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"Anthus" redirects here. For the son of Autonous, see Anthus (mythology).
For the star, see Nu Puppis.

Pipits
Nilgiri pipit (Anthus nilghiriensis)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Motacillidae
Genus: Anthus
Bechstein, 1805
Type species
Alauda pratensis
Linnaeus, 1758
Species

see text.

Synonyms
  • Corydalla Vigors, 1825

The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, Anthus, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws, the pipits make up the family Motacillidae. The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, except the driest deserts, rainforest and the mainland of Antarctica.

They are slender, often drab, ground-feeding insectivores of open country. Like their relatives in the family, the pipits are monogamous and territorial. Pipits are ground nesters, laying up to six speckled eggs.

Taxonomy and systematics

[edit]
A New Zealand pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae. This species was formerly considered conspecific with the Australian pipit Anthus australis under the name Australasian pipit.

The genus Anthus was introduced in 1805 by German naturalist Johann Matthäus Bechstein.[1] The type species was later designated as the meadow pipit.[2] The generic name Anthus is the Latin word for a small bird of grasslands mentioned by Pliny the Elder.[3]

Molecular studies of the pipits suggested that the genus arose in East Asia around seven million years ago (Mya), during the Miocene, and that the genus had spread to the Americas, Africa, and Europe between 5 and 6 Mya. Speciation rates were high during the Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 Mya ), but slowed down during the Pleistocene.[4] Repeated dispersal between continents seems to have been important in generating new species in Eurasia, Africa, and North America, rather than species arising by radiation once a continent was reached. In South America, however, vicariance appears to have played an important role in speciation.[4]

Extant species

[edit]

The genus has more than 40 species, making it the largest genus in terms of numbers in its family. The exact species limits of the genus are still a matter of some debate, with some checklists recognising only 34 species. For example, the New Zealand pipit A. novaeseelandiae, which is currently treated as four subspecies found in New Zealand, formerly also included Australian pipit A. australis of Australia, Richard's pipit A. richardi of northern Asia, paddyfield pipit A. rufulus of southern Asia, and the African pipit A. cinnamomeus of Africa as subspecies.[5][6] Conversely, it is also possible that the New Zealand subspecies found on its outlying Subantarctic Islands be split from the main islands species.[7] In part the taxonomic difficulties arise due to the extreme similarities in appearance across the genus.

The family has an additional species, the golden pipit, Tmetothylacus tennelus, which belongs to a distinct, monotypic genus. This species is apparently intermediate in appearance between the pipits and the longclaws, and is probably more closely related to the longclaws. One species, the yellow-breasted pipit, is sometimes split out into a genus Hemimacronyx, which is considered to be intermediate between the longclaws and pipits. The split was originally proposed based on morphological features, but it has also found support based upon genetic analysis.[8]

Description

[edit]
The plumage colour of the long-billed pipit is typical of the genus, although this subspecies lacks the extensive streaking many other pipits, including other subspecies, have on the breast

The pipits are generally highly conservative in appearance.[clarification needed] They are generally 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in) in length, although the smallest species, the short-tailed pipit, is only 11.5–12.5 cm (4.5–4.9 in). In weight, they range from 15–40 g (0.53–1.41 oz). The largest species may be the alpine pipit.[9] Like all members of the family, they are slender, short-necked birds with long tails and long, slender legs with elongated (in some cases very elongated) hind claws. The length of the hind claw varies with the habits of the species, more arboreal species have shorter, more curved hind claws than the more terrestrial species. The bills are generally long, slender, and pointed. In both size and plumage, few differences are seen between the sexes. One unusual feature of the pipits, which they share in common with the rest of their family, but not the rest of the passerines, is that the tertials on the wing entirely cover the primary flight feathers. This is thought to be a feature to protect the primaries, which are important to flight, from the sun, which causes the feathers to fade and become brittle if not protected.[6]

