Hubbry Logo
LupulellaLupulellaMain
Open search
Lupulella
Community hub
Lupulella
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Lupulella
Lupulella
Lupulella
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Lupulella
Temporal range: Pliocene - recent
Side-striped and black-backed jackals
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Caniformia
Family: Canidae
Subfamily: Caninae
Tribe: Canini
Subtribe: Canina
Genus: Lupulella
Hilzheimer, 1906
Type species
Canis mesomelas[1]
Schreber, 1775
Species
Lupulella range
  Lupulella adusta
  Lupulella mesomelas

Lupulella is a genus[2][3][4] of canine found in Africa.[5] This genus consists of only two extant species, the black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) and the side-striped jackal (Lupulella adusta).[4][2][3]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The two species had previously been considered members of the genus Canis. In 2017, a taxonomic review recommended that these two species be recognised as genus Lupulella.[6] In response to this review, the American Society of Mammalogists recognised the new genus.[4]

In 2019, a workshop hosted by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group recommends that because DNA evidence shows the side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) and black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) to form a monophyletic lineage that sits outside of the Canis/Cuon/Lycaon clade, that they should be placed in a distinct genus, Lupulella (Hilzheimer, 1906) with the names Lupulella adusta and Lupulella mesomelas.[2]

Genus Lupulella – Schreber, 1775 – two species
Common name Scientific name and subspecies Range Size and ecology IUCN status and estimated population
Side-striped jackal

Lupulella adusta
(Sundevall, 1847)

Seven subspecies
  • L. a. adusta
  • L. a. bweha
  • L. a. centralis
  • L. a. grayi
  • L. a. kaffensis
  • L. a. lateralis
  • L. a. notatus
central and southern Africa
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Black-backed jackal

Lupulella mesomelas
(Schreber, 1775)

Two subspecies
  • Cape black-backed jackal, L. m. mesomelas
  • East African black-backed jackal, L. m. schmidti
eastern and southern Africa
Map of range 		Size:

Habitat:

Diet: 		 LC 


Phylogeny

[edit]

Cladogram based on genomic data:[7]

True dogs

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lupulella

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lupulella is a of medium-sized canids endemic to , consisting of two extant species: the (Lupulella mesomelas) and the (Lupulella adusta). These opportunistic carnivores are characterized by their slender builds, pointed muzzles, and distinctive markings—the black-backed jackal features a prominent black saddle across its back contrasting with reddish fur, while the side-striped jackal displays faint white stripes along its flanks on a grayish coat—enabling them to thrive in diverse habitats from savannas and woodlands to semi-arid regions. The genus Lupulella, originally described by Hilzheimer in 1906, was re-established in modern taxonomy following phylogenetic analyses that revealed its species form a distinct monophyletic separate from the genus Canis, diverging approximately 4–5 million years ago based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence. This separation highlights their unique evolutionary history within the family, positioning them as the basal lineage within the wolf-like canids (), sister to the containing Canis, Cuon, and Lycaon. Both species exhibit similar behaviors, including monogamous pair bonding, territoriality marked by vocalizations such as yips and howls, and a primarily nocturnal or crepuscular lifestyle to avoid larger predators. L. mesomelas inhabits eastern and , favoring open grasslands and scrublands across a wide range of annual rainfall from arid regions with less than 250 mm to moist areas with over 2000 mm, where it scavenges carrion and preys on small mammals, , and birds, comprising a diet that is roughly 52% invertebrates and 37% mammals. In contrast, L. adusta occupies central and n wetlands, bushlands, and cultivated areas up to 2,700 m , showing a more frugivorous tendency alongside consumption of small vertebrates and arthropods, and it avoids dense rainforests. Neither species is currently considered threatened, though they face human-wildlife conflict due to predation, prompting ongoing conservation assessments for population stability across their ranges.

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology

The genus name Lupulella was proposed by the German zoologist Max Hilzheimer in to accommodate the African jackals, derived from the Latin lupulus ("," a of lupus for ) combined with the -ella, emphasizing their resemblance to smaller, wolf-like canines. The was first described as Canis mesomelas by in 1775, with the specific combining the Greek words mesos ("middle") and melas ("black") to denote the prominent black saddle marking on its back. Similarly, the side-striped jackal's epithet adusta, originally under Canis adustus named by Carl Jakob Sundevall in 1847, stems from the Latin adustus ("burnt" or "scorched"), alluding to its overall dark greyish-brown fur. These names were reassigned to Lupulella following a taxonomic review and formal recommendation in , recognizing the genus's distinct phylogenetic status.

