from the to the Islamic era. Each season involved a multidisciplinary team exceeding 50 members, comprising professional archaeologists, students, and volunteers from various nationalities and religious backgrounds, supplemented by local Jordanian laborers. The inaugural 1968 season served as a pilot, focusing on soundings that revealed a fifth-century Byzantine church in Area A on the summit, establishing the site's significance in . Subsequent campaigns deepened these probes; for instance, the 1973 and 1974 seasons extended excavations to reach Early levels in key areas, yielding over 23,000 registered pottery sherds in 1974 alone and contributing to an extensive catalog of artifacts across the project. The expeditions faced significant challenges, including political instability; a planned 1970 season was canceled due to the Jordanian civil war known as , delaying work until 1971. Funding was primarily provided by Seventh-day Adventist institutions, including and supporting organizations, which covered operational costs for international teams and equipment. Preliminary findings from each season were published in Andrews University Seminary Studies, with detailed reports appearing in volumes such as 7 (1968), 11 (1971), and 14 (1976). The comprehensive Hesban Final Publication Series, initiated to synthesize the results, has been issued progressively by Andrews University Press, with volumes continuing into the 2020s to incorporate ongoing analysis of expedition data.

Recent Projects (Post-1976)

Following the initial Heshbon Expedition of 1968–1976, archaeological work at Tell Hisban resumed under the Madaba Plains Project (MPP), an international consortium led by , beginning with surveys and limited excavations in the 1980s and intensifying in 1996 after a hiatus. The MPP has conducted annual field seasons emphasizing regional surveys, site conservation, and community engagement, building on earlier findings to explore settlement patterns and environmental adaptations across periods. These efforts marked their 50th anniversary in 2017–2018, with celebrations highlighting five decades of collaborative research in the Plains region. In the and , the Hisban Cultural Heritage Project emerged as a key component of MPP activities at Tell Hisban, focusing on community-driven excavations and preservation of the site's Mamluk-era village on the western slope and the four citadel towers. This initiative involves local residents in fieldwork and interpretation, fostering a heritage economy through training programs that emphasize sustainable site management and public outreach. A German-Jordanian collaboration, led by the University of Bonn's Department of Islamic Archaeology under Prof. Bethany J. Walker, has coordinated recent seasons, including the 2025 campaign that incorporated drone mapping to document excavation areas and surrounding landscapes. Highlights from recent investigations include a 2018 archaeobotanical study analyzing plant remains to reconstruct agricultural practices, revealing shifts in crop cultivation tied to medieval environmental conditions. In 2025, excavations in the fields of Wadi Hisban uncovered layers associated with the early Ottoman period (ca. 16th–18th centuries CE), including structural features and artifacts indicating continued rural settlement and land use. These discoveries have addressed longstanding debates from the 1970s expeditions, confirming robust Iron Age occupation at the site through stratified evidence of fortifications and material culture, while clarifying that Tell Hisban aligns with the Iron Age biblical Heshbon rather than an earlier Bronze Age context. Preservation efforts under the Hisban Cultural Heritage Project include local training workshops for Jordanian antiquities staff and community members on conservation techniques, aimed at enhancing site accessibility and protection. Although Tell Hisban has not yet achieved World Heritage status, project leaders have pursued nominations within broader regional initiatives for Madaba Plains sites, integrating these with post-COVID tourism recovery strategies that have boosted visitor numbers to Jordanian archaeological landmarks by emphasizing educational tours and digital outreach.

