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Polygar Wars
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The Polygar Wars or Palaiyakkarar Wars were wars fought between the Polygars (Palaiyakkarars) of the former Tirunelveli Kingdom in Tamil Nadu, India and the British East India Company's Madras Regiment between March 1799 to May 1802 or July 1805. The British finally won after carrying out gruelling protracted jungle campaigns against the Polygar armies. Many people died on both sides and the victory over the Polygars brought large parts of the territories of Tamil Nadu under British control, enabling them to get a strong hold in Southern India.
First Polygar War
[edit]The Polygar Wars were a series of wars fought by a coalition of Palaiyakkarar's against the British between 1750 and 1805. The war between the British and Puli Thevar is often classified as the First Polygar war (1752 to 1767). The war between the British and Kattabomman Nayak of Panchalankurichi Palayam in the then Tirunelveli region is the second Polygar war in history.[citation needed] In 1799, a brief meeting (over pending taxes) between Kattabomman and the British ended in a bloody encounter in which the British commander of the forces was slain by the former. A price was put on Kattabomman's head prompting many Polygars to an open rebellion.
After a series of battles in the Panchalankurichi fort with additional reinforcements from Tiruchirapalli, Kattabomman was defeated, but he escaped to the jungles in Pudukottai country. He was captured by the British with the help of Ettappan, Pudukottai Raja after his backroom agreement with the British. After a summary trial, Kattabomman was hanged in front of the public in order to intimidate them in Kayatharu.
Subramania Pillai, a close associate of Kattabomman, was also publicly hanged and his head was fixed on a pike at Panchalankurichi for public view. Soundra Pandian, another rebel leader, was brutally killed by having his head smashed against a village wall. Kattabomman's brother Oomathurai was imprisoned in Palayamkottai Central Prison while the fort was razed to the ground and wealth looted by the troops.
Second Polygar War
[edit]Despite the suppression of the First Polygar War in 1799, a rebellion broke out again in 1800. The Second Polygar War was more stealthy and covert in nature. The rebellion broke out when a band of Palayakkarar armies bombed the British barracks in Coimbatore. In the war that followed, Oomaithurai allied himself with Maruthu Pandiyar and was part of a grand alliance against the company which included Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja of Malabar.
The Palayakarrars had artillery and a weapon manufacturing unit in Salem and Dindigul jungles. They also received clandestine training from the French in the Karur region.[1] Dheeran Chinnamalai Gounder headed the western Tamil Nadu popularly known as Kongu Nadu. The British columns were exposed throughout the operations to constant harassing attacks and had usually to cut their way through almost impenetrable jungles fired on from undercover on all sides. The Polygars resisted stubbornly and the storming of their hill-forts proved on several occasions sanguinary (involving or causing much bloodshed) work.
The British finally won after a long expensive campaign that took more than a year. The Company forces led by Lt. Colonel Agnew laid siege to the Panchalankurichi fort and captured it in May 1801 after a prolonged siege and artillery bombardment. Oomaithurai escaped the fall of the fort and joined Maruthu brothers at their jungle fort at Kalayar Kovil. The Company forces pursued him there and eventually captured Kalayar Kovil in October 1801. Oomaithurai and the Maruthu brothers were hanged on 16 November 1801 at Tiruppathur (Sivagangai Dist.).[2][3]
Third Polygar War
[edit]A final Polygar War in 1847 against the British was fought by Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy at Kovelakuntla (Koilakuntla). He and his commander-in-chief Vadde Obanna were at the heart of a freedom movement against Company rule in India in 1847, where 5,000 Indian peasants rose up in revolt against the British East India Company in Nandyal district. The rebels were protesting against the changes introduced by the Company authorities to the traditional agrarian system in the first half of the nineteenth century. These changes include the introduction of the ryotwari system and other attempts to maximize revenue through exploiting lower-status cultivators through implementing exploitative working conditions. The revolt took thousands of Company soldiers to suppress, with Reddy's death bringing it to an end.