The plumage of the pipits is generally drab and brown, buff, or faded white. The undersides are usually darker than the top, and a variable amount of barring and streaking is seen on the back, wings, and breast. The drab, mottled-brown colours provide some camouflage against the soil and stones on which they are generally found. A few species have slightly more colourful breeding plumages; for example, the rosy pipit has greenish edges on the wing feathers. The yellow-breasted pipit, if it is retained in this genus, is quite atypical in having bright yellow plumage on the throat, breast, and belly.[6]

Pipits are morphologically similar to some larks, but the two groups are quite distantly related; the lark family Alaudidae is part of the superfamily Sylvioidea, rather than the Passeroidea, where the pipits are placed. Morphological differences between the two groups of birds are, in fact, plentiful. Anatomical differences include a differently structured syrinx, differences in the structure of the tarsi, and in many lark genera, the presence of a distinct 10th primary, a fourth tertial, and feathers at least partially covering the nostrils.[10] Bill shape differs between larks and pipits, with larks having an evenly sloping culmen, whereas most pipits have a small hump over the nostrils, and lark bills are generally heavier, reflecting differences in diet.[10] Differences occur in the feather tracts of the two groups; while many larks have crests, no pipit does; pipits have only one prominent row of scapulars, whereas larks have two.[10]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Berthelot's pipit is restricted to the Atlantic islands of Madeira and the Canary Islands

The pipits have a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring across most of the world's land surface. They are the only genus in their family to occur widely in the Americas (two species of wagtails marginally occur in Alaska, as well). Three species of pipits occur in North America, and seven species occur in South America. The remaining species are spread throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia, along with two species restricted to islands in the Atlantic. Some six species occur on more than one continent.[6]

The tree pipit breeds in Europe and Northern Asia and winters in India and Africa.

As might be expected from a genus with such a wide distribution, the pipits are found in an equally wide range of habitats. They occur in most types of open habitat, although they are absent from the very driest deserts. They are mostly associated with some kind of grassland, from sea-level to alpine tundra. The rock pipit and South Georgia pipit are found in the rocks and cliffs of the seashore,[11][12] whereas several species are restricted (for part of the year in some cases) to alpine areas. The family also ranges from the northern tundra and the subantarctic islands of New Zealand and the South Georgia group to the tropics.[6] They are absent from tropical rainforest,[4] but a few species are associated with open woodland, for example the wood pipit of southern Africa, which is found in open woodland savanna and miombo woodland.[6]

The pipits range from entirely sedentary to entirely migratory. Insular species such as Berthelot's pipit, which is endemic to Madeira and the Canary Islands, are entirely sedentary, as are some species in warmer areas like the Nilgiri pipit. Other species are partly nomadic during the nonbreeding season, like the long-legged pipit of central Africa or the ochre-breasted pipit of South America. These seasonal movements are in response to conditions in the environment, and are poorly understood and unpredictable. Longer, more regular migrations between discrete breeding and wintering grounds are undertaken by several species. The tree pipit, which breeds in Europe and northern Asia, winters in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, a pattern of long-distance migration shared with other northerly species. Species may also be partly migratory, with northern populations being migratory but more temperate populations being resident (such as the meadow pipit in Europe). The distances involved do not have to be that long; the mountain pipit of southern Africa breeds in the Drakensberg of South Africa and migrates north only as far as Angola and Zambia. Migration is usually undertaken in groups and may happen both during the day and at night. Some variation happens in this, for example, Sprague's pipit of North America apparently only migrates by day.[6]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]
American pipits will wag their tail from side to side as well as up and down

The pipits are active terrestrial birds that usually spend most of their time on the ground. They will fly in order to display during breeding, while migrating and dispersing, and also when flushed by danger. A few species make use of trees, perching in them and flying to them when disturbed. Low shrubs, rocks and termite nests may also be used as vantage points. Like their relatives the wagtails, pipits engage in tail-wagging. The way in which a pipit does this can provide clues to its identity in otherwise similar looking species. Upland pipits, for example, flick their tails quite quickly, as opposed to olive-backed pipits which wag their tails more gently. In general pipits move their tails quite slowly. The American pipit wags its tail both up and down and from side to side. The exact function of tail-wagging is unclear;[6] in the related wagtails it is thought to be a signal to predators of vigilance.[13]

