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Modern reconstruction of Achaemenid era Persian noble attire featuring the "Kandys" and wearing the Medo-Persian headwear known as a "Tiara"

A kandys, plural kandyes (Ancient Greek: κάνδυς, plural κᾰ́νδῠες, probably from Old Persian * kandu "mantle, cover"), also called candys,[1] kantuš, or Median robe,[2][3] is a type of three-quarter-length Persian coat. It originally described a leather cloak with sleeves worn by men, but evolved into a garment worn by Athenian women.[4] The kandys is sometimes compared to the much later 17th-19th century military pelisse as worn by Hussars, in the sense that it was a sleeved jacket or coat worn cloak-style.[2]

Semantics

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It is suggested that the term kandys / candys was probably an Iranian word that was appropriated by the Greeks to describe the Persian garment, which in Old Persian would have been called kandu (cloak).[1] Other terms in languages of Ancient Iran include kanzu-ka (Median), kan-su-ka (Elamite) and gnjwg (Parthian), all of which correspond with the term cloak.[1] The prefix 'kan-', in such languages, means to cover or to throw, as in a coat thrown around the shoulders.[1] Although some sources have suggested a link to kontusz, the Polish term for a greatcoat[5][6], the link is anachronistic and not considered credible.[1]

Persian usage

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Detail of a relief showing two men (left and right) wearing kandys. Apadana of Persepolis, 550-330 BC.

The earliest evidence of the sleeved kandys is found on a 9th-century BC Iranian bronze stand excavated at Teppe Hasanlu, while garments have been found in 4th and 5th century BC Scythian graves showing that the sleeves were so narrow and placed in such a manner that they could not realistically function as sleeves.[7] The kandys was worn as a cloak rather than a coat, except in the presence of the King for inspections, when the arms were placed in the kandys's overlong or sewn-up sleeves.[1] This has been interpreted as a precaution against assassination attempts.[7] The Persian kandys was often purple, or made from leather and skins.[1] Since 1990 the Encyclopædia Iranica has stated that most people believe that the candys, along with a long-sleeved coat called a sárapis and long trousers called anaxyrides, formed part of the riding dress of the Medes people and is represented by the mantle with hanging empty sleeves portrayed in the Persepolis reliefs.[1] These reliefs are also used as evidence for the theory that the Persian kandys may have acted as a status garment, as it is shown being worn by Iranian nobility, but not by their servants.[7]

Greek usage

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The kandys, now made with sleeves, was historically worn by Greek women, particularly in Athens, in the 4th century BC,[7] and towards the end of the 5th century BC.[8] At this time, fashions were increasingly influenced by imports from the East and Asia Minor.[8] Among the more typical chitons and himatia that Athenian women dedicated to Artemis at Brauron were six kandyes, mostly described as being patterned.[7] One of these was dedicated in 347 BC, although no dates were given for the other dedications, and Margaret C. Miller suggests they must date no later than the early 4th century BC.[7] In Greece, the six kandyes linked with Brauron also had special significance - two were chosen to adorn the cult statue, one may have been made of silk, and another is described as ornamented with gold.[7] Miller notes that one was made from linen, which was considered unusual enough to mention in the lists, in contrast to the leather used for Persian kandyes, and suggests the use of Greek-made linen means that kandyes were made in Greece as well as potentially imported from Persia.[7] At odds with the concept of the kandys as a symbol of luxury is an interpretation from the 1990s where the kandys is described as reflecting non-Attic and slave status.[9][10] Towards the end of the 5th century BC, Miller noted a surge in the number of depictions of Athenian women and children wearing kandys-like garments.[7] While girls wore them as overgarments, small boys wore them open and without undergarments.[7] One suggestion was that the kandys was dedicated prior to marriage, as a child's garment, but Miller notes that this interpretation is challenged by the use of husband's names in the Brauronian lists, and that contemporary vase paintings show mature women wearing kandyes.[7]

Sasanian embassy to Byzantine Empire, stone relief in Istanbul Archaeological Museums, Turkey