Results
[edit]The suppression of the Polygar rebellions of 1799 and 1800-1805 resulted in the liquidation of the influence of the chieftains. Under the terms of the Carnatic Treaty (31 July 1801), the British assumed direct control over Tamil Nadu. The Polygar system which had flourished for two and a half centuries came to a violent end and the company introduced a Zamindari settlement in its place. In subsequent years, legend and folklore developed around Kattabomman, Maruthu Pandiyar and Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy.[citation needed]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit] | This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (August 2009) |
- ^ "Gopal Naicker Memorial ready for inauguration". The Hindu. 22 June 2012.
- ^ Francis 1989, p. 261.
- ^ Dirk 1988, pp. 19–24.
References
[edit]- Dirk, Nicholas (1988), The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom, pp. 19–24, ISBN 978-0-521-05372-3
- Francis, W. (1989), Gazetteer of South India, vol. 1, Mittal Publications, p. 261
Further reading
[edit]https://www.livehistoryindia.com/story/people/the-polygar-heroes-of-tamil-nadu
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Polygar War.
- N. Rajendran, National Movement in Tamil Nadu, 1905-1914 - Agitational Politics and State Coercion, Madras Oxford University Press.
- M.P. Manivel, 2003 - Viduthalaipporil Virupachi Gopal Naickar (Tamil Language), New Century Book House, Chennai
- Prof. K.Rajayyan M.A., M.Litt, A.M. Ph.D., A History of Freedom Struggle in India
- Prof. K.Rajayyan M.A., M.Litt, A.M. Ph.D., South Indian Rebellion - The First War of Independence (1800–1801)
- Welsh, James (1830). "Poligar War". Military Reminiscences: Extracted from a Journal of Nearly Forty Years' Active Service in the East Indies. Vol. 1 (Two volume, 2nd ed.). Smith, Elder, and Company. pp. 81–135.
Polygar Wars
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
The Polygar Wars were a series of rebellions from 1799 to 1805 in southern India, particularly in the Tamil Nadu region, waged by local chieftains called Polygars—or Palayakkarars—against the British East India Company's efforts to impose revenue collection and centralize administrative control.[1][2]
Polygars originated as hereditary military lords under the Vijayanagara Empire, managing small territories known as palayams, where they collected taxes, maintained forts, and supplied troops to higher authorities.[1] Following the British acquisition of revenue rights from the Nawab of Arcot in the late 18th century, the Company demanded direct tribute payments and interfered in Polygar autonomy, sparking resistance over excessive taxation and the erosion of traditional rights.[3][2]
The First Polygar War erupted in 1799 when Veerapandiya Kattabomman, Polygar of Panchalankurichi, refused to pay arrears and clashed with British forces after a skirmish that killed a Company officer; British troops stormed his fort, leading to his capture and public execution by hanging on October 16, 1799.[1][3] The Second Polygar War followed in 1800–1801, involving Kattabomman's brother Oomaithurai and the Marudu brothers of Sivaganga, who coordinated guerrilla attacks with peasant support but were ultimately defeated through British military expeditions that razed forts and executed leaders.[3][2]
British suppression involved coordinated campaigns with European troops, sepoy battalions, and artillery, resulting in over 1,000 Company casualties and the deportation or hanging of rebel chieftains, culminating in the Carnatic Treaty of 1801 that transferred regional control to the East India Company.[3] The wars ended the Polygar system, replacing it with the zamindari settlement under permanent revenue demands, which facilitated direct British governance but contributed to local economic strains including famines.[1][2]
British superiority in firepower and logistics ultimately prevailed, as Polygar armies—lacking unified command and heavy ordnance—could not match sustained operations, though their raids delayed subjugation and raised costs, with campaigns extending over months in 1800–1801.[32] Post-victory, the Company demolished captured forts to prevent refortification, enforcing demilitarization across the region.[33]
Historical Context
The Polygar System in South India
