Hubbry Logo
MenhadenMenhadenMain
Open search
Menhaden
Community hub
Menhaden
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Menhaden
Menhaden
Menhaden
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
"Pogy" redirects here. For the United States Navy submarines of that name, see USS Pogy. For U.S. Navy ships named Menhaden, see USS Menhaden.

Menhaden
Brevoortia patronus
Brevoortia patronus
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Superorder: Clupeomorpha
Order: Clupeiformes
Groups included
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa

all other genera in the families Clupeidae and Alosidae

Menhaden
Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus
Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus
Pacific menhaden, Ethmidium maculatum

Menhaden, also known as mossbunker, bunker, and "the most important fish in the sea",[1] are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the order Clupeiformes. Menhaden is a blend of poghaden (pogy for short) and an Algonquian word akin to Narragansett munnawhatteaûg, derived from munnohquohteau ("he fertilizes"), referring to their use of the fish as fertilizer.[2] It is generally thought that Pilgrims were advised by Tisquantum (also known as Squanto) to plant menhaden with their crops.[2] In southeastern South America they are called "savelhas" or "saracas."[3]

Description

[edit]

Menhaden are flat and have soft flesh and a deeply forked tail. They rarely exceed 15 inches (38 cm) in length, and have a varied weight range. Gulf menhaden and Atlantic menhaden are small oily-fleshed fish, bright silver, and characterized by a series of smaller spots behind the main humeral spot. They tend to have larger scales than yellowfin menhaden and finescale menhaden. In addition, yellowfin menhaden tail rays are a bright yellow in contrast to those of the Atlantic menhaden.

Taxonomy

[edit]
This article is part of a series on
Commercial fish
Large predatory
Forage
Demersal
Mixed

Recent taxonomic work using DNA comparisons have organized the North American menhadens into large-scaled (Gulf and Atlantic menhaden) and small-scaled (Finescale and Yellowfin menhaden) designations.[4][3]

The menhaden consist of two genera and seven species:

Distribution

[edit]

Ecology

[edit]

Menhaden are filter feeders that travel in large, slow-moving, and tightly packed schools with open mouths. Filter feeders typically take into their open mouths "materials in the same proportions as they occur in ambient waters".[5] Menhaden have two main sources of food: phytoplankton and zooplankton. A menhaden's diet varies considerably over the course of its lifetime, and is directly related to its size. The smallest menhaden, typically those under one year old, eat primarily phytoplankton. After that age, adult menhaden gradually shift to a diet comprised almost exclusively of zooplankton.[6]

Menhaden are omnivorous filter feeders, feeding by straining plankton and algae from water. Along with oysters, which filter water on the seabed, menhaden play a key role in the food chain in estuaries and bays.[7] Atlantic menhaden are an important link between plankton and upper level predators. Because of their filter feeding abilities, "menhaden consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean."[8] Because they play this role, and their abundance, menhaden are an invaluable prey species for many predatory fish, such as striped bass, bluefish, mackerel, flounder, tuna, drums, and sharks. They are also a very important food source for many birds, including egrets, ospreys, seagulls, northern gannets, pelicans, and herons.

In 2012, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission declared that the Atlantic menhaden was depleted due to overfishing. The decision was driven by issues with water quality in the Chesapeake Bay and failing efforts to re-introduce predator species, due to lack of menhaden on which they could feed.[2]

Menhaden are crucial not only because of their keystone species-status in the food web, but also because of their ecological services. The way menhaden filter feed on phytoplankton helps to mitigate toxic algal blooms. These algal blooms, which are often detrimental to a number of fish, bird, and marine mammal species, create hypoxic conditions. The phytoplankton being preyed upon are photosynthetic organisms, converting sunlight into energy which is then transferred to menhaden and then to bigger species of fish or other larger marine organisms such as birds or mammals. The consequence of this behavior is that if menhaden are eliminated or significantly decreased, there are limited means of energy transfer among trophic levels – making menhaden a true keystone species with ecological services that are invaluable to humans.

Habitat

[edit]

Menhaden are a pelagic schooling fish that migrate inshore during the summer and off-shore in the winter months. The juvenile and larval menhaden migrate to shore and inland waterways through currents during summer months to grow while feeding on the phytoplankton and eventually zooplankton once they have matured. Commercially caught menhaden have been recorded in waters of around 5 to 24 ‰, as well as in hypersaline waters around 60 ‰.[9]

Reproduction

[edit]

Menhaden reproduce in open oceans externally, however, the female does not carry eggs with them during the process as they are released into the water column at the planktonic level as gametes and sperm. Currently, functional hermaphroditism is unknown to the species and identification of sex of the individual organism cannot be determined externally due to the lack of accessory reproductive organs.[10] These fish breed during the winter months through December to March and the eggs and juveniles navigate towards estuaries and inland waterways through tides and currents.[10]

Human use

[edit]

Menhaden are not used directly for food. They are processed into fish oil and fish meal that are used as food ingredients, animal feed, and dietary supplements.[7] The flesh has a high omega-3 fat content. Fish oil made from menhaden also is used as a raw material for products such as lipstick.[11]

Fisheries

[edit]

According to the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS), there are two established commercial fisheries for menhaden. The first is known as a reduction fishery. The second is known as a bait fishery, which harvests menhaden for the use of both commercial and recreational fishermen. Commercial fishermen, especially crabbers in the Chesapeake Bay area, use menhaden to bait their traps or hooks. The recreational fisherman use ground menhaden chum as a fish attractant, and whole fish as bait. The total harvest is approximately 500 million fish per year.[11] Atlantic menhaden are harvested using purse seines.