Feeding

[edit]

The diet of the pipits is dominated by small invertebrates. Insects are the most important prey items; among the types taken include flies and their larvae, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets, true bugs, mantids, ants, aphids and particularly the larvae and adults of moths and butterflies. Outside of insects other invertebrates taken include spiders and, rarely, worms and scorpions. They are generally catholic in their diet, the composition of their diet apparently reflecting the abundance of their prey in the location (and varying with the season). The diet consumed by adults may vary to that of the young birds; for example adult tree pipits take large numbers of beetles but do not feed many to their chicks. Species feeding on the seashore are reported to feed on marine crustaceans and molluscs. A few species have been reported to feed on small fish, beating them in the manner of a kingfisher having caught them.[citation needed] Rock pipits have also been observed feeding on fish dropped by puffins. These fish, which include sand eels and rocklings, were dropped by puffins being harassed by gulls.[11] A few species also are reported as consuming berries and seeds.[6]

Species list

[edit]

The genus contains 46 species:[14]

Australian pipit chicks in the nest

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pipit

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Pipits are a (Anthus) of approximately 44 small, slender-bodied birds in the family , characterized by their medium to long tails, cryptic streaked plumage, and ground-dwelling habits. These cosmopolitan inhabit open s, tundras, meadows, and wetlands across all continents except , where they forage primarily on and seeds by walking or running on the ground. Many pipits exhibit remarkable long-distance migration, with some breeding in or alpine regions and wintering in tropical areas, while others are sedentary in temperate zones. Their vocalizations, often high-pitched "pip-it" calls delivered in flight, contribute to their onomatopoeic , and they typically nest on the ground in concealed cups lined with grass. Notable include the American pipit (A. rubescens), which breeds across northern , and the (A. pratensis), a common European bird. Pipits play key ecological roles as insect predators in their s, though some populations face threats from habitat loss and .

Taxonomy and systematics

Etymology and history

The common name "pipit" is onomatopoeic, derived from the bird's sharp, repetitive "pip-it" call notes. The genus Anthus derives from the Latin anthus, borrowed from ánthos, originally denoting a small grassland bird such as a , and later associated with a figure in who was transformed into a . The genus was formally introduced in by German naturalist Matthäus Bechstein in his Ornithologisches Taschenbuch von Deutschland und seinen umliegenden Ländern, with the later designated as the type . Early scientific descriptions of pipit species often placed them within other genera; for instance, the meadow pipit was first named Alauda pratensis by in the 1758 tenth edition of . Subsequent taxonomic work recognized distinctions in morphology and behavior, leading to the separation of pipits from larks (Alaudidae) and their consolidation under Anthus. Pipits underwent further revisions in the , with the family —encompassing pipits, wagtails, and longclaws—established by Thomas Horsfield in 1821 to reflect shared traits like long tails and ground-foraging habits. This classification solidified after initial confusions, such as inclusions under genera like Corydalla or Macronyx in catalogs by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1885.