The Polygar system, known in Tamil as the Palaiyakkarar or Palayam system, emerged in South India during the early 16th century as a decentralized administrative and military framework under the Madurai Nayak kingdom. It was formalized in 1529 by Viswanatha Nayak upon his ascension, with the guidance of his minister Ariyanatha Mudaliar, who divided the kingdom's territories into semi-autonomous units called palayams to consolidate control after the decline of Vijayanagara influence.[4] This arrangement drew from the Vijayanagara Empire's earlier Nayankara model, where military commanders received land grants in exchange for service, but adapted it for local Tamil governance by assigning chieftains—termed Polygars or Palaiyakkarars—to oversee these palayams.[4] Initially, 72 such palayams were established around the Madura region, each fortified and held under military tenure by chiefs from communities like Nayakkars, Reddiyars, and Tondaimans.[4] Structurally, each palayam operated as a small feudal estate, with the Polygar functioning as both civil administrator and military leader. Polygars collected land revenue primarily from ryots (peasant cultivators) in cash or kind, paying a fixed annual tribute to the Nayak sovereign while retaining privileges over assigned villages to fund local operations.[4] Typically, they kept approximately one-quarter of the collected revenue for personal and administrative use, depositing the balance with the central treasury in Madura.[1] Administrative duties encompassed maintaining law and order, resolving local disputes through rudimentary judiciary, and providing policing (kaval) to protect inhabitants, travelers, and property from banditry or external threats—extending beyond their palayam borders when necessary.[4] Militarily, the system's core obligation required Polygars to muster and maintain a militia drawn from able-bodied ryots within their territories, equipping them for defense and ready to supply contingents to the overlord on demand for regional campaigns or invasions.[4] This ensured a distributed network of fortifications and troops, enhancing the kingdom's resilience without a large standing central army. The arrangement fostered loyalty through mutual dependence: Polygars gained autonomy and hereditary rights, provided tribute flowed and military service was rendered, allowing the system to endure from the Nayak era into the 18th century under the Carnatic Nawabs, despite growing centralization pressures.[4]British East India Company Expansion
The British East India Company's presence in South India began with the establishment of Fort St. George at Madras in 1639, serving as a base for trade in textiles and spices, but evolved into territorial ambitions amid European rivalries. By the mid-18th century, the Company leveraged alliances with local rulers to counter French influence, transforming commercial outposts into political footholds. This shift intensified during the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763), a series of conflicts intertwined with Anglo-French hostilities in Europe, where the Company supported claimant nawabs in the Carnatic region—a coastal expanse encompassing much of modern Tamil Nadu—to secure revenue rights and military advantages.[5] The wars culminated in British dominance after key victories, including the Battle of Wandiwash on January 22, 1760, which routed French forces under Thomas Lally and confined their presence to Pondicherry. As a result, the Company exercised de facto control over the Carnatic through the Nawab of Arcot, Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah (r. 1749–1795), who accrued massive debts to the Company and its private traders—estimated at over £2 million by the 1780s—for military subsidies, effectively ceding fiscal authority in exchange for protection against rivals like Hyder Ali of Mysore. This arrangement extended to subsidiary alliances, where the Company provided troops for a fixed tribute, gradually supplanting local governance with Company-appointed collectors who demanded standardized revenue assessments, clashing with the decentralized poligar system of autonomous chieftains holding fortified palayams (military fiefs).[5][5] Further expansion accelerated through the Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799), as Mysore's incursions threatened Carnatic stability. The Company acquired the Northern Circars (coastal Andhra territories) via a 1765 firman from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, granting diwani (revenue) rights over roughly 40,000 square miles. The decisive Fourth Anglo-Mysore War ended with Tipu Sultan's defeat and death at Seringapatam on May 4, 1799, partitioning Mysore and annexing about one-third of its territory—approximately 25,000 square miles—directly under Company administration. This victory, involving over 50,000 British and allied troops, dismantled a major regional power and exposed poligar territories in districts like Tirunelveli, Madurai, and Ramanathapuram to centralized British revenue demands. In 1781, amid financial distress during the Second Mysore War, the Nawab had already granted the Company collection rights over Tirunelveli and southern Carnatic provinces, numbering around 72 poligar estates that paid nominal tribute but retained martial autonomy. These moves prioritized fiscal extraction—aiming for annual revenues exceeding £1 million in the Madras Presidency by 1800—over local customs, setting the stage for resistance by poligars who viewed disarmament edicts and fixed peishcush (tribute) as erosions of their hereditary rights.[6][7][8]Causes and Preconditions