Omega Protein – a reduction fishery company with operations in the northwest Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico – takes 90% of the total menhaden harvest in the United States.[11] In October 2005, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) approved an addendum to Amendment 1 of the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden, which "established a five-year annual cap on reduction fishery landings in the Chesapeake Bay", imposing a limit on reduction fishery operations for 2006–2010. In November 2006, that cap was established at 109,020 metric tons;[12] this cap remained in place until 2013.[13]

In December 2012, in the face of the depletion of Atlantic menhaden, the ASMFC implemented another cap, effective in 2013 and 2014, for the Chesapeake Bay, this time at 87,216 metric tons, as well as a total allowable catch (TAC) of the species of 170,800 metric tons, a 20% reduction from the 2009–2011 average.[14][15] The TAC was subsequently raised for 2015 and 2016 to 187,880 metric tons.[16] The cap in the Chesapeake Bay was further lowered in November 2017 to 51,000 metric tons, but this came alongside a higher TAC of 216,000 metric tons.[17][18] Omega Protein has been openly critical of these caps.[15][18]

  • Purse seine boats encircling a school of menhaden
    Purse seine boats encircling a school of menhaden
  • Global commercial capture of menhaden in million tonnes 1950–2010[19]
    Global commercial capture of menhaden in million tonnes 1950–2010[19]
  • Capture of menhaden in 2010 reported by the FAO[19]
    Capture of menhaden in 2010 reported by the FAO[19]

Uses for menhaden oil

[edit]

Menhaden oil is high in omega-3 fatty acids. As a supplement to the human diet, omega-3 fatty acids can lower blood pressure, prevent abnormal heart rhythms, reduce the chance of a heart attack or stroke, and confer other health benefits.[20]

Menhaden oil is also used in animal feed. The omega-3 component of menhaden oil in chicken feed can prevent fatty liver disease.[21] Guinea pigs given menhaden oil in feed were shown to have a longer life span.[22]

Risks of overfishing

[edit]
Bay-wide Geometric Mean Catch per Haul in the Chesapeake Bay of Atlantic Menhaden reported by the Chesapeake Bay Foundation in 2019.[23]

According to the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, menhaden are the most important fish in the Bay.[24] This is because they are a food source for many commercially important species like striped bass. They also manage the algal bloom occurrences in the Bay because they eat phytoplankton. Decreases in menhaden populations could also leave striped bass vulnerable to disease. In the past 20 years, the number of juvenile menhaden produced in the Chesapeake Bay have been decreasing (Refer to Atlantic Menhaden Graph on bay-wide mean catch per haul).[24]

This is believed to be due to the overfishing of menhaden for their fish oil. This could seriously disrupt the food chain. In response, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) put a cap on the Atlantic menhaden harvest in October 2020. This 10% cut to the harvest is the first to ever be seen for menhaden coast-wide.[25] It also was the first vote to consider benchmarks known as "ecological reference points".[24] This allows managers to account for a species role in the food chain when setting catch limits. This is different from the "single-species stock assessments" that were previously used which only accounted for the demand from the fishing industry rather than the demand from the food web.[24] This cut to the harvest established a quota of 194,400 metric tons of menhaden for the 2021–2022 fishing season.[25] It is the hope that this cut will allow menhaden to fulfill their role in the ecosystem while keeping the commercial fishery alive.

Cultural significance

[edit]

After menhaden had been identified as a valuable alternative to whale oil in the 1870s, the menhaden fishery on the Chesapeake was worked by crews of predominantly African-American men on open boats hauling purse seines. The men employed sea chanties to help synchronize the hauling of the nets. These chanties pulled from West African, blues, and gospel sources and created a uniquely African American culture of chanty singing. By the late 1950s, hydraulic winches replaced the large crews of manual haulers, and the menhaden chanty tradition declined.[21]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Menhaden

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Menhaden comprise the genus Brevoortia within the family Clupeidae, consisting of four North American species of small, oily, schooling fish that filter-feed on plankton in coastal and estuarine waters of the western Atlantic. The most abundant and commercially significant is the Atlantic menhaden (B. tyrannus), which migrates seasonally along the U.S. East Coast. These fish play a pivotal ecological role as forage species, forming the base of marine food webs by providing sustenance to predators such as striped bass, bluefish, seabirds, and marine mammals, while their filtration of phytoplankton contributes to nutrient cycling and water clarity in estuaries like Chesapeake Bay. Economically, menhaden support the largest fishery by volume on the Atlantic coast, with harvests directed toward producing fish meal, omega-3-rich oil for animal feed and supplements, and bait for lobster and crab fisheries, generating substantial value for coastal communities despite ongoing debates over harvest levels and ecosystem impacts. Management by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission incorporates ecological reference points to balance commercial exploitation with forage needs, reflecting empirical assessments of stock health rather than unsubstantiated restriction advocacy.

Biology

Physical Description

Menhaden, primarily species of the Brevoortia in the family , are characterized by a deep, compressed body shape adapted for schooling in coastal waters. The (Brevoortia tyrannus), the most commercially significant species, features a large head comprising approximately one-third of the standard length excluding the caudal , with a large and upper exhibiting a median notch. Their body is covered in scales without scutes, and they possess a deeply forked caudal with pale yellow coloration in the paired fins. Coloration typically includes a dark bluish-green back transitioning to metallic silver flanks and a white or silvery belly, marked by a distinct dusky or black spot behind the operculum, sometimes followed by 3–4 smaller spots along the side. The pelvic fins have seven rays with a rounded posterior margin where inner rays are equal or nearly equal to outer rays when folded. Adults reach a maximum length of about 38 cm (15 inches) and weigh up to approximately 0.45 kg (1 pound), though commonly harvested individuals are smaller, around 20–28 cm (8–11 inches). Juveniles display similar morphology but are more translucent with less pronounced pigmentation. Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) share comparable traits, including the deep body and spotting pattern, with slight variations in scale counts and fin ray numbers.