Evolutionary history

The genus Anthus, comprising the pipits, is estimated to have originated approximately 7 million years ago during the , likely in , based on molecular clock analyses of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences calibrated against avian divergence rates. Fossil records support an early presence of the family around this period, with wagtails (Motacilla) documented from Miocene deposits in , such as a tarsus and from central dated to about 20 million years ago, indicating the family's radiation coincided with grassland expansions in the Paleogene-Neogene transition. These molecular and paleontological data suggest pipits diversified from an Asian ancestor through a combination of dispersal across continents and vicariance driven by tectonic uplift and climatic shifts. Speciation within pipits has been significantly influenced by Pleistocene glaciations, which promoted isolation in refugia and subsequent radiations during periods, as inferred from phylogenetic patterns showing rapid divergences in the last 2 million years. Dispersal events played a key role, with ancestral lineages crossing land bridges like to colonize the , resulting in a distinct New World clade that includes such as the American Pipit (A. rubescens). Similarly, multiple incursions into occurred from Oriental populations, evidenced by the placement of like the Australasian Pipit (A. novaeseelandiae) within Asian-derived branches. Phylogenetic analyses confirm pipits as a generally monophyletic group within , forming a to the wagtails (Motacilla), though some studies using multi-locus data (mitochondrial cyt b and COI, plus nuclear ) indicate if certain longclaw-like pipits (e.g., Macronyx spp.) are excluded from Anthus. Debates persist regarding the resolution of versus lineages, with early mtDNA studies supporting four major clades (African small-bodied, Palearctic, Oriental, and ), while nuclear markers reveal finer-scale relationships and evidence of incomplete lineage sorting in Holarctic taxa. Genetic data from both mtDNA and nuclear loci underscore multiple independent events: at least two to the via northern routes and recurrent dispersals to , facilitating the family's .

Extant species

The genus Anthus includes approximately 43 extant species of pipits, according to the IOC World Bird List version 15.1 (2025). These small birds are primarily in origin, with evolutionary roots tracing back to , and exhibit a today, including about 20 breeding in the Palearctic region, alongside several endemics restricted to (e.g., Chapin's Pipit Anthus chapini), (e.g., Australian Pipit Anthus australis), and the (e.g., Sprague's Pipit Anthus spragueii). Taxonomic debates persist within the due to subtle morphological similarities and ongoing molecular analyses, leading to recent splits and potential lumps. For instance, the Siberian Pipit (Anthus japonicus) was recognized as distinct from the American Pipit (Anthus rubescens) in 2024 based on differences in vocalizations, , and sequences, reflecting broader patterns of divergence in Asian versus North American populations. Similarly, the Pipit (Anthus gustavi) and Olive-backed Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) have been subject to scrutiny over whether certain Siberian warrant separation, supported by genetic data indicating vocal and migratory differences. In the , of the Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae)—such as those on offshore islands—have sparked discussions on elevation to full status due to isolation and minor variations, though current consensus maintains them as pending further genomic studies. Representative species highlight the genus's diversity. The (Anthus pratensis) is a widespread Palearctic breeder, known for its migratory habits across and . The American Pipit (Anthus rubescens) occupies open habitats from to , serving as a model for adaptations. The (Anthus trivialis), common in Eurasian woodlands, exemplifies arboreal preferences within the group. These examples underscore the genus's ecological breadth, from grassland migrants to high-altitude endemics, while taxonomic refinements continue to refine species boundaries through integrative approaches combining and bioacoustics.

Description

Size and structure

Pipits in the genus Anthus are small to medium-sized passerine birds characterized by a slender build, with body lengths typically ranging from 11.5 to 21 cm and weights from 15 to 40 g, though measurements vary by species. For instance, the short-tailed pipit (Anthus brachyurus) measures 11.5–12.5 cm in length and weighs 15–20 g, representing one of the smaller species, while larger forms like Richard's pipit (Anthus richardi) reach 17–20 cm and 25–36 g. The African pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus), a relatively small species, measures 15–17 cm in length and weighs 18–31 g. Their body structure features a slim, elongated form with long, thin legs and elongated hind claws, adaptations that facilitate terrestrial locomotion and walking on open ground. The legs can extend up to several centimeters, enabling an upright posture and efficient movement across grasslands and . Pipits also possess medium to long tails, often comprising up to half the body length in some species, which aid in balance during foraging and flight maneuvers. The is slender and pointed, typically straight or slightly decurved at the tip, suited for probing soft and picking from the ground surface. morphology includes pointed primaries with emarginations on several outer feathers (such as primaries 6–8), and relatively long tertials that overlap the folded primaries, contributing to a streamlined profile for sustained flight during migration. Sexual dimorphism is minimal across the genus, with no significant differences in and only slight variations in size, where males tend to be marginally larger and heavier than females in certain species. Juveniles are generally smaller and exhibit less robust development compared to adults, often with softer feathering and reduced body mass during early growth stages.