References

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Kandys

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The kandys (also spelled candys) was an ancient Iranian outer garment, a sleeved coat with long, often empty sleeves hanging from the shoulders, originating as a riding cloak in the around the 6th century BCE. It was commonly worn over tunics and by Persian and high-ranking officials, serving both as practical attire for warmth and a marker of status, with depictions showing pendent sleeves that hung from the shoulders without being inserted through. Historical accounts, such as those in Xenophon's Anabasis (c. 370 BCE), describe the kandys as a outer garment (kandys porphyran) donned by elites in the entourage of figures like , often paired with costly tunics, jewelry, and torques. Materials varied by rank: royal versions used true and edging, while ordinary ones were made from dyed or felt in colors like red, blue, or yellow. Archaeological evidence from reliefs and Greek vase paintings (e.g., by the Stieglitz Painter, c. 475 BCE) illustrates it as a closed garment fastened along the shoulders, sometimes with tube-like sleeves forming pocket cuffs, evolving from a for men into a broader symbol of Persian and identity. The kandys influenced regional fashions, spreading to , Parthian, and Sasanian cultures, and later appearing in Islamic and European military attire as a protective riding . Later Greek and Roman sources, including Pollux's Onomasticon ( CE), distinguished its royal (halipórphyros) and common (porphyroûs) forms, noting its sleeved design and association with equestrian nobility. By the , as seen on the (4th century BCE), it had become a recognizable element of eastern in Western art, underscoring its role in cultural exchanges across the .

Etymology and Terminology

Linguistic Origins

The term "kandys," denoting an ancient Iranian garment, originates from Old Iranian linguistic roots, reconstructed as *kandu- or *kantu-, derived from the verbal stem *kan- meaning "to cover" or "envelope." This reconstruction draws on cognates in related ancient , including *kanzu-ka- and Elamite kan-su-ka, both signifying a "" or protective covering, as analyzed by scholars such as H. W. Bailey and M. Schwartz. The etymology reflects a broader Indo-Iranian pattern where roots like *kan- or *kam- denote actions of enclosing or shielding, evidenced in later forms such as Parthian qnjwg for "." Linguistic evidence suggests a possible Median origin for the term, with its usage likely predating the Achaemenid Persian period in the 6th century BCE. , as an early northwestern Iranian dialect, may have contributed to the word's form in the riding costumes of elites, as proposed by O. Szemerényi based on comparative analysis of Iranian nomenclature. This places the term's emergence in the context of pre-Achaemenid Iranian cultural exchanges around the mid-1st millennium BCE, distinct from later inscriptions. Over time, the term underwent a semantic shift from a general verb or noun for "covering" to a specific designation for a type of garment, as inferred from its adaptation in Iranian terminology. This is paralleled in related compounds, such as a proposed Old Iranian *kandu-dāna- meaning "clothes-bag," which appears in Greek sources as kandýtānes. The Greek transliteration as "kandys" or "candys" preserves this Iranian core while entering Hellenistic literature.

Greek and Persian Adaptations

The Greek term kándys (Ancient Greek: κάνδυν), transliterated from an Iranian original, entered Greek literature in the 4th century BCE to describe a distinctive outer garment associated with Persian and Median elites. Its earliest attestation appears in Xenophon's Anabasis (1.5.8), where it refers to a luxurious purple cloak worn by high-ranking members of Cyrus the Younger's entourage, layered over tunics, trousers, and jewelry as a marker of status during military campaigns. This adoption reflects Greek encounters with Achaemenid culture, positioning the kándys as emblematic of "barbarian" opulence and foreign fashion in classical texts. In subsequent Greek works, the term's usage evolved with variations in spelling and contextual emphasis, often highlighting its ceremonial role. Xenophon's Cyropaedia (1.3.2, 8.3.13) describes it as part of Median royal attire, such as a solid purple kándys paired with scarlet trousers, underscoring its prestige in diplomatic and equestrian settings. Later authors like Pollux in Onomasticon (7.58) distinguish royal variants (halipórphyros, or sea-purple) from common ones (porphyroûs), noting sleeved designs fastened at the shoulders, while Diodorus Siculus (17.77.5) contrasts it with other Persian elements like trousers in discussions of Alexander's cultural policies. Pronunciation and orthographic shifts across Ionic and Attic dialects contributed to forms like "candys," preserving the term's exotic connotation in Hellenistic and Roman-era lexicons such as Hesychius and the Suda, where it is glossed as a "Persian coat" secured with brooches. On the Persian side, the kándys corresponds to Iranian terms like kantuš or reconstructed kandu-, denoting a covering or , as evidenced by linguistic analyses linking it to roots meaning "to cover." While direct attestations are absent from Achaemenid inscriptions, visual parallels appear in reliefs depicting elite figures in mantles with elaborate, empty sleeves slung over the shoulders, aligning with Greek descriptions. In later contexts, related terminology persists in Parthian-influenced , such as Palmyrene reliefs showing long-sleeved coats identified as kantuš, bridging Achaemenid styles into Sasanian traditions without explicit textual records in surviving Pahlavi literature. The core Iranian root kandu-, denoting enclosure or covering, underpins these adaptations across dialects.