Key Archaeological Findings

Bronze and Iron Age Evidence

Excavations at Tell Hesban have revealed evidence of Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1550 BCE) occupation, including an earthen rampart in Area B (Field Phase 14) that was later reused, alongside a reduced settlement size compared to earlier phases and carinated bowls among the assemblage. Regional from this period, though not directly stratified at the tell, indicate practices with potential local parallels. In the Late Bronze Age (ca. 1550–1200 BCE), no fully stratified occupational layers were identified, but scattered sherds and a public building in Area E—featuring a massive wall over 17 meters long and a tower-like room—suggest limited activity, possibly ending in destruction. Artifacts include Cypriot Base Ring I/II ware and , pointing to Mediterranean trade connections, though these imports raise questions about whether Tell Hesban represents the full extent of biblical Heshbon's occupation during this era. The transition to Iron Age I (ca. 1200–925 BCE) marks a post-destruction rebuild across Strata 21–19, with collared-rim store jars and "Manassite" bowls indicating possible Israelite or Amorite presence, alongside bedrock-cut features like trenches and cisterns for water management. Settlement expanded to the lower slopes, supported by masonry walls and artifacts such as slingstones and spindle whorls, reflecting a mixed agro- economy. Faunal remains from these strata, dominated by sheep and goats (78% of identifiable bones), underscore a pastoral focus with secondary cultivation and some wild game like . Possible foundations from this period have been linked speculatively to the era of King Sihon in biblical narratives. Iron Age II (ca. 925–500 BCE) layers show fortified structures, including 9th-century BCE offset-inset walls correlating with Moabite expansion described in the , alongside Moabite seals and a "squatter settlement" phase in 17. Destruction layers around 582 BCE, potentially tied to Nebuchadnezzar, overlie these remains, with continued agro-pastoral indicators in faunal assemblages featuring , pigs, and equids alongside sheep/. Ostraca, such as fragments A1 and A5 inscribed with personal names, provide epigraphic of administrative activity. Debates persist on site continuity: 1970s excavations suggested peak occupation in the 7th–6th centuries BCE during an Ammonite phase, challenging biblical Heshbon's earlier prominence due to sparse Late Bronze evidence. However, Madaba Plains Project data from post-1976 seasons, including refined pottery typology and six recognized strata, support greater continuity from Iron Age I, aligning with Reubenite or Israelite rebuilding accounts.

Roman and Byzantine Remains

During the Roman period, Tell Hesban, identified as the city of Esbus, featured several key architectural structures that reflected its status as a provincial urban center. Adjacent water management systems included underground aqueducts that channeled water from nearby wadis, such as Hesban, to supply the settlement and support agricultural activities in the surrounding fertile plains. Numismatic evidence from the site includes coins minted during the reigns of emperors (r. 98–117 CE) and (r. 117–138 CE), underscoring Roman imperial administration and . Inscriptions discovered at Tell Hesban provide direct confirmation of the site's Roman name as Esbus and its designation as a within the province of Arabia, highlighting its administrative role; one such Greek lintel inscription from a late antique structure references local ecclesiastical figures, linking to the evolving from Hellenistic times. The Byzantine era marked significant expansions at the site, particularly in religious and economic spheres, transforming Esbus into a prosperous Christian hub. A prominent feature is the triple-apsed constructed in the mid-5th century CE on the , featuring interior frescoes with biblical scenes and a central for liturgical use; this structure was rebuilt after an early 6th-century and served as the focal point for community worship. Surrounding complexes included monasteries and hospices designed to accommodate pilgrims traveling along regional routes, evidenced by associated chapels and guest quarters. Economic vitality is illustrated by numerous presses—rock-cut basins with mechanisms—scattered across the lower terraces, pointing to surplus production for oil export and local sustenance in this agriculturally rich area. A range of artifacts from the Byzantine layers enriches understanding of daily and life, including finely crafted glassware vessels for storage and lamps with incised Christian symbols such as crosses, often found in domestic contexts. practices are represented by extensive rock-cut caves on the southwestern slopes, containing sarcophagi with carved decorations and loculi for multiple interments, reflecting communal mourning customs. The site reached its zenith of prosperity in the CE, with expanded building activity and abundant indicating stability under Byzantine rule. However, layers of destruction dated to the early reveal evidence of Persian incursions, including scattered arrowheads and burnt structural remains overlying the and residential areas, signaling a abrupt decline before eventual abandonment.