Plumage and coloration

Pipits in the genus Anthus exhibit cryptic well-suited to their open habitats, featuring drab brown or grayish-brown upperparts with prominent dark streaking on , back, and often . The underparts are pale, typically buff or whitish, with dark streaks concentrated on the breast and upper flanks, creating a mottled effect for . Tail feathers are predominantly dark but distinguished by white outer edges, which become visible during the undulating flight and serve as a key identification trait across species. Some species, such as the Paddyfield Pipit (Anthus rufulus), display or warm buff tones in their , particularly in individuals from certain regions. Breeding plumage is generally brighter than non-breeding, with enhanced buff or pinkish hues on the underparts and bolder for display purposes; for instance, the American Pipit (Anthus rubescens) shows richer pinkish-buff tones below during summer. In the non-breeding season, colors fade to duller grays and browns, following a complete post-breeding molt that replaces worn feathers and reduces contrast. Juvenile plumage is more heavily streaked overall than in adults, with broader, fluffier feathers and pale edges on the upperparts that produce a scaly texture, enhancing ground-level during early development.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Pipits of the genus exhibit a , occurring on all continents except , where no species are present on the mainland, though the (A. antarcticus) inhabits islands. They are notably absent from dense tropical rainforests, such as the , and the cores of extreme deserts like the , due to their preference for open s. This broad range reflects the genus's adaptability to varied open environments, from to grasslands, but excludes closed-canopy forests and arid extremes. The Palearctic region hosts the highest diversity within the genus, with numerous species breeding across , including widespread forms like the (A. pratensis) and (A. trivialis). In the , several endemics occur, such as the African pipit (A. cinnamomeus), which is common in eastern and , and the yellow-breasted pipit (A. chloris), restricted to highland grasslands in and . The Australasian region features species like the Australian pipit (A. australis), distributed across and , alongside isolated endemics such as the New Zealand pipit (A. novaeseelandiae), which evolved in geographic isolation following ancient colonization events. In the Nearctic, representation is more limited, with the American pipit (A. rubescens) breeding in and from to , and Sprague's pipit (A. spragueii) breeding in northern grasslands. Historical expansions have shaped this distribution, with phylogenetic evidence indicating that Nearctic species, including the American pipit, colonized the Americas via the Bering land bridge during Pleistocene interstadials, facilitating trans-Beringian dispersal from Palearctic ancestors. Similarly, Australasian lineages likely arose from dispersals, leading to island endemism in places like . These patterns underscore a dominated by dispersal rather than strict vicariance, enabling the genus's global spread across open biomes.

Habitat preferences

Pipits of the genus Anthus predominantly favor open, grassy landscapes that provide ample visibility and foraging opportunities, including , meadows, moorlands, farmlands, coastal seashores, and alpine zones, while generally avoiding densely vegetated or closed-canopy forests. These habitats span a broad global distribution, from and regions to temperate grasslands and high-elevation plateaus, reflecting the genus's adaptability to expansive, low-stature vegetation across continents. At the microhabitat level, pipits select areas with short to medium-height grasses and sparse cover to facilitate ground-level and predator detection, often preferring sites with some structural heterogeneity such as rocks, boulders, or hummocks. Species like the (Anthus pratensis) thrive in damp, open meadows and bogs with dense low vegetation, while others, such as the (Anthus spinoletta), favor wetter montane environments near streamsides, alpine meadows, and rocky areas with moisture-retaining features. Altitudinal preferences vary widely within the genus, ranging from in coastal and lowland grasslands to elevations exceeding 4,000 m in the , where species like the olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) breed in high-altitude meadows and scrub. Many pipit species have shown some to human-modified landscapes, utilizing agricultural fields, pastures, and lands as substitutes for natural grasslands, particularly during non-breeding seasons. However, they exhibit sensitivity to intensive ; for instance, can degrade preferred structure, reducing suitability and leading to lower densities in heavily grazed areas.