Taxonomy and Species

Menhaden are classified within the Brevoortia , 1861, belonging to the family (herrings), order , class , phylum Chordata, and kingdom Animalia. The name honors James Carson Brevoort (1818–1887), an American naturalist. Species of Brevoortia are small to medium-sized, schooling clupeids characterized by a deep body, large head, and a prominent dark spot behind the gill cover, adaptations suited to their filter-feeding lifestyle in coastal and estuarine waters. The genus Brevoortia includes at least six , primarily distributed along the western Atlantic coast from to . In n waters, four are recognized: the Atlantic menhaden (B. tyrannus Latrobe, 1802), Gulf menhaden (B. patronus Goode, 1878), finescale menhaden (B. gunteri Fowler, 1941), and yellowfin menhaden (B. smithi , 1948). These exhibit morphological similarities but can be distinguished by scale patterns, fin ray counts, and numbers; for instance, B. tyrannus typically has more s than B. patronus. Hybrids occur, particularly between B. tyrannus and B. smithi in regions of overlap. The Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), the most commercially significant , ranges from to and is distinguished by its robust body reaching up to 60 cm in length. The Gulf menhaden (B. patronus) inhabits the from to , with a similar maximum size but adapted to more southern, warmer waters. Southern species such as the Argentine menhaden (B. pectinata) and B. aurea extend the genus's range into subtropical and tropical western Atlantic regions. Taxonomic distinctions among Brevoortia rely on meristic characters like vertebral counts and pigmentation patterns, with genetic studies confirming their separation despite occasional .

Life Cycle and Reproduction

(Brevoortia tyrannus) and Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) share a pelagic life history strategy typical of clupeids, involving offshore spawning, drift of eggs and larvae to nearshore and estuarine habitats, and ontogenetic migrations from low-salinity nurseries to adult offshore aggregations. Adults form dense schools in coastal and shelf waters, where females, as indeterminate batch spawners, release multiple batches of buoyant eggs over extended seasons, with spawning intervals of about 7-8 days. Maturity is reached by age 1 for most individuals, though some delay to age 2, with females producing 100,000 to several million eggs per season depending on size and batch frequency. For , spawning peaks offshore (20-30 miles from shore) during winter, with highest rates near from late autumn to early spring (September 15 to April 15), though activity occurs nearly year-round across the range at temperatures of 4.4–23.6°C. Eggs, spherical and 0.7–0.8 mm in diameter, hatch at sea in 2–3 days at 15–20°C, yielding larvae about 2–3 mm long with a prominent that resorbs within days as they begin filter-feeding on . Larvae, transported shoreward by currents and winds, enter estuaries like by spring, where they metamorphose into juveniles (10–50 mm) over 20–30 days, tolerating salinities as low as 0.5 ppt. Gulf menhaden spawning aligns with cooler months (October–March) in the northern , driven by gonadal indices peaking in winter, with eggs hatching similarly at before larval to bays and sounds. Juveniles overwinter in estuaries, growing rapidly (up to 200 mm by year-end) on and , then emigrate offshore by age 1 to form migratory schools. estimates, adjusted for batch spawning, indicate potential annual outputs far exceeding prior determinate-spawner models, influencing stock assessments. Lifespan extends to 10+ years, but selectivity targets ages 1–3, with natural mortality highest in early stages due to predation and losses.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), the primary species referred to as menhaden in the northwestern Atlantic, inhabit coastal and estuarine waters from , , southward to northern , , spanning approximately 46° N to 27° N latitude. This range includes nearshore marine environments and inland tidal waters, with seasonal migrations influencing local abundance; adults move offshore in winter within the northern portion of their distribution, while southern populations exhibit less pronounced offshore shifts. Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus), the dominant menhaden species in the , occupy inshore pelagic waters across the entire gulf basin, extending from and in the east, westward to the and in , typically at depths of 0–60 m. Unlike , Gulf menhaden are less frequently recorded in low- estuarine habitats, preferring higher salinity coastal zones. Other Brevoortia species, such as finescale menhaden (B. gunteri), overlap partially with Gulf menhaden in the western Gulf but extend into waters, though they constitute a minor portion of commercial menhaden fisheries. Across these ranges, menhaden distributions are shaped by spawning grounds in southern latitudes and larval transport northward via currents, supporting panmictic populations within each major stock.

Environmental Preferences

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) and Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) are species adapted to dynamic coastal and estuarine environments, tolerating wide ranges in , , and other parameters while exhibiting life-stage-specific preferences. Both species favor nearshore waters with access to productive estuaries for juvenile development, avoiding prolonged exposure to hypoxic conditions below 3 mg/L dissolved oxygen (DO), particularly in warmer waters where oxygen solubility decreases. Temperature preferences align with seasonal migrations, with adults active across 0–35°C but optimal growth and spawning occurring in 15–25°C for larvae and around 18°C for adults in Atlantic populations. Gulf menhaden eggs require 17–20°C, while larvae tolerate 12–30°C optimally, though mass mortalities occur below 3–5°C or during rapid drops to 4.5°C. Juveniles in both species show enhanced growth in warmer estuarine conditions up to 30°C with adequate DO, but survival declines sharply below 5°C in low-salinity waters. Salinity tolerances reflect estuarine reliance, with larvae preferring marine levels (25–40 ppt) during early development before shifting to lower ranges (<10 ppt) for and juvenile rearing in oligohaline zones. Optimal juvenile occurs at 5–10 ppt in marsh-edged tributaries rich in organic , supporting filter-feeding; adults effectively at 20–29 ppt but spawn offshore above 29 ppt. Both species exhibit higher abundances in low-salinity (<5 ppt) estuaries during summer, with adults extending into freshwater boundaries. Depth usage varies by season and activity: juveniles occupy shallow estuarine depths up to 2–6 m in vegetated habitats like marshes for protection and foraging, while adults and spawning adults utilize 1–15 m nearshore in spring/summer, migrating to 7–88 m offshore in fall/winter. Soft mud substrates with high organic content enhance larval settlement, and avoidance of hypoxic bottom zones influences distribution in stratified waters.