Classification History

The was first described as Canis mesomelas by in 1775, placing it within the genus . Similarly, the was described as Canis adustus by Carl Jacob Sundevall in 1847, also under . These initial classifications reflected the broad lumping of jackal-like canids into the genus by early taxonomists based on superficial morphological similarities to wolves and dogs. In 1906, Max Hilzheimer proposed the genus Lupulella for the black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) and a separate genus Schaeffia for the side-striped jackal (Schaeffia adusta), citing distinct cranial and dental features that differentiated them from other Canis species. However, these proposals were not widely adopted at the time, and both species remained classified under Canis in subsequent taxonomic works due to limited phylogenetic evidence. The reclassification gained traction following a taxonomic and was formally recommended in 2019 by the IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group , informed by genomic analyses, recognizing Lupulella as a distinct for the two African , demonstrating their outside the core Canis . This shift was supported by mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data showing deep divergence from Eurasian Canis taxa, leading to the current : L. mesomelas and L. adusta. The American Society of Mammalogists confirmed this in its Mammal Diversity Database updates around 2019, standardizing Lupulella for conservation and systematic purposes. Subspecies delineations within these , such as L. m. mesomelas and L. a. adusta, were retained but refined under the new genus.

Subspecies

The genus Lupulella comprises two , each with recognized distinguished primarily by geographic isolation and subtle morphological differences, including variations in pelage coloration, stripe patterns, and cranial dimensions. These distinctions arise from clinal adaptations to regional environments, though some populations exhibit sufficient to prompt ongoing taxonomic debate. For the (L. mesomelas), two are currently recognized. The nominate , L. m. mesomelas, inhabits , ranging from through southwestern , northern , central , and southwestern ; individuals typically display a darker, more intense black saddle on the back and richer reddish-brown flanks compared to northern forms. The northern , L. m. schmidti, occurs in eastern , including southern , southern , , , , and northern ; it features a paler saddle with less pronounced black pigmentation and subtle differences in facial structure, such as narrower ears and more prominent cheekbones. These populations are separated by the "Mozambican Gap," a barrier of unsuitable around the River basin, which has fostered genetic divergence; analyses indicate deep phylogenetic splits, suggesting L. m. schmidti may merit full status pending further nuclear genomic studies. The (L. adusta) has seven traditionally recognized , reflecting greater intraspecific variation across its broader sub-Saharan range, though recent assessments highlight overlooked diversity and potential cryptic lineages based on mitochondrial and morphological data. The nominate L. a. adusta occupies from to , characterized by prominent white lateral stripes and a grizzled gray with buff undertones. In the East African highlands, L. a. beringei exhibits reduced stripe prominence and slightly larger body size adapted to montane forests. Southern African populations, represented by L. a. kaffensis, show fainter side stripes, darker overall pelage, and minor cranial differences like broader skulls, suited to savanna-woodland mosaics. Other include L. a. bweha (Mt. Elgon region, with enhanced flank striping), L. a. centralis (, pale coloration), L. a. lateralis (western forms), and L. a. notatus (East African plains, variable stripe intensity); distinctions are based on pelage patterns and geographic isolation, but clinal variation and limited samples complicate boundaries, with North-East African forms like kaffensis and thooides showing unique traits such as absent tail tips or lighter hues. Recent studies as of 2024 underscore the need for integrated genetic-morphometric revisions, as deep mitochondrial divergences and additional taxa like namrui suggest up to multiple species within the complex.