Shift to Permanent Settlement and Revenue Demands
The British East India Company's revenue policies in the Carnatic region evolved from reliance on polygar intermediaries toward direct assessment and fixed demands, aiming to secure predictable income amid expanding territorial and military costs following the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792). Under traditional arrangements inherited from the Nawabs of Arcot, polygars collected variable peishcush (tribute) from ryots (cultivators) based on local conditions, retaining surpluses after nominal payments to overlords while exercising fiscal and judicial autonomy within their palayams.[9][2] This system allowed flexibility for droughts or poor harvests, but British collectors, starting in the 1790s under Governor Lord Hobart, shifted to annual fixed settlements, demanding peishcush increases of up to 50–100% in some cases to offset subsidiary alliance subsidies to the Nawab and Company debts.[10][11] These demands were formalized through surveys and assessments by British revenue officers, who often overestimated productive capacity using optimistic yield data, imposing permanent-like fixity without the Bengal model's heritability safeguards for intermediaries. For instance, in Tinnevelly district, polygar Kattabomman Nayak faced arrears demands equivalent to 45,000 rupees by 1798, escalating from prior nominal tributes, as collectors sought to eliminate polygar discretion and channel revenues directly to Company coffers.[1][10] This centralization eroded polygar revenues, as they bore full collection risks without authority to adjust rates or remit during scarcities, prompting defaults and resistance; collectors responded by auctioning palayams or attaching lands, further alienating chieftains who viewed such measures as violations of hereditary rights under prior Nayak and Mughal grants.[2][9] The policy's causal logic rested on British fiscal imperatives—ensuring steady funds for European troops and administrative expansion—but ignored local ecological variances, such as arid conditions in southern palayams, leading to systemic arrears; by 1799, over a dozen polygars in Arcot and Tinnevelly withheld payments, framing non-compliance as defense of customary sovereignty rather than mere fiscal grievance.[11][12] Post-suppression, the Company extended zamindari settlements in 1802 across subdued territories, converting compliant polygars into revenue collectors sans military roles, with fixed assessments averaging 10–11 annas per rupee of gross produce—rates deemed excessive by later inquiries—confirming the pre-war shift's intent to supplant polygar autonomy with accountable intermediaries.[1][13] This transition, while stabilizing short-term revenues at approximately 20–30% hikes in compliant areas, precipitated rebellions by transforming polygars from semi-independent lords into burdened agents, whose failures invited dispossession.[10][9]Polygar Resistance to Centralization
The Polygars, hereditary chieftains known as palaiyakkarars in Tamil Nadu, traditionally exercised semi-autonomous control over their palayams (districts), including rights to collect revenue from ryots, maintain armed peons for local policing and military service, and administer justice under nominal suzerainty of larger rulers like the Nayaks or later the Nawab of Carnatic.[14] This decentralized structure allowed Polygars to retain significant local authority, paying fixed tribute (peishcush) upward while extracting customary dues locally, a system dating back to the Vijayanagara era but persisting into the late 18th century.[14] [15] British East India Company policies after the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792) increasingly threatened this autonomy by imposing direct revenue assessments on Polygars, demanding payment of arrears accumulated under previous regimes (estimated at over 1 crore rupees in some districts), and enforcing subordination through treaties that curtailed their military roles and tax-farming privileges.[11] [15] Collectors like W.F. Turnbull in Tirunelveli district in the mid-1790s resorted to coercive measures, including humiliation and threats of arrest, to extract enhanced tributes, which Polygars viewed as an illegitimate erosion of their hereditary rights and an overreach into internal affairs.