Ecological Role

Filter Feeding Mechanism

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), the primary species referred to as menhaden, employ a ram-ventilation filter-feeding strategy, swimming forward with mouths agape to force water into the buccal cavity and over the arches. Water passes through the inter-raker spaces while planktonic particles—primarily and —are sieved by the dense array of gill rakers lined with branchiospinules, secondary microstructures that form the effective mesh of the branchial sieve. Retained particles adhere to on the rakers and are transported posteriorly via ciliary action to the for ingestion, while filtered water exits through the opercular openings. The apparatus consists of elongated, triangular rakers projecting from the four gill arches, with branchiospinules creating apertures that determine particle retention thresholds. In juveniles (32–103 mm fork length), average branchiospinule spacing measures approximately 12 µm, enabling retention of particles as small as 5–7 µm with high efficiency for 7–9 µm sizes, allowing on finer often augmented by detrital aggregates. Adult spacing increases allometrically, averaging 37 µm beyond 200 mm fork length, shifting retention to a minimum threshold of 13 µm and optimal efficiency above 30 µm, reflecting ontogenetic partitioning toward larger . This sieving morphology supports high rates, with estimates for adults at 23–27 liters (roughly 6–7 gallons) of water per minute, facilitating substantial clearance in schools. Filtration efficiency varies with , swimming speed, and developmental stage; for instance, efficiency on small particles declines as swimming velocity rises due to reduced over the rakers. Latitudinal differences in juvenile spacing—narrower in southern populations—may adapt to regional spectra, underscoring the mechanism's role in estuarine trophic dynamics.

Position in Food Webs

(Brevoortia tyrannus) occupy a critical mid-trophic position in coastal food webs as abundant that primarily consume , thereby channeling energy from primary producers to higher predators. Their dense schools facilitate efficient predation, supporting transfer across trophic levels in estuaries and shelf waters. These fish serve as primary prey for numerous piscivorous species, including striped bass (Morone saxatilis), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), weakfish (Cynoscion regalis), Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus), and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla). Larger pelagic predators such as bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) also target menhaden schools, particularly during migrations. In addition, avian predators like ospreys (Pandion haliaetus) and egrets rely heavily on menhaden, with historical abundances correlating to predator population dynamics in regions like Chesapeake Bay. Marine mammals, including dolphins, seals, and humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), opportunistically feed on them, especially in coastal aggregations. While menhaden are integral to predator diets, recent analyses in the indicate that Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) do not dominate as a single primary food source for predators like or , suggesting a more diverse prey base. In contrast, Atlantic populations exhibit stronger linkages to predator abundances, such as striped bass recovery tied to menhaden availability. This variability underscores the context-dependent nature of their forage role, influenced by local ecosystem structure and fishing pressure.

Interactions and Population Dynamics

Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) engage in key trophic interactions as a foundational , primarily serving as prey for a diverse array of predators across coastal and estuarine habitats. Major piscivorous predators include (Morone saxatilis), (Pomatomus saltatrix), (Cynoscion regalis), and (Squalus acanthias), which consume substantial of juvenile and adult menhaden; seabirds, shorebirds, and marine mammals such as dolphins and whales also exert significant predation pressure. These interactions are density-dependent, with menhaden schools providing concentrated prey patches that influence predator foraging efficiency and distribution. Ecosystem models demonstrate that declines in menhaden abundance reduce availability, thereby constraining predator population growth and fisheries yields for like , highlighting menhaden's role in mediating energy transfer to higher trophic levels. Conversely, menhaden exert top-down pressure on lower trophic levels through filter feeding on and , though interspecific competition for these resources occurs with other planktivores, potentially amplifying effects during low-plankton periods. Predation rates on menhaden vary with predator abundance; for instance, increases in populations have intensified juvenile mortality, while harvest competes directly with natural predation. Predator-prey models, such as those incorporating dynamics, reveal oscillatory patterns where high menhaden recruitment buffers predator overexploitation, but sustained fishing can destabilize these equilibria. Menhaden are characterized by high variability in , driven by spawning success, larval survival, and environmental cues like and , with adults stratifying by age and size across their range from northern to during summer. Historical trends indicate expansion in the – from strong year classes, enabling high landings, but the stock has been overfished in 32 of the past 54 years due to mortality outpacing replenishment. Opportunistic life history traits—rapid growth, early maturity, and high —confer resilience, yet selective pressure has accelerated growth rates in harvested cohorts. The 2025 Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission benchmark assessment update estimates a smaller coastwide than previously modeled, linking excessive to impaired predator support and recommending up to 55% quota reductions for 2026–2028 to achieve ecological reference points that balance menhaden abundance with dependent species. Regional variations persist, with juveniles showing sensitivity to hypoxia and warming, which exacerbate mortality and alter migration, while multispecies models emphasize integrating predation and climate effects for sustainable dynamics.

Historical and Cultural Context

Indigenous and Early Uses

of the Algonquian language group along the Atlantic coast referred to menhaden as munnawhatteaûg, a term translating to "" or "that which manures," reflecting their primary agricultural application of burying the whole beneath corn hills to enrich soil nutrients. This practice leveraged the 's high nitrogen, , and content, promoting crop yields in nutrient-poor coastal soils, and was documented in colonial accounts attributing the technique to Native American instruction. In the early 17th century, Patuxet tribesman Tisquantum (Squanto) reportedly taught Plymouth Colony Pilgrims in 1620 to plant menhaden or similar herring-like fish with maize seeds, a method that sustained early European settlements by preventing soil depletion. Early colonists adopted this indigenous strategy widely, using menhaden as organic fertilizer for tobacco, corn, and other crops across New England and the Mid-Atlantic, as menhaden schools were abundant and easily seined from estuaries. Prior to mid-19th-century industrialization, menhaden also served as bait for capturing larger species like Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and cod (Gadus morhua), a use likely shared between indigenous fishers and early settlers for subsistence and trade. Whole fish were sometimes consumed fresh or dried by Native Americans, though their oily texture made them less preferred for direct human food compared to fertilizer or bait roles. These pre-extraction applications underscore menhaden's foundational role in sustaining both indigenous and colonial agrarian economies before oil rendering dominated.