Phylogeny and Evolution

Phylogenetic Position

Lupulella constitutes a monophyletic within the subfamily , forming a distinct that branches basal to the wolf-like canids comprising the genera , Cuon, and Lycaon. This positioning is supported by nuclear and analyses, which indicate that the two species—L. mesomelas () and L. adusta ()—share a common ancestry separate from the aforementioned wolf-like lineage. Molecular phylogenetic studies estimate the divergence of the Lupulella lineage from the Canis/Cuon/Lycaon clade at approximately 5.1 million years ago, during the late epoch. This split predates the radiation of the wolf-like canids and aligns with broader evolutionary patterns inferred from multi-locus datasets. Within Lupulella, the two species diverged from each other approximately 3–4 million years ago, consistent with the genus's early divergence as an African lineage. Mitochondrial DNA analyses reveal significant sequence divergence between Lupulella and Canis species, with estimates indicating deeper splits than those within the wolf-like canids (e.g., 1.1–0.9 million years between C. lupus and C. lupaster). These findings, derived from cytochrome b and control region sequences, support the taxonomic separation of Lupulella and highlight its evolutionary distinctness, with no evidence of recent hybridization with wolf-like canids. The genus maintains close phylogenetic ties to other African canids, such as the golden wolf (C. lupaster), but remains genetically isolated from Asian jackals, which belong to separate lineages within Canis. Morphological traits, including dentition and cranial features adapted for omnivory, corroborate the molecular evidence for Lupulella's basal position among advanced canids.

Fossil Record

The fossil record of Lupulella begins in the Pliocene of East Africa, with primitive forms or jackal-like remains documented from the Hadar Formation and nearby sites in the Lower Awash Valley, Ethiopia, dated to approximately 3.45–2.95 million years ago. These remains represent a medium-sized canid with features indicative of an early jackal, including small canines and premolars suggestive of a jackal-like dentition adapted for an omnivorous diet. Such fossils highlight the early presence of the genus in eastern African ecosystems during a period of climatic transition. Fossil evidence demonstrates continuity into the Pleistocene, with minimal morphological changes observed since around 2 million years ago. In , Lupulella mesomelas-like specimens from sites such as , , and Kromdraai—dated to approximately 1.8–1.5 million years ago—exhibit and cranial features that closely resemble those of the modern , differing only slightly in size and proportions. The genus Lupulella lacks major extinct species within its primary East and southern African range, persisting with relatively little evolutionary modification compared to the more speciose and morphologically diverse genus Canis. Molecular clock estimates place the divergence of Lupulella from other canid lineages around 5 million years ago, aligning with the timing of early ancestral forms.

Physical Characteristics

General Morphology

Lupulella species are characterized by a slender, agile build typical of small canids adapted for endurance running in varied African landscapes, with elongated limbs, a bushy tail for balance, and prominent erect ears that aid in detecting distant sounds. The head and body measure 70–85 cm in length, while the tail extends 30–40 cm, contributing to an overall fox-like silhouette that facilitates maneuverability in both open and vegetated environments. Diagnostic morphological features include a prominent of contrasting dark muzzle and lighter cheek markings, which may enhance or social signaling within packs. Their supports omnivory, featuring a full carnivoran formula (3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3) with teeth (P4/m1) modified for both shearing flesh and crushing tougher plant matter or , reflecting dietary flexibility. , including perianal and tail-based structures, enable territorial marking through glandular secretions deposited on or ground, reinforcing pair bonds and deterring intruders. The pelage consists of short, coarse providing protection against ectoparasites and environmental extremes, patterned with —darker tones dorsally fading to paler undersides—for visual disruption against predators. Coat variations distinguish the species: L. mesomelas displays a bold saddle extending from shoulders to tail base, while L. adusta features faint to prominent white stripes along the flanks tipped with or white. Minor size variations occur across , but the core morphology remains consistent.

Size Variation

The black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) exhibits moderate size variation across its range, with adults typically weighing 6–14 kg and standing 38–50 cm at the shoulder. Southern populations, such as those in South Africa, tend to be larger than northern or eastern ones, following a clinal increase in body length from north to south, as documented in Transvaal specimens. For instance, mean adult male weight in South African samples is 8.4 kg (range 6.4–11.4 kg), while females average 7.7 kg (range 5.9–10.0 kg). The (Lupulella adusta) displays similar overall dimensions but with a slightly more robust build, weighing 7–12 kg on average and reaching a shoulder height of 40–50 cm. Males range from 7.3–12 kg, while females are generally lighter, up to 10 kg. is present in both species, with males approximately 10–15% heavier than females and exhibiting subtle differences in skull size, such as longer crania in southern males (male:female ratio of 1.07). However, morphological distinctions beyond size are minimal, with no pronounced variations in overall form between sexes.
SpeciesWeight (kg)Shoulder Height (cm)Key Variation Notes
Males: 6–11.4 (avg. 8.4)
Females: 5.9–10 (avg. 7.7)		38–50Larger in southern populations
Males: 7.3–12
Females: up to 10		40–50