[16] [17] The Company's shift toward centralized revenue extraction—foreshadowing ryotwari settlements that bypassed intermediaries—aimed to maximize fiscal yields for colonial expansion but clashed with Polygar expectations of fixed obligations, fueling perceptions of British policies as confiscatory and sovereignty-usurping.[14] [2] Resistance manifested initially through non-compliance and diplomatic appeals, as Polygars petitioned against revenue hikes and refused oaths of allegiance that implied vassalage, often framing their stance in terms of traditional dharma and prior exemptions granted by Mysore sultans.[15] Veerapandiya Kattabomman of Panchalankurichi exemplified this defiance in 1794–1799, rejecting demands for tribute arrears totaling around 3,000 pagodas and expelling British revenue officers, which escalated into open conflict after he declined to appear before Collector Turnbull in 1798.[17] [16] Other Polygars, such as those in Ramanathapuram and Sivaganga, formed loose alliances, leveraging kinship ties and shared grievances to withhold payments and mobilize komadis (irregular troops numbering up to 10,000 in some coalitions), viewing centralization not merely as administrative reform but as a causal threat to their economic viability and social order.[14] [11] This opposition persisted despite British concessions to compliant Polygars, who were sometimes granted zamindari status shorn of military powers, as non-submission invited military suppression; by 1801, the Carnatic Treaty formalized the end of Polygar autonomy, transferring civil and military administration to the Company and reducing most to revenue collectors without independent authority.[2] [14] The resistance highlighted a fundamental clash between feudal decentralization and colonial imperatives for uniform control, with Polygars' actions driven by self-preservation rather than broader anti-colonial ideology, though later narratives elevated figures like Kattabomman as early nationalists.[15] [2]Course of the Conflicts
First Polygar War (1799)
The First Polygar War broke out in September 1799 in the Tirunelveli district of present-day Tamil Nadu, as local Polygar chieftains rebelled against the British East India Company's enforcement of revenue demands and requirements for formal oaths of allegiance following their victory in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.[14] The uprising centered on resistance to the shift from the traditional Polygar system of military service in exchange for land revenue exemptions toward a cash-based tribute model under direct Company oversight, which threatened the chieftains' autonomy.[2] Veerapandiya Kattabomman, the Polygar of Panchalankurichi, emerged as the principal leader, having previously refused tribute payments and clashed with Company officials since the early 1790s.[9] Tensions escalated when the Tinnevelly Collector summoned Kattabomman to Ramanathapuram in June 1799 to account for arrears and affirm loyalty; his non-appearance prompted the Company to declare him a rebel and dispatch a force of approximately 1,000 sepoys under Major James Bannerman.[14] Bannerman's troops advanced on Panchalankurichi in October 1799, besieging the fort amid initial Polygar defenses bolstered by alliances with neighboring chieftains. Kattabomman employed guerrilla tactics, evading capture initially by retreating to forested areas and coordinating with supporters, but was ultimately betrayed by the Raja of Pudukkottai and seized near Kayathar on October 3, 1799.[18] A summary court-martial convicted him of treason, leading to his public execution by hanging on October 16, 1799, alongside supporters, which temporarily quelled the immediate revolt but incited broader Polygar discontent.[19] British forces, leveraging superior artillery and disciplined infantry, dismantled Polygar strongholds and dispersed remaining insurgents by late 1799, incorporating captured territories into direct Company administration.[9] The war resulted in the deaths of hundreds, including key Polygar fighters, and the confiscation of lands from non-submissive chieftains, though incomplete pacification allowed embers of resistance to persist, culminating in renewed conflict in 1800.[14] This phase underscored the Polygars' reliance on mobility and local knowledge against British conventional warfare, yet highlighted the Company's logistical advantages in sustaining campaigns across southern India.[20]Second Polygar War (1800–1801)