Physical Description

Design Features

The kandys is a long, wide-fit outer distinguished by its practical yet ornate structure, serving as a versatile garment for layering over inner tunics. Its primary form consists of a loose, flowing body that allows for ease of movement, with the overall design emphasizing functionality in both stationary ceremonial postures and active scenarios such as riding. Artistic depictions from reliefs, dating to the 6th-4th centuries BCE, illustrate this as a mantle-like slung over the shoulders, often reaching or full ankle length depending on the wearer's status and context. A key structural element is the sleeves, which are long and narrow, extending well beyond the arms in a tube-like manner and frequently depicted as hanging empty to cover the hands when the arms are not inserted. This dual-wear capability—either as dangling decorative extensions or functional arm coverings—enhances mobility while adding visual flair, as seen in Greek vase paintings and Lycian tomb sculptures adapting Persian styles. The garment typically features a fastening system over the breast using cords, lappets, or occasionally an elaborate positioned below the right shoulder, enabling secure closure without restricting the body's range. Distinctive elements include fasteners or ties at the front for ease of adjustment, along with decorative borders along the edges, inferred from relief carvings showing patterned hems and collars that frame the neckline. These features, evident in Achaemenid-era monuments like the stairs at , underscore the kandys's role as a through its balanced proportions and adaptable form.

Materials and Variations

The kandys was primarily constructed from durable materials suited to the region's and practical needs, with being especially prominent in versions for its robustness in riding and outdoor activities. Linen, , and other fabrics served as common alternatives in Achaemenid contexts, providing lighter and more breathable options for layered wear. These garments were frequently bordered with , such as for added warmth and status, particularly among the , though variations in fur type and extent occurred based on and purpose. Color choices reflected both aesthetic preferences and hierarchical distinctions, employing rich natural dyes like —derived from for elite examples—and or scarlet hues for vibrancy. Plain versions in undyed or simpler tones were typical for lower ranks, while patterned kandys featured embroidered or woven motifs for ceremonial use, as inferred from textual descriptions and artistic evidence. reliefs illustrate these garments in audience scenes, showing bordered edges and draped forms that suggest color contrasts, though stone medium limits direct preservation. Over time and across regions, kandys construction evolved subtly, with examples often featuring longer hanging sleeves for a flowing, protective style suited to equestrian life. In later Achaemenid periods, sleeves trended shorter or more tubular, adapting to courtly mobility while retaining the slung-over-shoulder form, as seen in evolving Greek depictions and iconography from the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.

Historical Usage

Median and Achaemenid Contexts

The kandys, often referred to as the "Median robe," emerged in the Median kingdom during the 7th to 6th centuries BCE as a distinctive riding coat integral to the attire of warriors and elites, reflecting the nomadic and equestrian traditions of the region. This garment, characterized by its open, coat-like design with long, narrow false sleeves, was typically worn slung over the shoulder and paired with (anaxyrides) and a long-sleeved undercoat (sárapis), forming a practical ensemble for mounted . Its origins likely trace to Central Asian influences adapted by the , predating the rise of the and establishing it as a hallmark of Median military and aristocratic dress. With the founding of the by in 550 BCE, the kandys was seamlessly integrated into imperial attire, persisting through the empire's duration until 330 BCE. In the royal courts at and , it became standard for satraps, high-ranking officials, and soldiers, symbolizing continuity with heritage while adapting to Persian administrative and military needs. describes its use among Persian kings and magnates, noting the garment's luxurious variants in or fur-trimmed leather, underscoring its role in elite equestrian contexts across the empire's vast territories. Archaeological evidence from key Achaemenid sites corroborates this evolution, with reliefs on the Apadāna stairway at depicting figures in kandys mantles, complete with empty hanging sleeves, as documented in Erich F. Schmidt's excavations. Similarly, glazed-brick friezes from illustrate the garment's form on guards and courtiers, highlighting its prominence in ceremonial processions. Seal impressions from further show Median-dressed individuals in kandys, providing glyptic evidence of its widespread adoption among imperial personnel.