Islamic Period Structures

During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, excavations at Tell Hesban revealed evidence of rural settlement, including farmsteads known as quṣur, which were fortified agricultural complexes typical of early Islamic architecture in Jordan. A notable Umayyad-period building was uncovered in Field N on the summit, featuring foundations along the northern enclosure wall, alongside water cisterns that supported local agriculture and daily life. Pottery from these strata included sherds with Arabic inscriptions, indicating administrative or commercial use, while an Abbasid bathhouse (ḥammām) was constructed atop Byzantine foundations, incorporating hypostyle elements and preexisting water systems for communal hygiene. In the medieval period, particularly under rule in the 13th and 14th centuries, Tell Hesban served as the capital of the al-Balqa district, marked by robust fortifications including a on the summit with multiple towers, such as the rebuilt southeastern and northeastern ones that underwent three phases of reinforcement. The complex incorporated a governor's residence with four barrel-vaulted rooms around a , a bath, storerooms, and elements like arrow slits possibly reused from earlier Crusader defenses, reflecting adaptive military amid regional conflicts. Village life centered on the western and southern slopes, where excavations in Fields O and C exposed clusters of single-room houses with plastered floors, hearths, and storage jars for grain and goods, alongside a modified four-iwan residence that later became a fortified space. Recent work in the 2010s, building on the 1968-1976 campaigns, has clarified domestic features, including kitchen installations suggestive of baking activities and foundations potentially linked to a , underscoring the site's role as a postal station on the Damascus-to-al-Karak route. Artifacts from these Islamic phases highlight trade and daily economy, with glazed ceramics—such as slip-painted and monochrome wares—imported from and other centers, alongside enameled and luster glass vessels like beakers, , and lamps used for storage and . Early glass weights, inscribed and weighing small quantities for , were found in 1974 excavations, attesting to standardized economic practices from the Umayyad era onward. Environmental data from pollen analysis in Hesban's strata indicate shifts in during the Islamic period, with increased cultivation of cereals and possibly introduced crops reflecting advancements and diversified farming. By the Ottoman phase, most structures at Tell Hesban were abandoned, with the summit citadel and surrounding buildings repurposed as quarries for local stone, leading to significant deterioration. Late Ottoman reoccupation was limited to scattered single-room houses built over ruins, but 19th-century traveler accounts described visible remnants of the ancient walls and fortifications amid a sparsely inhabited , noting the site's enduring monumental presence despite decline.

Ecclesiastical History

Early Christian Community

likely reached the region around ancient Heshbon by the early CE, building on earlier Jewish Christian communities in Transjordan, as evidenced by the of Esbus attending the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. The faith spread through the province of Arabia via established that facilitated movement of traders, soldiers, and refugees, integrating Christian communities into urban centers like Esbus. By the early , an organized Christian presence is evident, as demonstrated by the attendance of Gennadius of Esbus at the in 325 CE, where he subscribed to the opposing . The early Christian community in Esbus centered around house churches that served as spaces for worship, teaching, and communal support amid a diverse . As gained imperial favor after Constantine's in 313 CE, these informal gatherings evolved toward more structured institutions, reflecting the community's growing stability and integration with Roman civic life. Bishops from Esbus actively participated in broader affairs, underscoring the town's role in regional ; for instance, Bishop Zosimus attended the in 431 CE and the in 451 CE, contributing to debates on Christological doctrine. This involvement highlights how local leaders navigated theological controversies while fostering community cohesion. Monastic traditions exerted significant influence on Esbus's Christian life, drawing from the nearby desert regions where ascetic hermits—part of the broader movement of —established early centers in the 3rd century. These monks promoted ideals of solitude, prayer, and renunciation that permeated lay practices, encouraging and spiritual discipline among residents. Esbus itself functioned as a key stop on routes from to holy sites like , providing rest and sustenance for travelers en route to venerate biblical locations associated with . This connectivity enhanced the community's exposure to diverse Christian expressions and reinforced its devotional vitality. Early Christian symbolism in Esbus reflected a cautious yet emerging , with crosses appearing in as subtle markers of belief during periods of potential . Such motifs symbolized and eternal life, offering comfort in funerary contexts. Indications of a possible 4th-century suggest organized rites of initiation, where converts publicly affirmed their through immersion, marking the transition from private to communal worship. Socially, Esbus maintained a mixed population of pagans, , and through the , with tensions arising from doctrinal differences and cultural overlaps. Jewish Christian elements, once prominent in Transjordan, waned by the mid-4th century due to rabbinic opposition and integration into churches, allowing orthodox Christianity to dominate by the 5th century. This shift fostered a more unified community, though remnants of persisted in local customs and architecture.