Industrial Development

The industrial development of menhaden fisheries began in the early 19th century along the New England coast, where the reduction process—cooking fish to extract oil and meal—was first commercialized for fertilizer and lighting fuel. By the mid-19th century, menhaden oil emerged as a primary industrial lubricant, filling the gap left by declining whale oil supplies and supporting machinery in factories and railroads. This shift drove rapid expansion, with processing plants proliferating along the Atlantic seaboard to capitalize on the fish's abundance and the demand for affordable alternatives to imported oils. Key early facilities marked regional growth: in 1875, Elijah Reed founded the first menhaden factory in , transforming the area into a hub that hosted 15 such operations by the early 20th century. Three years later, in 1878, brothers Thomas and John Haynie established a competing enterprise in the same town, further solidifying its role in the industry. Southward, the Luce Brothers and S.S. Brown & Company opened the inaugural processing plant in , in 1883, positioning it centrally within the East Coast fishery. These developments coincided with the adoption of purse seine netting, enabling large-scale harvests that fueled output for paints, varnishes, and agricultural products. Technological advancements in the mid-20th century enhanced efficiency: during the and , companies integrated power blocks, hydraulic lifts, and mechanical spotters on vessels, boosting catch capacities and reducing labor demands. The fishery lagged initially but accelerated post-World War II, with Louisiana's first reduction plant opening in 1946, followed by expansions in , , and additional sites, culminating in a 1984 peak of 983,000 metric tons landed by 83 vessels across 11 facilities. Overall, the industry peaked in the early-to-mid-20th century, with dozens of companies operating from Virginia's , before consolidation and regulatory shifts in the 1980s-1990s curtailed state-water reductions.

Cultural References

In the maritime of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, menhaden fishing gave rise to a distinctive of work songs, or chanteys, performed by crews to maintain rhythm while hauling heavy purse seine nets during the labor-intensive reduction fishery. These songs, often led by a chanteyman calling lines and the crew responding in unison, originated among African American fishermen in the 19th and early 20th centuries and served both practical and communal functions, fostering solidarity amid grueling conditions. Examples include "Help Me to Raise 'Em," which coordinates net-pulling efforts, and "Weldon," a tune harmonized for . Preservation efforts have sustained this through performing groups like the Beaufort Menhaden Chanteymen, composed of retired fishermen from North Carolina's Carteret who adapted shanties from their working days for public performances, and the Northern Neck Chantey Singers of , who draw on menhaden practices dating to the steamboat era. These ensembles, documented in folklife recordings and festivals, highlight the songs' roots in African American musical heritage blended with European forms, emphasizing themes of endurance and collective labor. Literary depictions of menhaden underscore their ecological role within predatory dynamics, as in Isaac McLellan's 19th-century poem "The Bluefish," where schools of the fish are portrayed as vast multitudes massacred by pursuing amid turbulent seas. The industry's cultural footprint is further captured in John Frye's 1978 folk history "The Men All Singing: The Story of Menhaden Fishing," which chronicles the vocal traditions of purse boat crews alongside four centuries of fishery evolution, drawing on oral accounts from waters. The phrase "the most important fish in the sea," coined by historian H. Bruce Franklin in his 2007 book examining menhaden's historical interplay with American and economy, has entered broader discourse to symbolize the species' foundational yet underappreciated status in coastal narratives. Artifacts like the menhaden net reel, used to wind seines and manned predominantly by Black laborers, stand as emblems of African American contributions to the trade, evoking shared labor histories in museum displays.

Fisheries and Exploitation

Harvest Methods and Scale

Menhaden are predominantly harvested using purse seine nets, a method that involves encircling of with a large wall of netting deployed from specialized vessels. Spotter planes locate dense schools, after which boats deploy the net, close the bottom with a purse line, and use vacuum pumps to transfer the catch aboard. This technique dominates the industrial reduction fishery for both Atlantic (Brevoortia tyrannus) and Gulf (Brevoortia patronus) menhaden, enabling high-volume captures of schooling . Smaller-scale bait fisheries employ "snapper rigs," compact purse seine setups on vessels targeting live or fresh menhaden for use as bait in other fisheries. Traditional gears like gillnets and pound nets persist in limited areas but account for a minor fraction of total landings, with purse seining comprising the bulk of harvests outside localized bait operations. The Atlantic menhaden fishery represents one of the largest by volume along the U.S. Atlantic coast, with landings constrained by a coastwide total allowable catch (TAC). In 2024, the TAC stood at 231,215 metric tons, primarily directed toward reduction processing, though contributes a substantial portion amid ongoing management scrutiny. Gulf menhaden harvests, centered in state waters (accounting for about 94% of commercial landings), average approximately 1.1 billion pounds annually, equivalent to roughly 3 billion individual fish removed from the each year. The 2024 season involved 13,144 net sets, reflecting sustained industrial effort without quotas, though stock assessments indicate balanced exploitation relative to spawning potential.

Primary Products and Applications

Menhaden are primarily processed through industrial reduction, yielding three main products: , , and fish solubles. , comprising the dried and ground remnants after oil extraction, serves as a high-protein ingredient in animal feeds, particularly for and . , extracted via cooking and pressing, is valued for its omega-3 fatty acids and used in dietary supplements, feeds, and industrial applications such as paints and lubricants. Fish solubles, a condensed into a protein-rich concentrate, are incorporated into feeds for and other . A significant portion of the U.S. menhaden —approximately 80% of domestic production—derives from these fish, underscoring their role in the national for marine-derived proteins. In , menhaden-derived meal and oil are essential feed components for farmed like , enhancing growth and nutritional profiles. Bait applications constitute another key use, with menhaden serving as primary bait in commercial fisheries for , , and hook-and-line operations, as well as recreational . Fertilizers represent a traditional application, where menhaden meal provides and for agricultural soils, though this use has declined relative to feed markets. Industrial derivatives include proteins and oils in , plastics, and protective coatings, leveraging the fish's content for emulsifiers and binders. Direct human consumption remains minimal due to the fish's oily texture and strong flavor, with most edible omega-3 benefits channeled through refined supplements rather than fresh or canned products.