Distribution and

Geographic Range

The genus Lupulella is endemic to , encompassing a broad distribution across the continent south of the Desert, with no recorded presence north of the or on . The two extant species, the (L. mesomelas) and the (L. adusta), exhibit partially overlapping ranges but occupy distinct core areas, together covering much of central, eastern, and while avoiding extreme arid zones and dense equatorial rainforests. The has a disjunct distribution consisting of two main subpopulations separated by approximately 900–1,000 km across the arid Mozambican Gap in northern . The eastern subpopulation extends from the , including , , southern , , , , , , and northern , while the southern subpopulation spans from southwestern through , , , and to . This species is absent from much of central and , such as , and from dense rainforests throughout its range. In contrast, the occupies a more continuous range across central, eastern, and , stretching from and in through Sahelian regions, the (including and ), and southward to , , , , , and northeastern . It favors wetter areas compared to its congener and shows overlap with the in eastern , such as and , but is largely absent from the drier southern ranges of the latter, where it reaches its southernmost limit in northeastern Province, . Recent surveys indicate ongoing westward expansion within , with detections in over 470 new locations since 2013.

Habitat Preferences

Lupulella mesomelas, the , exhibits a broad habitat tolerance, favoring open landscapes such as savannas, grasslands, and semi-arid scrublands across . This species thrives in areas with sparse vegetation that provide visibility for detecting prey and predators, while utilizing edges of denser cover for shelter. It avoids extensive dense forests but can occupy a variety of environments, including arid coastal deserts, montane grasslands, grasslands, scrublands, woodlands, and even agricultural farmlands, demonstrating its opportunistic nature in adapting to modified landscapes. In contrast, Lupulella adusta, the , prefers more mesic environments, including moist woodlands, bushlands, floodplains, and broad-leaved savannas, where water availability supports its higher dependence on humid conditions compared to its congener. This species is more tolerant of human-altered habitats, frequently occurring in farmlands, game reserves, and even peri-urban areas, but it is less common in extremely arid zones. It occupies grassy plains, marshes, and scrub areas that offer a mix of open spaces and vegetative cover for concealment and foraging opportunities. Where their ranges overlap in eastern , niche separation occurs along habitat axes, with L. mesomelas predominantly selecting open grasslands and L. adusta favoring denser, wooded s, reducing direct . Both demonstrate flexibility in arid versus humid zones, enabling persistence amid environmental variability.

Behavior and

Activity Patterns

Lupulella species exhibit primarily crepuscular and nocturnal activity patterns, with peaks around dawn and dusk, though they can display flexibility based on environmental pressures. Both L. mesomelas and L. adusta are active throughout the night, aligning their foraging with the rhythms of small mammals and , their primary prey. In areas with high persecution, such as farmlands, L. mesomelas may shift to strictly nocturnal behavior to minimize encounters, while in protected or low-predation zones, it shows increased diurnal activity during mornings and late afternoons. Seasonal variations influence these patterns, with both species becoming more nocturnal during hot and dry periods to avoid daytime heat stress, while maintaining year-round activity but reducing overall movement in conditions. For L. mesomelas, activity budgets adjust during the whelping season (typically – in dry regions), with adults showing altered timing to protect pups. L. adusta similarly intensifies nocturnal in warmer months, though specific quantitative shifts are less documented. Habitat-specific differences further shape activity: L. mesomelas tends toward more diurnal tendencies in open grasslands with lower predator densities, facilitating visibility for hunting. In contrast, L. adusta remains predominantly nocturnal in densely wooded or scrubby areas, where cover supports its shy, elusive nature and reduces overlap with diurnal competitors. These adaptations enhance niche partitioning in sympatric ranges.