The Second Polygar War, spanning 1800 to 1801 and sometimes extended to 1805 in residual fighting, arose from lingering grievances after the First Polygar War, including the British East India Company's insistence on cash tributes over traditional in-kind payments, increased revenue extraction under permanent settlement systems, and the incarceration of poligar leaders who resisted subordination.[21] Poligars viewed these impositions as erosions of their semi-autonomous status as local chieftains (palaiyakkarars) under the Nayak and subsequent regimes, prompting sporadic attacks on Company outposts as early as 1800.[22] The conflict intensified in February 1801 when Oomaithurai and Sevathurai, brothers of the executed Kattabomman Nayak, escaped from Palayamkottai fort, rallying dissident poligars and peasants against British garrisons in Tirunelveli and adjacent districts.[23][19] Oomaithurai's forces allied with the Marudu Pandiyar brothers—Periya Marudu and Chinna Marudu—who ruled Sivagangai and commanded a confederacy encompassing poligars from Madurai, Ramnad, and other southern territories, forming what some contemporaries and later historians termed the South Indian Rebellion due to its multi-district scope and appeals to regional solidarity.[24] The Marudus issued a proclamation in mid-1801, framing the uprising as a defense of Hindu customs, temples, and local governance against "foreign" interference, which drew support from zamindars, ryots, and bandit groups employing guerrilla tactics suited to the area's hills and jungles.[25] British responses involved coordinated expeditions led by officers such as Major David Forbes and Colonel William Macleod, who deployed sepoys and artillery to besiege poligar forts, including Panchalankurichi in May 1801, where Oomaithurai's stronghold fell after prolonged resistance.[26] The war's decisive phase concluded with the capture of the Marudu brothers in late 1801; they were tried by a British tribunal for rebellion and executed by hanging on October 24, 1801, at Tiruppathur, alongside allies like Angre Kethi.[27] Oomaithurai evaded capture initially, continuing raids until his execution in 1805, but the core uprising collapsed by early 1802.[2] The Carnatic Treaty signed on July 31, 1801, between the British and the Nawab of Arcot ceded subsidiary territories directly to Company control, enabling the systematic replacement of poligar intermediaries with revenue collectors and fort demolitions to prevent future strongholds. This suppression liquidated poligar influence in southern India, shifting administration toward centralized British oversight, though it fueled long-term agrarian discontent.[19]Third Polygar War (1805)
The Third Polygar War erupted in 1805 as a localized yet persistent guerrilla campaign against British East India Company rule, primarily in the Kongu Nadu region encompassing modern-day Coimbatore and surrounding districts. Led by Dheeran Chinnamalai, the polygar (palaiyakkarar) of Sivagiri, the conflict arose from lingering grievances over the abolition of the polygar system via the Carnatic Treaty of 1801, which transferred direct revenue collection and administrative control to the Company, imposing fixed tribute demands that many chieftains deemed excessive and disruptive to local autonomy.[2][9] Chinnamalai, who had allied with earlier rebels like the Marudu brothers during the preceding conflicts, refused submission and mobilized around 1,000 fighters, exploiting the area's rocky hills and forests for hit-and-run ambushes on British supply lines and outposts.[28] British forces, under regional commanders including Major Bannerman's successors, responded with systematic sweeps, offering rewards for intelligence and leveraging local informants to counter the insurgents' mobility. Key events included Chinnamalai's raids near Coimbatore in early 1805, which temporarily disrupted Company tax collections, followed by intensified patrols that confined rebels to remote strongholds. Betrayal by his nephew Krishna Nayak, who disclosed hideouts for a British reward, led to Chinnamalai's capture near Sankagiri in July 1805; he was tried summarily for rebellion and hanged atop Sankagiri Fort on July 31, 1805, alongside aides, effectively dismantling the uprising's leadership.[19][28] The war's brevity—spanning mere months—reflected the exhaustion of polygar resources after prior defeats, with British numerical superiority (deploying sepoy battalions totaling several thousand) and artillery overwhelming scattered resistance. Casualties were limited compared to earlier phases, with estimates of dozens of rebels killed in skirmishes and fewer British losses due to defensive tactics, though exact figures remain unrecorded in primary accounts.[22] The outcome solidified Company dominance, as surviving poligars were disarmed, their forts razed or garrisoned, and lands integrated into ryotwari systems, eradicating the feudal palayam structure across Tamil Nadu by mid-1805.[9] This suppression, while militarily decisive, highlighted the causal role of revenue centralization in fueling protracted local defiance, as poligars' traditional tribute-based obligations clashed irreconcilably with British permanent assessments.[2]Military Dynamics