Social and Ceremonial Roles

The kandys served as a prominent in Achaemenid society, primarily worn by the upper classes including , military leaders, and to denote rank and authority. Depictions on reliefs and other artifacts show Persian kings and magnates donning the garment slung over the , often in luxurious variants such as the all-purple kandys worn by or the gold-ornamented version of , which reflected hierarchical distinctions through color and decoration. While commoners might have worn simplified forms of Iranian attire, the elaborate kandys was reserved for elites, reinforcing in the empire. In ceremonial contexts, the kandys played a key role during royal audiences, hunts, and Zoroastrian rituals, where its presence underscored the wearer's prestige and ritual purity. For instance, audience scenes on the Perso-Lycian portray high-ranking officials like Autophradates in the kandys, symbolizing imperial . Zoroastrian are depicted wearing the kandys over their tunics in late 6th-century BCE figurines from the , holding barsoms during liturgical ceremonies that emphasized spiritual authority. Fur-trimmed versions, suggested by zigzag patterns in some representations, further evoked notions of purity and elevated status in these rites. Practically, the kandys supported equestrian activities central to Persian nobility and military life, offering warmth and protection against Iran's diverse climates, from the cold steppes to arid highlands. As a sleeved riding associated with traditions, it was valued for its functionality in hunts and campaigns, while also serving as a royal gift to affirm and rank among leaders.

Depictions in Sources

Greek Literary References

In the Histories of Herodotus, composed in the 5th century BCE, the Persian adoption of Median dress is detailed as a marker of cultural borrowing and aesthetic preference (1.135), with the overgarment known as the kandys—a sleeved cloak typically worn slung over the shoulders—central to this attire for elites like Cyrus the Great and his courtiers. Persians wore the tiara on their heads, colorful trousers known as anaxyrides, and leather shoes, viewing Median styles as superior to their own indigenous forms (7.61–62, 7.64). This description underscores the kandys as a symbol of Median nobility and Persian royal splendor, often lined with fur and fastened at the front, distinguishing high-ranking individuals in courtly and ceremonial settings. Xenophon's works provide more explicit portrayals of the kandys in both military and diplomatic contexts during the late BCE. In the Anabasis (1.5.8), the oldest surviving textual reference, Xenophon depicts high-ranking Persians in the Younger's entourage wearing a kandys over costly , colored , and jewelry, emphasizing its role as an outer garment denoting status amid the chaos of the retreat from Cunaxa. The further elaborates on its design and usage: in 1.3.2, the kandys is attributed to origins, while 8.3.13 describes himself donning a solid kandys over a matching paired with white and scarlet for formal appearances; additionally, 8.3.10 illustrates its practicality, with horsemen threading their arms through the long, narrow sleeves during royal inspections, mirroring iconographic evidence of the garment's false sleeves hanging empty when not in use. These accounts highlight the kandys' fastenings, such as cords or lappets over the breast, and its evolution from a riding to a luxurious woolen or dyed variant evoking Persian opulence. Later employs the term kandys to conjure images of Persian exoticism and excess, often in narratives contrasting Greek simplicity with "barbarian" lavishness. In ' comedies of the late BCE, the garment symbolizes foreign luxury and cultural otherness, reflecting its adoption as a among Athenian elites and its use in satirical portrayals of Persian-influenced decadence. , writing in the 1st century CE, references a royal coat—interpreted as a kandys—in his Life of Artaxerxes (5.2) during an of the king's hunt, where a rent royal coat is given to the courtier Teribazus, who defiantly wears it with golden ornaments, prompting Artaxerxes' rebuke that it suits him as a madman's or woman's trinket, thereby underscoring the garment's restricted use among Persian royalty to maintain hierarchical distinctions.

Artistic and Archaeological Evidence

The artistic and archaeological evidence for the kandys provides tangible insights into its form and use during the Achaemenid period, primarily through monumental sculptures, painted ceramics, and preserved artifacts from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. These depictions consistently portray the kandys as a versatile overgarment, often worn slung over the shoulders with distinctive hanging sleeves, emphasizing its association with and Persian elites. Prominent among Persian sources are the reliefs on the palace at , constructed around 500 BCE under Darius I. These stone carvings illustrate tribute-bearing delegates from regions and Persian guards clad in the kandys, shown as a full-length mantle with empty, pendent sleeves draped over one shoulder or both, sometimes adorned with decorative borders. The garments appear in processional scenes on the staircases, where figures carry gifts, underscoring the kandys's role in imperial ceremonies; traces of original paint suggest vibrant colors, including reds and patterns mimicking fur or . Similar representations occur in the reliefs of the Tripylon and Hundred Column Hall at , reinforcing the garment's standardized depiction across Achaemenid iconography. Greek artistic records from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE capture the kandys in the context of conflicts and cultural encounters during the , often on Attic red-figure vases and related terracottas. These portrayals highlight Persian warriors and dignitaries, with the kandys rendered as a luxurious, fur-edged contrasting Greek nudity or chitons. A notable example is a red-figure cup fragment by the Stieglitz Painter, dated circa 475 BCE and now in , depicting a Persian participant in a wearing a patterned, fur-trimmed kandys with sleeves hanging loosely, set against the backdrop of pre-Battle of tensions. Other vases, such as those from the Painter of 2687 workshop, show combatants in dynamic poses, the kandys's sleeves billowing during or . Terracotta figurines from and , circa 450–350 BCE, similarly feature Persian-style figures in the garment, with molded details emphasizing the coat's tube-like sleeves and ankle-length hem, likely inspired by direct observations of Achaemenid forces. The 4th-century BCE from further exemplifies this, with carved Persians in colorful kandys variants—reds, purples, and blues with spotted fur—sleeves extended in battle motion. Archaeological discoveries beyond core Persian sites confirm the kandys's design elements through physical remains, reflecting its spread via trade and conquest. A key early example is a stand from Hasanlu (northwestern , near Armenian borders), dated to the BCE, portraying a male figure in a sleeved jacket worn over the shoulders with empty arms, prefiguring Achaemenid styles and linking to precursors. Textile remnants from highland sites in , such as those from 1st millennium BCE contexts, include woolen fragments with woven patterns and fur-like trims matching relief depictions, indicating local production or import of kandys components.