Social Organization

_Lupulella species exhibit social systems centered on monogamous pairs that form the core breeding and territorial units, with occasional expansion into small family groups of 2–6 individuals including dependent pups. These pairs maintain strong, long-term bonds, often lasting several years, and cooperatively defend territories against intruders through scent marking, vocal displays, and direct , particularly between same-sex adults. Non-breeding subadults or siblings may occasionally serve as helpers in rearing pups, enhancing survival rates by assisting with feeding and vigilance, though such cooperative groups are not obligatory and vary by resource availability and season. In the black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas), social organization is predominantly pair-based or solitary outside the breeding season, with mated pairs defending exclusive territories year-round and tolerating only their current progeny within these areas. Family groups typically comprise the breeding pair and 1–4 pups, though groups can expand to 1–8 individuals seasonally, including non-breeding helpers aged 11–20 months that aid in pup-rearing through provisioning and guarding. Such helpers improve pup survival, but larger packs are rare and occur mainly in resource-rich environments where cooperative hunting boosts success rates, such as 67% for pairs versus 16% for solos on small ungulates. Vocalizations, including growls, whines, barks, yaps, and howls, facilitate territorial advertisement and pair coordination, peaking nocturnally during the pup-rearing period from June to August. The (Lupulella adusta) displays a similarly pair-oriented structure but with greater flexibility, often living solitarily or in loose associations outside breeding, while monogamous pairs and their form stable units of up to 7 individuals dominated by the breeding couple. Both parents share pup-rearing duties, regurgitating food and returning to dens every 2–3 hours at night, with home ranges averaging 4.46 km² that show seasonal stability but increased overlap during (–). Territorial defense relies on vocalizations such as owl-like hoots, explosive whoops, and yells to signal boundaries and deter rivals, with groups exhibiting higher concordance in ranging during non-breeding periods to minimize conflict. Interspecific interactions among Lupulella species emphasize avoidance of larger canids, such as African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), to reduce predation risk, with black-backed jackals occasionally falling prey and both jackal species showing spatial and temporal separation in sympatric zones to limit encounters. In areas of overlap between black-backed and side-striped jackals, the former often dominates grasslands, displacing the latter through aggressive territorial behavior.

Ecology and Diet

Foraging Behavior

Species of the genus Lupulella exhibit omnivorous diets that vary by habitat and season, often including significant proportions of small mammals (up to 45%), (up to 52% in some studies), fruits, carrion, and other plant matter; this opportunistic scavenging allows them to exploit varied resources across habitats. Diet composition varies regionally; for example, in farmlands, can comprise up to 45% of intake. Prey availability in different habitats influences the proportion of these components, with denser vegetation favoring and fruits. The (Lupulella mesomelas) is an active hunter targeting , birds, and occasionally newborn ungulates, often pursuing prey in short bursts at speeds of up to 50–65 km/h. It supplements with scavenging carrion from larger predators and for seasonal fruits, maintaining dietary flexibility across savannas and farmlands. In contrast, the (Lupulella adusta) relies more heavily on frugivory during wet seasons, when fruits constitute up to 30% of dietary intake, alongside and amphibians that become abundant. Its is less pursuit-oriented, favoring pouncing or quick dashes to capture small prey like and , reflecting adaptation to and environments. Neither species employs tools for , though mated pairs of Lupulella often cache surplus food in shallow ground depressions to store excess kills or scavenged items for later consumption.

Predators and Interactions

Lupulella species, including the (L. mesomelas) and (L. adusta), face predation primarily from larger carnivores across their African range. Adult individuals are vulnerable to attacks by leopards, lions, spotted hyenas, and African wild dogs, which can overpower them during encounters at kills or in open habitats. Juveniles are particularly susceptible to predation by eagles and crocodiles, especially near water sources or when denned in exposed areas. In terms of interspecific interactions, Lupulella jackals compete with other small carnivores such as African wild dogs and various species for shared prey resources like and small ungulates, leading to partitioning where side-striped jackals favor denser vegetation to reduce overlap. Larger carnivores, including lions and , frequently engage in by displacing jackals from their kills, forcing them to scavenge opportunistically from the remains of bigger predators' hunts. This dynamic positions Lupulella as mesopredators within the carnivore guild, often yielding to apex species to avoid lethal confrontations. Ecologically, Lupulella jackals contribute to by controlling populations through predation, which helps regulate numbers and prevents in savannas and woodlands. Their frugivorous habits facilitate via endozoochory, with black-backed jackals dispersing viable seeds of like the !nara melon, though rates may be reduced after passage through their digestive system. As a prey base for larger predators, they support trophic stability in ecosystems where apex carnivores are present. Human-jackal interactions are marked by conflict due to livestock predation, particularly by black-backed jackals on sheep and in farmlands, where they preferentially target domestic stock over equivalent wild prey owing to the latter's anti-predator defenses. This behavior has led to widespread through and in agricultural regions, exacerbating human- tensions despite stable wild populations.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Mating and Breeding