British Strategies and Polygar Tactics
The British East India Company forces primarily relied on conventional warfare tactics, deploying disciplined sepoys in formed infantry lines supported by cavalry and heavy artillery to conduct sieges against Polygar strongholds.[29] In key engagements, such as those in the Second Polygar War (1800–1801), commanders like Colonel Campbell erected breaching batteries and improvised towers mounting two or more guns to target fort walls, enabling bombardment that overcame stone defenses.[30] Blockades supplemented direct assaults, aiming to exhaust defenders through encirclement and supply denial when terrain hindered rapid advances.[30] Once forts fell, British units transitioned to extended jungle expeditions, methodically clearing rebel-held areas despite high attrition from disease, ambushes, and logistical strains in forested southern India.[22] Polygar forces, comprising lightly armed peons (irregular infantry), horsemen, and local levies, initially anchored defenses in hill forts like Panchalankurichi and Sivaganga, exploiting elevated positions and narrow access routes for prolonged resistance.[3] Facing British cannon fire that breached walls—prompting leaders such as Dheeran Chinnamalai to evacuate strongholds in 1805—Polygars shifted to guerrilla operations, dispersing into jungles and ghats for hit-and-run raids on convoys and outposts.[10] The Marudhu brothers, prominent in the Second War, mastered such asymmetric tactics, using terrain familiarity for ambushes while avoiding open-field confrontations, and innovated weapons like the valari (a curved throwing blade) to disrupt enemy formations at range.[31] This mobility inflicted ongoing attrition on British columns but proved unsustainable against coordinated sweeps and local betrayals that exposed hideouts.[22]British superiority in firepower and logistics ultimately prevailed, as Polygar armies—lacking unified command and heavy ordnance—could not match sustained operations, though their raids delayed subjugation and raised costs, with campaigns extending over months in 1800–1801.[32] Post-victory, the Company demolished captured forts to prevent refortification, enforcing demilitarization across the region.[33]
Role of Alliances and Local Forces
The rebellious Polygars frequently formed coalitions to challenge British authority, leveraging mutual support to coordinate resistance across southern India. During the Second Polygar War (1800–1801), the Maruthu Pandiyar brothers of Sivaganga orchestrated a broad alliance encompassing multiple Polygar leaders, including Oomaithurai of Panchalankurichi and Dheeran Chinnamalai of Kongu Nadu, alongside figures like Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, aiming to unite disaffected local rulers against Company revenue impositions.[31][10] This confederacy issued proclamations, such as the 1801 Tiruchirappalli appeal, urging peasant mobilization and framing the conflict as a defense of indigenous sovereignty, though internal divisions limited its cohesion.[10] In response, the British East India Company employed a divide-and-rule approach to fracture Polygar unity, offering amnesty and zamindari privileges—tax-collection rights without military autonomy—to those who submitted, thereby isolating rebels.[19] This tactic succeeded in securing loyalty from several Polygars, whose forces were then deployed as auxiliaries against holdouts; for instance, compliant chieftains provided intelligence and troops that aided sieges, such as the May 1801 assault on Sivaganga.[19][22] By exploiting rivalries over tribute and territory, the Company prevented a sustained pan-regional front, as evidenced by the piecemeal surrender of forts following Kattabomman's execution in October 1799.[22] Local forces underpinned both sides' military efforts, with Polygar armies comprising irregular peons, cavalry, and peasant levies numbering up to several thousand per chieftain, emphasizing guerrilla ambushes in hilly terrain over conventional battles.[3] These troops, armed with muskets, spears, and limited artillery from prior Mysore alliances, enabled prolonged harassment of British supply lines but faltered against disciplined sepoy infantry and rockets.[34] British reliance on local auxiliaries supplemented their 10,000–15,000-strong expeditionary forces, incorporating loyal Polygar militia for reconnaissance and fort assaults, which proved decisive in suppressing dispersed strongholds by 1805.[35]Key Participants