Byzantine and Later Developments

During the peak of the Byzantine period, Hesebon, known as Esbus, served as a suffragan see of the metropolis of Bostra within the of Arabia under the of Antioch. Bishops from Esbus actively participated in major ecumenical councils, demonstrating the see's prominence; for instance, Bishop Theodore attended the Second Council of in 553, affirming orthodox amid debates over the Three Chapters. Earlier precedents included Gennadius at in 325 and Zosimus at in 431 and in 451, underscoring the continuity of Chalcedonian orthodoxy in the region. Following the Arab conquest in the mid-7th century, in Esbus persisted under Muslim rule, with Theodore of Esbus issuing a declaration of faith against in support of Martin I's Lateran of 649, indicating ongoing ecclesiastical vitality. bishops, aligned with Byzantine orthodoxy, continued to lead the see until at least the , as evidenced by regional synodal records, though the town gradually declined in prominence. Possible Jacobite influences emerged in the broader Transjordan area during this era, potentially affecting peripheral communities, but Esbus remained predominantly Chalcedonian. In the Crusader period, Esbus saw no direct occupation, but the established a brief in the as part of efforts to organize Outremer sees, which lapsed amid regional instability. By the era in the , the residential bishopric had declined to titular status, with appointments like Albertinus do Tridento in the 15th century serving as non-resident Latin bishops in . The Catholic Church has assigned Esbus (also Hesebon) as a Latin titular bishopric since the 18th century, with notable appointments including Lorenzo Petris de Dolammare in 1893 and Melchior Sun Dezhen in 1926. The last such appointment occurred in 1961 with Georges-Arthur Melançon, who resigned the titular see in 1970. This enduring titular legacy reflects Esbus's historical significance, contributing to the spiritual heritage of local Arab Christian communities in modern Jordan, where Byzantine-era foundations supported the resilience of Eastern Christianity amid successive rulers.

Modern Significance

Cultural Heritage and Preservation

The site of Tell Hisban falls under the oversight of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities (DoA), part of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (MoTA), which manages protection, documentation, and coordination with international and local stakeholders to ensure sustainable heritage practices. Since the mid-1990s, the Madaba Plains Project (MPP) has led conservation efforts at the citadel, initiating a site-wide clean-up in 1996 to enhance structural stability, accessibility, and long-term preservation amid ongoing excavations. Tourism initiatives aim to position Tell Hisban as an accessible destination within Jordan's Plains region, with plans for a dedicated in the adjacent village secured through partnerships with local landowners during the 2020s. The site integrates into broader regional trails connecting nearby archaeological landmarks like and , while annual open days during excavation seasons allow public participation and guided tours to foster appreciation of its multi-period significance. Preservation faces key challenges, including the prevention of looting exacerbated by regional instability following the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings, as well as climate change impacts such as erosion on the site's ancient terraces and surrounding agricultural features. These threats are addressed through community alliances, fencing, and adaptive management strategies developed in collaboration with the DoA. Educational outreach emphasizes local involvement, with the Hisban Cultural Heritage Project providing training in heritage documentation, conservation, and stewardship to residents since 2018 via partnerships with groups like the Hisban Women’s Association and Sela for Training and Protection of Heritage. Complementary programs include tailored K-12 curricula integrated into local school systems, highlighting Tell Hisban's role among Jordan's biblical heritage sites to build generational awareness and ownership. Recent preservation advancements feature digital initiatives, such as the Hisban Interactive Archive Project, which offers interactive mapping and data visualization tools to support virtual site exploration and research accessibility. These efforts align with broader goals of community-driven heritage economies, including the establishment of the Hisban Cultural Association to sustain local engagement.