Lupulella species exhibit a monogamous , with breeding pairs forming long-term bonds that typically last for life and defend exclusive territories. These pair bonds contribute to cooperative behaviors during , enhancing overall breeding success compared to solitary individuals. Breeding in Lupulella is seasonal and synchronized across populations, particularly in where mating occurs from May to August during the dry winter months, often preceding the onset of rains that boost food availability for pup-rearing. For L. mesomelas, this timing aligns with environmental cues like increasing day length and resource predictability, while L. adusta shows a broader window occurring from June to July or September to October in similar regions. lasts approximately 60 days in L. mesomelas and 57 to 70 days in L. adusta, resulting in births during the early rainy season from July to November. Courtship involves a combination of vocal and olfactory signals to reinforce pair bonds and deter rivals. Pairs engage in coordinated vocalizations, including antiphonal calls or duets that intensify during the breeding period to advertise and pair unity. Scent marking through urine and is prominent, with both sexes depositing marks to delineate boundaries and signal reproductive status. Males often assist females in selecting or preparing dens, such as enlarging burrows or mounds, to provide secure birthing sites. Litter sizes range from 1 to 8 pups, with an average of about 4 in both species, though L. mesomelas typically produces 1 to 8 and L. adusta 3 to 8. Both species attempt to breed annually, with approximately 80% of females conceiving each year, but success rates are higher in stable pairs for L. mesomelas due to occasional assistance from non-breeding offspring that help provision the family group.

Development and Lifespan

Pups of the genus Lupulella are born blind and helpless in litters typically ranging from 3 to 6 individuals, usually within abandoned burrows or dens during the breeding season. Their eyes open after 8–10 days, and they remain dependent on for several weeks, emerging from the den around 3 weeks of age. occurs at 8–10 weeks, when pups transition from to solid food provided by adults. Pups achieve independence between 6 and 8 months, though dispersal may extend to 11 months in some cases, and they reach at 11 months for L. mesomelas and 6-8 months for L. adusta. Both parents participate actively in rearing the young, regurgitating food for the pups starting around 3 weeks and sharing guarding duties to protect them from predators. Family groups, which may include helpers from previous litters, provide extended protection until the pups disperse, enhancing survival rates through cooperative care. This communal support is crucial, as approximately 50% of pups experience mortality in their first year due to predation, , and environmental factors, with only 1–3 typically surviving from an average litter of 4. In the wild, Lupulella individuals have a lifespan of 7–10 years, though higher mortality limits many to around 8 years maximum; in , they can live up to .

Conservation Status

The (Lupulella mesomelas) exhibits a stable trend across its disjunct range in eastern and , with no evidence of significant global decline. Classified as Least Concern on the since its 2014 assessment, the species benefits from its adaptability to diverse habitats, including expansions into human-modified landscapes where it persists despite localized control efforts. densities in optimal habitats, such as protected savannas and woodlands, typically range from 0.5 to 0.8 individuals per km², as recorded in areas like and . The (Lupulella adusta) maintains an overall stable , though it is more fragmented across central, eastern, and , with lower densities in western regions. Also rated Least Concern by the IUCN since 2014, the species shows variable abundance, with densities of 0.5–1 individual per km² in Zimbabwean farmlands but dropping to 0.07 per km² in West African sites like . Monitoring efforts for both species rely on regional studies using camera traps and scat analysis, highlighting their resilience but noting localized variations in abundance during the . Comprehensive global estimates remain unavailable due to their widespread distribution, but regional surveys confirm no imminent of decline.

Threats and Conservation

The genus Lupulella, encompassing the (L. mesomelas) and (L. adusta), faces primary threats from persecution due to perceived livestock predation and their role as vectors for . Farmers in often target these through , , and snaring, leading to localized population reductions, though such efforts are generally ineffective at causing widespread declines. For instance, are actively persecuted in southern and eastern for preying on sheep and goats, while encounter similar issues across their range from to southern regions. transmission exacerbates conflicts, as contract and spread the disease from domestic dogs, prompting indiscriminate control measures that also affect non-target . Vehicle collisions pose an additional minor threat in areas near settlements, where both scavenge or forage. Despite these pressures, the adaptability of Lupulella —through dietary flexibility and high reproductive rates—mitigates overall population impacts, with no evidence of significant global declines. Conservation status for both L. mesomelas and L. adusta is classified as Least Concern by the , reflecting their wide distribution across and stable populations. Neither species is listed under Appendices, and legal protections are limited outside protected areas, where they remain vulnerable to human activities. Both occur in numerous national parks and reserves, such as (), (), and (), which safeguard habitats and reduce persecution. Ongoing research focuses on , , and disease dynamics, including vaccination trials using black-backed as models, to inform conflict mitigation strategies. Efforts to promote coexistence include education on non-lethal protection methods, like guard dogs and fencing, though implementation varies by region. Population monitoring through camera traps and ecological studies continues to support stable trends, with no targeted conservation breeding programs in place due to the species' resilience.