Cultural Significance

Symbolism in Persian Society

In ancient Persian society, the kandys served as a prominent emblem of imperial authority, particularly within the , where it was frequently depicted in royal art and propaganda to evoke continuity with heritage. Originating as a riding associated with cavalry, the garment was adopted and elevated by Persian rulers, symbolizing noble lineage and martial prowess; for instance, reliefs portray tribute-bearers and courtiers in the kandys, reinforcing the empire's ideological narrative of unified Iranian dominion under the king. This visual rhetoric linked wearers to legendary figures such as , whose entourage donned luxurious purple variants of the kandys to signify royal favor and elite status, as described in classical accounts. The kandys's design elements further underscored its role in projecting power and tradition. Its long, false sleeves and fur-trimmed borders, often fashioned from or other pelts, not only provided practical protection against harsh climates but also marked the wearer as part of the imperial hierarchy, distinguishing from subject peoples in official representations. In Achaemenid , such as the friezes, the kandys differentiated high-ranking and Persian delegates, embedding the garment within a broader of ethnic prestige and centralized rule that propagated the king's divine mandate. notes Darius III's golden-embroidered kandys as a pinnacle of regal splendor, highlighting how the attire embodied the opulence and legitimacy of Achaemenid . Regarding gender norms, the kandys was predominantly a garment in Persian contexts, aligning with societal structures that emphasized patriarchal authority through elite attire. Worn by kings, nobles, and warriors, it reinforced masculine ideals of and mobility, with no primary evidence of routine female adoption in core Iranian society; however, its exclusivity to men in ceremonial and settings underscored the gendered division of public roles under Achaemenid rule. This attribution to male spheres further solidified the kandys as a tool for maintaining hierarchical order and cultural identity.

Influence on Neighboring Cultures

Following 's conquests in the BCE, the kandys—a sleeved —gained prominence in Hellenistic kingdoms, particularly among the Seleucids, where it symbolized eastern imperial authority and cultural fusion. Depictions on early numismatic evidence, such as Manbog coins from circa 333 BCE, show himself in a knee-length kandys paired with a , illustrating the rapid adoption of Persian riding attire in royal imagery to legitimize rule over former Achaemenid territories. In Seleucid art, the garment appears as a marker of Persian heritage, as noted in analyses of royal banquets and equestrian motifs, reflecting deliberate blending of Greek and Iranian traditions in the BCE courts of Antioch and . The kandys also exhibited parallels in Scythian and Sarmatian nomadic attire across the Eurasian s, where similar long, sleeved woolen coats served practical and status functions in the 5th–3rd centuries BCE. Archaeological finds from in the reveal fur-lined, ankle-length chapans—direct analogs to the kandys—adorned with gold plaques and motifs like griffins, worn over tunics and by elite warriors, suggesting diffusion through Achaemenid-Saka interactions. These steppe variants, reconstructed from organic remains in kurgans like Katanda and Tuyekta, featured burgundy wool exteriors with silk linings, mirroring the luxurious, false-sleeved design of the Persian original and highlighting shared equestrian adaptations among Iranian-speaking nomads. In , Achaemenid administrative integration from the BCE introduced the kandys as a favored garment among local elites, often depicted in reliefs and tomb paintings as a fur-trimmed denoting military and noble status. Sites like the Karaburun II tomb (mid-5th century BCE) and Daskyleion reliefs illustrate Anatolian men wearing it slung over the shoulder in processional scenes, influenced by Persian satrapal customs and trade networks that extended to Mesopotamian traditions, though direct Mesopotamian adoption remains unattested. This regional transmission underscores the kandys's role in broader Near Eastern cultural exchange during the empire's height.
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