The Hazboun Family

The Hazboun surname is an habitational name derived from the biblical town of Heshbon, known today as Hisban in northwestern . Primarily borne by , the name traces its roots to Ottoman-era residents of the region, with family branches emerging in the late among merchant and artisan communities in . By the 19th century, Hazboun families had established themselves in , appearing in early guidebooks as innkeepers and traders who accumulated wealth through commerce with European pilgrims. Notable among them was Anton Issa Hazboun, a 20th-century figure whose philanthropic legacy included endowing scholarships for Palestinian students following his death. His son, Edward A. Hazbun, extended this tradition by founding the Bethlehem Association in 1985, a supporting and cultural ties for the Palestinian in the United States. As a prominent Palestinian Christian family, the Hazbouns have been involved in business and community leadership, with branches dispersing to the U.S. and amid the displacements of and 1967. Family lore connects their heritage to Heshbon's ancient , interpreted as "little thinker" from the Canaanite term for reckoning or reasoning. Contemporary Hazboun descendants maintain genealogical records through databases like , which document over 300 birth, marriage, and immigration entries, reflecting their global spread and Christian identity. Organizations such as the Bethlehem Association facilitate gatherings that preserve this heritage, akin to familial reunions during events like in .

References

  1. https://www.thetorah.com/article/when-did-fire-go-forth-from-heshbon
  2. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=hisban-excavations-1968-publications
  3. https://arkeonews.net/ancient-jordanian-town-referred-to-as-heshbon-in-the-old-testament-provides-insight-into-regional-agricultural-history/
  4. https://www.ioa.uni-bonn.de/islamic-archaeology/de/research/current-field-projects/tall-hisban-1/2025_week-one
  5. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/02/hisban-signage-2012-mobile-version.pdf
  6. https://casa.arizona.edu/MPP/hrs1_report/hrs1.html
  7. https://islamicart.museumwnf.org/database_item.php?id=monument%3BISL%3Bjo%3BMon01%3B17%3Ben
  8. https://jordantimes.com/news/local/tell-hisban-%25E2%2580%2598granary-empires%25E2%2580%2599-offers-insight-regional-history-agriculture
  9. https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/970/files/MSR-XX-2017-Walker-Laparidou-Hansen-Corbino.pdf
  10. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2017/02/palimpsest_of_great_and_little_traditions.pdf
  11. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/context/books/article/1068/viewcontent/Hesban_3__Historical_Foundations_Lawrence_T._Geraty.pdf
  12. https://www.biblicalchronologist.org/correspondence/Heshbon.php
  13. https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/hbd/h/heshbon.html
  14. https://www.bu.edu/asor/pubs/books-monographs/macdonald.pdf
  15. https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2809.htm
  16. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+21%3A21-35&version=ESV
  17. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+21%3A27-30&version=ESV
  18. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+2%3A24-37&version=ESV
  19. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Joshua+12%3A2-5&version=ESV
  20. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Numbers+32%3A1-5%2C37&version=ESV
  21. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Joshua+13%3A15-17&version=ESV
  22. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+15-16&version=ESV
  23. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah+48&version=ESV
  24. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+16%3A8-9&version=ESV
  25. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah+48%3A2%2C34-45&version=ESV
  26. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Joshua+13%3A26&version=ESV
  27. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+1%3A28&version=NIV
  28. https://biblehub.com/topical/naves/h/heshbon--prophecy_concerning.htm
  29. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jeremiah+48%3A45-46&version=ESV
  30. https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/jeremiah-48/
  31. https://www.bibleodyssey.org/dictionary/heshbon/
  32. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4151&context=auss
  33. https://www.academia.edu/85938965/Hesban_05_Archaeological_Survey_of_the_Hesban_Region
  34. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1509153
  35. https://escholarship.org/content/qt5sd3b7zj/qt5sd3b7zj.pdf
  36. https://dornsife.usc.edu/wsrp/heshbon-ostracon/
  37. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/dissertations/96/
  38. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1001&context=hisban-excavations-1976-publications
  39. https://madabamuseum.org/en/sites/Hisban
  40. https://www.academia.edu/5324177/Animal_Exploitation_in_the_Nabataean_World
  41. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4153&context=auss