Economic Contributions

The menhaden fishery sustains substantial economic activity along the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic coasts, primarily through industrial reduction processing and bait markets. In the , where Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) dominate, the industry generates $419 million in annual economic output, supports 2,059 direct and indirect jobs, and contributes $25 million in state and local tax revenue. This impact spans harvesting, processing into and oil for animal feeds, , and fertilizers, and distribution, bolstering coastal communities in states like across 32 parishes. In the Atlantic, (Brevoortia tyrannus) fisheries emphasize both reduction and bait uses, with the reduction sector valued at $57 million in 2020. Bait applications further enhance value, as evidenced by Maine's commercial menhaden landings generating $13.2 million in dockside revenue in 2024, ranking fourth among state fisheries. Processing firms, including former Omega Protein operations now under , drive localized impacts; for example, Virginia-based activities from Omega Protein and Ocean Harvesters exceed $100 million in annual economic activity. Beyond direct fisheries, menhaden products underpin broader sectors: supplies omega-3 for supplements and feeds, while meal supports , , and industries, amplifying multiplier effects. The also indirectly sustains recreational economies, such as Virginia's $980 million sector, by maintaining prey for predatory fish species. A 2022 analysis of the reduction fishery estimated direct outputs at $259.5 million, 884 jobs, and $135.3 million in labor income, underscoring its role despite seasonal and regulatory variations.

Management and Sustainability

Regulatory Frameworks

The Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) fishery is managed cooperatively by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), which coordinates an Interstate Fishery Management Plan (FMP) covering state waters from to . Under Amendment 3 to the FMP, adopted in 2013, and Addendum I approved in 2022, the framework incorporates ecosystem-based reference points (ERPs) established in 2020 to account for the species' role as , alongside traditional single-species metrics for fishing mortality and . The ASMFC sets a coastwide total allowable catch (TAC) of 233,550 metric tons for 2023–2025, allocated among 15 jurisdictions (states plus the Fisheries Commission) based primarily on historical landings from 2018–2019 and 2021, with minimum quotas ranging from 0.01% for to 0.5% for larger share states. Federal oversight is provided by NOAA Fisheries, ensuring compliance with the Magnuson-Stevens Act, though harvest occurs almost entirely in state waters with limited activity. State-specific regulations enforce quotas through landing limits, trip restrictions, and gear controls; for instance, post-quota closure, small-scale fisheries are capped at 6,000 pounds per trip without purse seines, while a 1% episodic event set-aside applies to northern states for natural mortality events. In the , reduction-sector harvest (for and oil) is capped at 51,000 metric tons annually to mitigate localized depletion impacts on predators like . A 2025 benchmark stock assessment, incorporating updated data, revealed a 37% decline in average relative to prior benchmarks and linked overharvest to reduced condition, prompting ASMFC proposals for potential TAC reductions of up to 55%, though industry opposition has delayed implementation as of October 2025. Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) are managed under the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission (GSMFC) Interstate Fisheries Management Plan for the Fishery Management Unit of Gulf Menhaden, emphasizing effort controls rather than quotas due to the stock's stability and high productivity. The five Gulf states (Texas, , , , ) harmonize regulations via annual agreements, including a unified season typically from mid-April to mid-October (about 26 weeks), purse-seine gear requirements, and vessel permits limited to prevent overcapacity. , the dominant producer, enforces additional measures like a half-mile nearshore for industrial harvest to protect and juvenile recruitment, expanded in 2024. Unlike the Atlantic, no coastwide catch limit exists, with critics arguing this allows unchecked extraction exceeding 1 million metric tons annually, though state-level monitoring and stock assessments by NOAA's Southeast Fisheries Science Center indicate the stock remains healthy without . Enforcement involves state wildlife agencies and U.S. patrols, with interstate coordination addressing and interactions under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.

Stock Assessments and Data

The Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus) stock is evaluated through periodic assessments by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), incorporating single-species models and ecological reference points (ERPs) that integrate predator-prey interactions, notably with (Morone saxatilis). ERPs define fishing targets and thresholds based on maintaining sufficient menhaden to support predator populations at their respective biomass targets and thresholds. The 2022 stock assessment update, incorporating data through 2021, concluded that the stock was not overfished and overfishing was not occurring under both single-species metrics and ERPs. Estimated population fecundity (a proxy for spawning stock biomass) stood at 1.76 times the ERP threshold and 1.28 times the ERP target, while fishing mortality was 0.28 times the threshold and 0.85 times the target. This supported a coastwide total allowable catch (TAC) of 233,550 metric tons annually from 2023 to 2025, representing a 20% increase from prior levels while keeping the probability of exceeding the ERP target below 40%. Landings under this TAC have remained stable, with roughly 70% allocated to industrial reduction processes such as fish meal production. The 2025 ERP benchmark assessment (SEDAR 102), however, revised prior estimates after correcting an in natural mortality rates, yielding lower projections. For 2023, was estimated at 71% of the target, and fishing mortality exceeded the target, signaling potential forage shortfalls for predators amid rebuilding efforts. Projections indicate that achieving targets may require over 50% reductions in coastwide catch limits to enhance predator health. The ASMFC Menhaden Management Board planned to address updates and 2026-2028 quotas following the assessment's release in 2025.
Metric (Relative to ERP Target)2022 Assessment (2021 Data)2025 Assessment (2023 Data)
1.28x0.71x
Fishing Mortality0.85xExceeded
Overall ERP StatusCompliantNon-compliant for predators
Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) assessments, managed separately by the Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, affirm a healthy stock with no as of 2021 and 2018 evaluations, though modeling highlights trade-offs in harvest levels.