References

  1. https://itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=1271662
  2. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_mesomelas/
  3. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_adustus/
  4. https://www.canids.org/CBC/Old_World_Canis_Taxonomy_Workshop.pdf
  5. https://en.[wiktionary](/page/Wiktionary).org/wiki/Lupulella
  6. https://kajhalberg.dk/en/dog-family/
  7. https://www.[science](/page/Science).smith.edu/departments//VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/715_Canis_mesomelas.pdf
  8. https://en.[wiktionary](/page/Wiktionary).org/wiki/Canis_mesomelas
  9. https://en.[wiktionary](/page/Wiktionary).org/wiki/Canis_adustus
  10. https://bmczool.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40850-017-0015-0
  11. https://mammaldiversity.org/
  12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392324053_A_note_on_side-striped_jackal_Lupulella_adusta_diversity_in_North-East_Africa
  13. https://ewt.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/8.-Black-backed-Jackal-Canis-mesomelas_LC.pdf
  14. https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-abstract/106/2/479/7901728
  15. https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12257
  16. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abg1336
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/african-paleoecology-and-human-evolution/eastern-and-central-africa/741CAAF2D3A73552CB102DD2EECD4DC4
  18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230083743_The_fossil_Carnivores_of_the_Transvaal_caves_Canidae
  19. https://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/715_Canis_mesomelas.pdf
  20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27822164
  21. https://www.canids.org/species/view/PREKN8360151
  22. https://www.canids.org/species/view/prekmo428071
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321825303_A_conservation_assessment_of_Canis_mesomelas
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372355870_Extending_the_geographical_distribution_of_Side-striped_Jackal_Lupulella_adusta_Sundevall_1847_Carnivora_Canidae_in_South_Africa
  25. https://speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/01969/
  26. https://speciesstatus.sanbi.org/assessment/last-assessment/01968/
  27. https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1017/S0952836902003114
  28. https://academic.oup.com/book/8191/chapter/153734890
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320290727_A_conservation_assessment_of_Canis_adustus
  30. https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/jackal
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231864647_Seasonality_in_spatial_organization_and_dispersal_of_sympatric_jackals_Canis_mesomelas_and_C_adustus_Implications_for_rabies_management
  32. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229689034_Dietary_opportunism_in_side-striped_jackals_Canis_adustus_Sundevall
  33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230370148_Predation_on_black-backed_jackals_Canis_mesomelas_by_African_wild_dogs_Lycaon_pictus
  34. https://open.uct.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/d9beb9fc-a1ba-422e-aeac-ef3cac63f241/content
  35. https://doi.org/10.2193/2009-211
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12508620/
  37. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10633963/
  38. https://a-z-animals.com/animals/jackal/
  39. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.72186
  40. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311505000_Food_storage_in_a_changing_world_implications_of_climate_change_for_food-caching_species
  41. https://www.ufs.ac.za/docs/librariesprovider22/pmic-documents/01-jackal_5.pdf?sfvrsn=8773b421_4
  42. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41080476/
  43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196323001702
  44. https://wildlife.org/jwm-jackals-prefer-livestock-over-wild-prey/
  45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287926112_Reproduction_in_the_jackals_Canis_adustus_Sundevall_1846_and_Canis_mesomelas_Schreber_1778_Carnivora_Canidae_in_Zimbabwe
  46. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47296558_Social_interactions_of_black-backed_jackals_Canis_mesomelas_in_the_Kalahari_Gemsbok_National_Park
  47. https://www.ufs.ac.za/docs/librariesprovider22/pmic-documents/01_02-reproduction-of-jackal.pdf?sfvrsn=1f2b8421_7
  48. https://n-c-e.org/wp-content/uploads/Carnivore-Red-Data-Book-species-account-black-backed-jackal.pdf
  49. https://www.livescience.com/57654-jackal-facts.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.