Behaviour

Locomotion and social behaviour

Pipits are predominantly terrestrial birds that locomote by walking or running quickly across open ground, often changing direction abruptly while scanning their surroundings. This gait is accompanied by a characteristic bobbing motion of the head and , similar to that of wagtails, which aids in balance and may help detect prey or threats on uneven . Their structure, with elongated outer feathers, facilitates this bobbing and provides stability during movement. Flights are typically short and undulating, used for escaping danger or brief displacements between foraging sites, though longer migrations occur in flocks. During the breeding season, pipits exhibit strong territorial behavior, with males establishing and defending individual territories through aerial display flights and ground chases against intruders. Territory sizes vary among species, typically ranging from less than 1 ha to several hectares; for instance, in the American pipit, territories range from 0.12 to 2 ha (0.3 to 5 acres), depending on food availability. These territories are maintained to secure resources for nesting and mating, and females may also participate in chasing rivals. Most pipit species form socially monogamous pairs for the breeding season, with pair bonds lasting until fledglings are independent; however, some polygyny occurs, particularly in species like the meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis), where high-quality males may attract multiple females to their territories. Outside the breeding period, pipits shift to more social habits, forming loose flocks of dozens to hundreds of individuals during migration and winter for communal and roosting, which enhances safety without intense interactions. is minimal in these non-breeding groups, with birds maintaining loose spacing and avoiding conflicts. For anti-predator defense, pipits rely on cryptic and behaviors such as freezing motionless on the ground to avoid detection by visual hunters, or rapidly fleeing to nearby cover when approached closely. Fledglings, in particular, freeze upon disturbance once capable of leaving the nest, while adults prioritize evasion over confrontation, showing little except during breeding. in non-breeding seasons further dilutes individual risk from predators.

Vocalizations and displays

Pipits produce a variety of vocalizations that serve functions in communication, territory defense, and mate attraction, with songs typically delivered during aerial displays or from perches. The song of the (Anthus pratensis) consists of a series of thin, accelerating high-pitched notes, often described as repetitive "seep-seep" or "pip-it" phrases, which quicken in tempo toward the end and are usually sung from the ground or during flight. In contrast, the red-throated pipit (Anthus cervinus) has a more varied song comprising short phrases of soft whistles, dry rattles, buzzes, and ringing notes, often performed in flight to advertise territory. Calls in pipits are generally short and sharp, used for alarm, contact, or flight communication. The emits a thin, high-pitched such as "psiip," "pheet," or "isst," repeated 1–3 times or more, with a louder variant signaling alarm; a softer "tsip" serves for contact between individuals. Similarly, the red-throated pipit gives a distinctive high-pitched, descending "peeez" as a flight call and a short "chyup" near the nest as an . These calls vary slightly across species, aiding in differentiation during migration or shared habitats. Visual displays often accompany vocalizations, particularly in males during breeding. Meadow pipit males perform a fluttering flight, rising steeply before parachuting down with wings and tail spread, while singing to attract mates and defend . Red-throated pipit males exhibit two song flight types: one involving an ascent to 10–50 m followed by circling while vocalizing, and another in a J-shaped rising to 20–30 m before descending with . Ground displays may include wing-flicking and bowing toward potential mates or intruders. Vocal dialects, such as variations in song phrases, occur in some pipit populations and play a role in species and individual recognition, influencing and territorial responses; for instance, meadow pipits react more strongly to familiar local dialects than to unfamiliar ones during playback experiments.