Debates on Overexploitation Claims

Environmental organizations and recreational fishing advocates have claimed that industrial purse-seine harvesting of (Brevoortia tyrannus) constitutes , particularly in the , where it allegedly depletes for predators such as (Morone saxatilis) and ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), contributing to observed declines in those species. These groups, including the Chesapeake Bay Foundation and Conservation Partnership, argue that coastwide stock assessments overlook localized depletions and ecosystem-wide effects, citing anecdotal reports from Bay fishermen of sharp summer catch drops and urging harvest pauses or stricter caps beyond the existing 51,000 metric ton annual limit in place since 2006. In response, the menhaden industry, represented by entities like the Menhaden Fisheries Coalition and former major harvester Omega Protein (now ), maintains that the fishery remains sustainable, with harvest representing less than 0.5% of annual menhaden production and no of stock depletion or outsized predator impacts. They highlight certification as validation of responsible practices and point to critiques from Virginia Institute of Marine Science researchers questioning causal links between fishing and declines, attributing such studies to methodological flaws. Official assessments by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) have generally supported the industry's position through 2022, determining the coastwide stock neither nor subject to , with fishing mortality below ecological reference point () thresholds (0.28 observed vs. 0.85 target) and a total allowable catch (TAC) raised to 233,550 metric tons for 2023–2025. However, the October 2025 SEDAR 102 ERP benchmark update revised estimates downward, projecting that reductions exceeding 50% in coastwide catch may be required by the 2026–2028 seasons to sustain predator-dependent ERPs, particularly for recovery, signaling a shift toward ecosystem-based constraints amid ongoing Bay-specific concerns. In August 2025, the ASMFC Menhaden Board flagged Bay declines and directed analysis of seasonal harvest spreading to mitigate peak-period removals, reflecting unresolved tensions between single-species metrics and localized ecological data.