  42. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5201&context=pubs
  43. https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/hesebon
  44. https://deadseaquake.info/EarthquakeCatalogOfTheDeadSea/Sites/Archaeo/Heshbon.html
  45. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=hisban-excavations-1973-publications
  46. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/
  47. https://vici.org/vici/40867/?lang=en
  48. https://www.academia.edu/38330880/Hesban_After_25_Years
  49. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=books
  50. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/excavations/hesban-in-global-history/
  51. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/auss/vol7/iss2/1/
  52. https://andrewsarchaeology.org/publications/hesban-final-publication-series/
  53. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/hisban-excavations/
  54. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1976-1/1976-1-01.pdf
  55. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/context/auss/article/3300/viewcontent/02_LaBianca.Community_Archaeology__revised_.pdf
  56. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/hisban-excavations-1971-publications/1/
  57. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1973-1/1973-1-01.pdf
  58. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/about/
  59. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/2000-1/2000-1-02.pdf
  60. https://www.andrews.edu/agenda/47306
  61. https://www.archaeological.org/fieldwork/hisban-cultural-heritage-project/
  62. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/pubs/1493/
  63. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328335398_%27Impressions%27_of_the_Mamluk_agricultural_economy_Archaeobotanical_evidence_from_clay_ovens_tabun_at_Tall_Hisban_Jordan
  64. https://www.asor.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/11/AM2025-Abstract-Book_2025_11_3.pdf
  65. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/research/heshbon-expedition-publications/
  66. https://publications.acorjordan.org/articles/hisban-cultural-heritage-project-2018-2019/
  67. https://jordantimes.com/news/local/tell-hisban-%25E2%2580%2598time-machine-exploring-humanitys-global-past%25E2%2580%2599-%25E2%2580%2594-us-scholar
  68. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/books/70/
  69. https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/19/SHAJ_4-309-313.pdf
  70. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv25wxc84.12
  71. https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/128/ADAJ_1984_28-269-287.pdf
  72. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/context/books/article=1068/viewcontent/Hesban_3__Historical_Foundations_Lawrence_T._Geraty.pdf
  73. https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/72/ADAJ_2003_47-443-471.pdf
  74. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/excavations/tall-hisban-excavations-phase-ii/
  75. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1976-1/1976-1-17.pdf
  76. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1033&context=iaham-news
  77. https://madabaplains.org/hisban/tag/archaeology/
  78. https://ifpo.hypotheses.org/11131
  79. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1976-1/1976-1-16.pdf
  80. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1978-1/1978-1-12.pdf
  81. https://tyndalebulletin.org/article/30422-early-christianity-in-transjordan.pdf
  82. https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1968-2/1968-2-04.pdf
  83. https://adventistreview.org/magazine-article/the-heshbon-excavation/
  84. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum04.htm
  85. https://jordantimes.com/news/local/beyond-sands-delving-ancient-hermit-monasteries
  86. https://m.facebook.com/RealnewsMagazine/photos/a.3595619293874090/3595897247179628/?type=3
  87. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07298b.htm
  88. https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/diocese/d2e42.html
  89. https://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bmelancon.html
  90. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376953973_Management_of_Heritage_Sites_in_Jordan-_Tell_Hisban_As_A_Case_Study_Published_a_PhD_thesis
  91. https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/79/ADAJ_2017_58_-657-674.pdf
  92. https://publication.doa.gov.jo/uploads/publications/43/ADAJ_2018_59-623-630.pdf
  93. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/hiap/
  94. https://www.asor.org/news/2021/10/geraty-grant-report
  95. https://www.ancestry.com/last-name-meaning/hazboun
  96. https://lebanesestudies.ojs.chass.ncsu.edu/index.php/mashriq/article/view/13/459
  97. https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2010/dec/18/bethlehem-christmas-nicholas-blincoe
  98. https://www.bethlehemassociation.org/about-1
  99. https://thisweekinpalestine.com/rooted-in-the-holy-land/
  100. https://catholicphilly.com/2014/12/news/world-news/for-arab-christians-getting-to-bethlehem-involves-checks-imbalances
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.