Ecology

Diet and foraging

Pipits are primarily insectivorous birds, with their diet consisting mainly of small such as flies, beetles, caterpillars, and spiders, which they obtain through ground-based in open habitats. Species like the American pipit (Anthus rubescens) consume a variety of insect larvae, including those of mayflies, , lacewings, stoneflies, dragonflies, moths, , grasshoppers, , , and beetles, supplemented by spiders and ticks. In coastal environments, species such as the rock pipit (Anthus petrosus) incorporate like chironomid larvae, dipteran larvae, isopods, amphipods, and small mollusks such as periwinkles into their diet. During the non-breeding season, particularly in fall and winter, pipits shift opportunistically toward plant-based foods, including seeds and occasionally berries, to supplement their intake when are less abundant. For example, the (Anthus pratensis) selects larger prey items like spiders greater than 5 mm and caterpillars around 2 cm in length, alongside other insect larvae and flies, showing a preference for profitable sources over random availability. Pipits employ visual strategies on the ground, typically in short less than 10 cm tall, where they walk or run quickly to chase and capture prey by pecking or directly from the soil or low plants. They probe the ground with their bill to uncover hidden and may perform short sallying flights to catch aerial , often alone or in pairs during the breeding season and forming loose flocks for more opportunistic scavenging in winter. In response to food scarcity, such as during mid-winter on coasts, rock pipits increase intensity, focusing efforts in afternoons when prey is harder to find. Daily food intake varies by species and season, with the rock pipit achieving an average organic intake of about 6 g (equivalent to roughly 30 calories) in winter through efficient consumption of larvae and mollusks. This intake supports their high metabolic demands, particularly during the breeding period when dominate the diet to meet energetic needs.

Reproduction and breeding

Pipits typically breed during periods of high availability, with temperate-zone species such as the (Anthus pratensis) initiating nesting in late March or early and continuing through , often producing two broods per season. In contrast, tropical species like the African pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus) breed mainly before or during rainy seasons, from February to in regions such as the Highlands or March to July in parts of , allowing for more opportunistic or year-round reproduction in suitable conditions. Pairs are generally monogamous, forming through aerial song displays by males, and most species produce a single brood annually, though some temperate populations may attempt a second if the first fails. Nests are constructed by the as open cups on or near the ground, woven from grasses, , and lichens, and lined with finer materials such as feathers or for insulation; they are typically concealed in dense , tussocks, or under rocks to avoid detection. Clutch sizes range from 3 to 6 eggs across , laid at daily intervals, with eggs pale and spotted for ; for example, the American pipit (Anthus rubescens) averages 3-5 eggs per . Incubation lasts 12-15 days and is performed primarily by the , during which the male delivers food to her at a distance from the nest to minimize disturbance. Both parents share in feeding the altricial, chicks a diet of , with the female initially brooding them for the first 5-6 days; fledging occurs at 10-14 days, after which young remain dependent on parental provisioning for an additional 1-2 weeks until achieving independence. Nest success varies but typically sees 50-70% of eggs fledging, heavily influenced by predation risks in open habitats; some species employ distraction displays to lure predators away from nests.

Migration and movements

Pipits exhibit a range of migratory strategies across species, from obligate long-distance migration to partial, altitudinal, or nomadic movements. For instance, the (Anthus pratensis) is an obligate long-distance migrant, with northern European populations traveling from breeding grounds in and the to wintering areas in and . In contrast, the (Anthus spinoletta) typically undertakes short-distance or altitudinal migration, descending from high-elevation breeding sites in the and to lower-altitude wetlands and lowlands in western and during winter. Migratory routes vary by region and species. Palearctic pipits, such as the , primarily follow southwestward paths from breeding areas in , utilizing flyways across the Mediterranean via Iberia or the Atlantic coast to reach North African wintering grounds. Nearctic species like the American pipit (Anthus rubescens) migrate southward through the central and , crossing to winter in northern , often along coastal and interior corridors. Timing of migration differs seasonally and by direction. In the , autumn migration occurs diurnally from August to October, with visible flocks departing during daylight hours, while spring returns are more nocturnal and occur from March to May. To support these journeys, pipits accumulate substantial fat reserves; for example, meadow pipits store enough fat to fuel endurance during trans-Saharan crossings. Some pipit species display nomadism rather than strict seasonal migration. The Australasian pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae) in Australia's arid zones exhibits irregular, local movements closely tied to rainfall patterns, with quantified nomadism indices reflecting opportunistic shifts to exploit temporary resource booms following events.