References

  1. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/MFR/mfr534/mfr5342.pdf
  2. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-menhaden
  3. https://asmfc.org/species/atlantic-menhaden/
  4. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.606417/full
  5. https://www.cbf.org/about-the-bay/chesapeake-wildlife/menhaden/index.html
  6. https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Fishing/Freshwater/Freshwater-Fishes-of-Connecticut/Atlantic-Menhaden
  7. https://fishbase.se/physiology/MorphDataList.php?ID=1592&GenusName=Brevoortia&SpeciesName=tyrannus
  8. https://www.fao.org/4/ap905e/ap905e.pdf
  9. https://dep.nj.gov/njfw/conservation/atlantic-menhaden-conservation/
  10. https://dnr.maryland.gov/fisheries/Pages/fish-facts.aspx?fishname=menhaden
  11. https://www.deq.nc.gov/about/divisions/marine-fisheries/public-information-and-education/species-profiles/atlantic-menhaden
  12. https://www.vims.edu/research/units/legacy/menhaden/about/
  13. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/atlanticmenhaden.pdf
  14. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Brevoortia_tyrannus/
  15. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/brevoortia-tyrannus.html
  16. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/4713
  17. https://www.dnr.sc.gov/swap/supplemental/marine/atlanticmenhaden2015.pdf
  18. https://www.nrc.gov/docs/ML0720/ML072060570.pdf
  19. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=158691
  20. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Brevoortia-patronus
  21. https://flmnhbulletin.com/index.php/flmnh/article/view/flmnh-vol15-no3
  22. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/mcf2.10269
  23. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/brown_peterson.pdf
  24. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/hettler.pdf
  25. https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/74/6/1574/3609043
  26. https://www.seagrantfish.lsu.edu/biological/misc/gulfmenhaden.htm
  27. http://scemfis.org/Reports/Atlantic_Menhaden_Gartland_2019.pdf
  28. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/inline-files/Menhden_paper_final%2520%2528002%2529.pdf
  29. https://www.vims.edu/research/units/programs/multispecies_fisheries_research/speciesofinterest/atlantic_menhaden.php
  30. https://sedarweb.org/documents/s27dw06-management-unit-definition-for-the-gulf-menhaden-stock-in-the-u-s-gulf-of-mexico/
  31. https://www.outdooralabama.com/other-species/gulf-menhaden
  32. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/5698/noaa_5698_DS1.pdf
  33. http://coastal.la.gov/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Attachment-C3-15-Gulf-Menhaden-HSI_July-2016-1.pdf
  34. https://sedarweb.org/documents/s27dw07-habitat-description-for-the-gulf-menhaden-stock-in-the-u-s-gulf-of-mexico/
  35. https://extapps.dec.ny.gov/fs/programs/dfw/SWAP2025/Marine%20Fish/Atlantic%20menhaden.pdf
  36. https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/fishandconservation/chapter/menhaden-and-forage-fish-management/
  37. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jez.a.348
  38. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17041916/
  39. https://www.savingseafood.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/friedland%20et%20al.%202006-1%20copy.pdf
  40. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00392994
  41. https://www.usm.edu/news/2025/release/menhaden-research.php
  42. https://www.trcp.org/forage-fish-recovery/
  43. https://ecopath.org/portfolio-item/ecological-reference-points-for-atlantic-menhaden/
  44. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/27643/noaa_27643_DS1.pdf
  45. https://dep.nj.gov/njfw/fishing/marine/flipping-the-switch-on-ecosystem-management/
  46. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/peer-reviewed-research/striped-bass-and-atlantic-menhaden-predator-prey-dynamics-model
  47. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/pathway-toward-ecosystem-based-management-gulf-menhaden
  48. https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/2019-12/EBFM-Menhaden-Summary.pdf
  49. https://www.umces.edu/news/fishing-pressure-results-in-faster-atlantic-menhaden-growth
  50. https://www.nationalfisherman.com/fishermen-push-back-on-proposed-55-percent-cut-to-menhaden-quota
  51. https://www.trcp.org/2025/10/15/menhaden-stock-assessment-indicates-catch-must-be-reduced-to-benefit-striped-bass/
  52. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/resource/peer-reviewed-research/spatial-and-temporal-dynamics-atlantic-menhaden-brevoortia-tyrannus
  53. https://e360.yale.edu/features/ocean-migration-mismatch
  54. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/Fishery%2520Leaflets/521.pdf
  55. https://www.nppoa.com/history-menhaden-fishing
  56. https://psmag.com/news/remember-the-menhaden/
  57. https://www.bayjournal.com/columns/chesapeake_challenge/menhaden-mentionables/article_e6c76712-18a8-11ed-adca-ab706b3058e3.html
  58. https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/9240/did-native-americans-really-use-fish-as-fertilizer
  59. https://www.savecoastalwildlife.org/save-menhaden
  60. https://www.menhadendefenders.org/menhaden-defenders-1
  61. https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/historic-registers/066-0083/
  62. https://www.savingseafood.org/news/conservation-environment/a-brief-history-of-americas-menhaden-fishery/
  63. https://archives.delaware.gov/delaware-historical-markers/menhaden-fishing-industry/
  64. https://coastalreview.org/2021/08/our-coasts-history-menhaden-fishing-days/
  65. https://sedarweb.org/documents/s27dw04-history-of-the-gulf-menhaden-fishery-and-reconstruction-of-historical-commercial-landings/
  66. https://www.theadvocate.com/sponsored/baton_rouge/westbank_fishing/the-history-of-the-louisiana-menhaden-industry/article_d0b58690-efcc-11ef-9aa8-5b3f3e1ef665.html
  67. https://www.facebook.com/shantysongbook/videos/help-me-to-raise-em/1393022591134185/
  68. https://www.facebook.com/groups/334574405544/posts/10170739688505545/
  69. https://www.ncpedia.org/menhaden-chanteymen
  70. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NHWdvRu3gvY
  71. https://www.mdsg.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/MN18_1_MenhadenChanteys.PDF
  72. https://poets.org/poem/bluefish
  73. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/book/article/1002/&path_info=Frye_MenAllSinging.pdf
  74. https://dokumen.pub/the-most-important-fish-in-the-sea-menhaden-and-america-9781597261241-1597261246.html
  75. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/menhaden-fishing-net-reel
  76. https://www.cbf.org/blogs/save-the-bay/2025/09/time-to-pause-menhaden-fishing-in-the-chesapeake-bay.html
  77. https://www.whro.org/local-news/2022-12-06/virginia-marine-resources-commission-decides-on-menhaden-harvest
  78. https://www.gsmfc.org/ann_mtgs/2024-10/S-FFMC-Menhaden/03%2520%2520Update%2520on%2520Atlantic%2520Menhaden%2520Fishery%25202024.pdf
  79. https://delta.audubon.org/news/legislature-moves-protect-louisianas-coast-destructive-menhaden-industry
  80. https://www.saltwaterguidesassociation.com/a-gulf-menhaden-deep-dive/
  81. https://www.trcp.org/2025/07/08/2024-gulf-menhaden-bycatch-study-offers-insights-into-number-of-fish-killed/
  82. https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/37923/noaa_37923_DS4.pdf
  83. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/MFR/mfr534/mfr5341.pdf
  84. https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/9433/menhaden.pdf
  85. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-menhaden/commercial
  86. https://www.theadvocate.com/sponsored/acadiana/westbank_fishing/from-gulf-to-global-markets-how-menhaden-powers-the-u-s-and-the-world/article_736885e9-5547-4598-a7e1-66fa244abdf4.html
  87. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/MFR/mfr534/mfr5345.pdf
  88. https://www.menhaden.org/news
  89. https://www.lamenhaden.com/
  90. https://www.theadvocate.com/sponsored/baton_rouge/westbank_fishing/from-gulf-to-global-markets-how-menhaden-powers-the-u-s-and-the-world/article_6a763e94-6129-45d8-b935-dddd3426f49f.html
  91. https://civileats.com/2024/02/20/the-last-front-in-the-battle-to-save-the-most-important-fish-in-the-atlantic/
  92. http://www.maine.gov/dmr/news/fri-02282025-1200-maine-2024-commercial-fisheries-value-increases-more-74-million
  93. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/omega-protein-ocean-harvesters-virginias-190500742.html
  94. https://scemfis.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Menhaden-Economic-Impact-Final-Report-March-2022tjm-.pdf
  95. https://www.trcp.org/2025/05/13/menhaden-management-board-to-continue-exploring-chesapeake-bay-management-changes/
  96. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-menhaden/management
  97. https://www.savingseafood.org/news/management-regulation/fishermen-push-back-on-proposed-55-percent-cut-to-menhaden-quota/
  98. https://sedarweb.org/documents/s27dw08-regulatory-history-for-the-gulf-menhaden-stock-in-the-u-s-gulf-of-mexico/
  99. https://www.trcp.org/2024/02/15/louisiana-issues-regulations-to-protect-nearshore-habitat-from-menhaden-industry/
  100. https://www.saltwaterguidesassociation.com/take-the-cut-massive-reductions-for-menhaden-industry-necessary/
  101. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/marine-mammal-protection/gulf-mexico-menhaden-purse-seine-fishery-mmpa-list-fisheries
  102. https://shoredailynews.com/headlines/menhaden-stock-assessments-released-opinions-on-what-it-means-vary/
  103. https://sedarweb.org/assessments/sedar-102-asmfc-atlantic-menhaden/
  104. http://oneanglersvoyage.blogspot.com/2025/10/new-menhaden-assessment-corrects-error.html
  105. https://sedarweb.org/documents/sedar-102-atlantic-menhaden-and-erp-final-stock-assessment-report/
  106. https://www.nationalfisherman.com/gulf-menhaden-fishery-has-been-confirmed-sustainable
  107. https://www.whro.org/environment/2025-08-07/atlantic-menhaden-board-raises-red-flags-on-chesapeake-bay-fishery-directs-study-of-new-regulation
  108. https://www.menhaden.org/trcp-continues-to-mislead-on-menhaden-facts-contradict-claims-about-chesapeake-bay-fishery
  109. https://fox59.com/business/press-releases/accesswire/1028929/whats-up-media-article-on-menhaden-fails-to-tell-both-sides/
  110. https://www.whro.org/environment/2024-11-26/vims-scientists-critique-research-linking-osprey-declines-to-menhaden-industry
  111. https://www.wjbf.com/business/press-releases/accesswire/1085289/menhaden-fisheries-coalition-responds-to-inaccuracies-in-osprey-story-from-the-sandpaper
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.