Conservation

Overall status

The vast majority of the approximately 43 in the genus Anthus are assessed as Least Concern by the , owing to their extensive geographic distributions and resilience in varied environments. For instance, the (Anthus pratensis) maintains a global population of 24–33 million mature individuals, with trends considered decreasing overall despite some regional stability. This category dominates because most pipits occupy wide ranges across continents, from to the and , allowing them to persist amid moderate changes. A small number of species, however, face higher risks, with four classified as Vulnerable: Sprague's pipit (Anthus spragueii), yellow-breasted pipit (Anthus chloris), ochre-breasted pipit (Anthus nattereri), and Nilgiri pipit (Anthus nilghiriensis). These assessments stem from restricted habitats and ongoing declines, though the genus as a whole does not qualify for a collective threatened status. Population trends vary by species adaptability; cosmopolitan forms like the African pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus) show stable numbers, while the (Anthus trivialis) has experienced moderate declines in parts of its range, bolstered by their tolerance for agricultural landscapes. In contrast, grassland specialists in have experienced declines of 30–50% since 1970, as documented by long-term surveys. These patterns highlight the genus's overall resilience, with positive factors including broad habitat flexibility and human-modified environments that support many populations. Conservation monitoring for pipits is primarily handled through species-specific assessments by , which coordinates IUCN evaluations for birds, and Partners in Flight, which tracks continental trends in the via breeding bird surveys. There is no dedicated global Red List for the genus Anthus, but regional watch lists, such as those in and , provide ongoing data to inform targeted efforts.

Threats and measures

Habitat loss and degradation represent the most significant threats to pipit populations worldwide, primarily driven by agricultural expansion, , and intensive practices that fragment and convert native grasslands and open habitats. For instance, in North American , the conversion of native grasslands to cropland and seeded pastures has drastically reduced breeding grounds for species like the Sprague's pipit (Anthus spragueii), with over 60% of historical prairie habitats lost to . Similarly, excessive diminishes vegetation structure essential for nesting and foraging, leading to population declines in grassland-dependent pipits. exacerbates these pressures by encroaching on and edges used during migration and wintering. Climate change poses an additional peril, particularly for tundra- and alpine-breeding pipits such as the American pipit (Anthus rubescens), where warming temperatures cause upslope shifts in treelines and reduced snowpack, shrinking available breeding habitat by altering vegetation patterns and shortening the ice-free season. In high-elevation zones, these changes fragment habitats, potentially isolating populations and reducing reproductive success. Other risks include the indirect effects of pesticides, which diminish insect prey availability critical for pipit diets, contributing to lowered breeding productivity in agricultural landscapes. During migration, collisions with infrastructure like power lines and buildings further threaten long-distance travelers, though specific impacts on pipits remain underquantified. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and restoration to mitigate these threats. In , initiatives emphasize preserving native grasslands through protected areas, such as national parks and community pastures that safeguard breeding sites for alpine and prairie species. Grassland restoration programs, including those led by the National Audubon Society, aim to reclaim converted prairies by promoting sustainable grazing and reducing fragmentation, benefiting Sprague's pipits and similar species. The Sprague's pipit holds candidate status under the U.S. Endangered Species Act as of 2025, with a recent petition filed in 2025 to advance its protection, prompting targeted recovery planning to address habitat loss without immediate listing due to higher-priority species. Internationally, biosphere reserves like Mexico's Janos provide limited but vital wintering protections. Despite these measures, research gaps persist, particularly in the understudied tropical regions where many pipit species overwinter, necessitating updated surveys to assess declines and inform targeted interventions. Enhanced monitoring in these areas could reveal localized threats like habitat degradation in fragmented woodlands, aiding full annual-cycle conservation strategies.

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