British Commanders and Policies
Major John Bannerman led British forces during the First Polygar War, initiating operations after the fall of Seringapatam in May 1799 and overseeing the capture of Veerapandya Kattabomman at Panchalankurichi in October 1799.[30] Bannerman's expedition involved coordinated assaults on Polygar strongholds, leveraging superior artillery and infantry to overcome fortified positions in the Tirunelveli region.[30] In the ensuing Second Polygar War, British commanders responded to Polygar raids, such as the 1800 bombing of Coimbatore barracks, by deploying reinforced detachments to dismantle rebel confederacies led by figures like the Marudu brothers, culminating in surrenders by May 1801.[36] The East India Company's overarching policies toward the Polygars stemmed from efforts to centralize revenue extraction following the Carnatic Wars, demanding fixed tribute payments that encroached on traditional Polygar rights to collect and retain taxes from cultivators as military feudatories.[14] These measures disregarded local customs of armed autonomy, viewing Polygars as obstacles to efficient administration and fiscal stability.[37] Post-victory reforms under the Carnatic Treaty of 31 July 1801 transferred civil and military authority to the Company, disarming surviving Polygars, demolishing over 70 forts, and converting their estates into zamindaris limited to revenue collection without peons or military retainers.[10] [9] Administrators like Thomas Munro, serving in the Ceded Districts, enforced hard-line containment by resettling revenues directly with ryots, bypassing Polygar intermediaries to prevent resurgence, as seen in the Third Polygar War's suppression by 1805.[37] [38] This approach prioritized empirical revenue yields over feudal hierarchies, reflecting a causal shift from decentralized warrior economies to Company-directed fiscal control, though it provoked repeated resistance due to abrupt erosion of Polygar legitimacy.[37]Prominent Polygar Leaders
Veerapandiya Kattabomman, ruler of the Panchalankurichi palayam from around 1760 until his death, emerged as the primary leader of the First Polygar War in 1799.[1] He refused British demands for tribute payment and formal submission of authority, viewing them as encroachments on local autonomy established under prior Nayak and Mughal arrangements.[14] Tensions escalated when Kattabomman killed a British officer sent to enforce compliance, prompting a British expedition that razed his fort at Panchalankurichi.[1] Betrayed by a local ally, he was captured and publicly hanged on October 16, 1799, in Tirunelveli, marking the suppression of the initial phase of resistance but inspiring subsequent revolts.[1][14] The Marudu brothers—Periya Marudhu and Chinna Marudhu—chieftains of the Sivaganga estate, led much of the Second Polygar War from 1800 to 1801.[14] They provided refuge to Kattabomman's surviving kin, including his brother Oomaithurai, and coordinated a broader alliance of polygars against British revenue enforcement and disarmament policies.[31] Employing guerrilla tactics, they contested British advances in coordination with figures like Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, but were ultimately defeated following the fall of Panchalankurichi in May 1801.[1][31] The brothers were captured and executed by hanging on October 24, 1801, at Tiruppathur, effectively dismantling the core of organized Polygar opposition in the region.[2][31] Dheeran Chinnamalai, polygar of the Kongu Nadu region (western Tamil Nadu), played a key role in the Second Polygar War and spearheaded the Third in 1805.[14] A former commander in the Mysore army under Tipu Sultan, he rejected British tax impositions and mounted guerrilla campaigns, defeating British forces at battles including those near the Cauvery River in 1801 and Arachalur in 1804.[39] Operating from hill forts, Chinnamalai sustained resistance until betrayed and captured; he was executed by hanging on July 31, 1805, at Sankagiri Fort alongside his brothers and aides, ending the final major Polygar uprising.[40][39]Outcomes
Suppression and Administrative Changes
Following the suppression of the Second Polygar War in 1801, the British East India Company formalized direct control over southern Indian territories through the Carnatic Treaty signed on 31 July 1801 with the Nawab of Arcot, Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah. This agreement ceded districts including North Arcot, South Arcot, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai, and Tirunelveli to Company administration, effectively dismantling the Polygar system's semi-autonomous structure that had persisted since the 16th century under Nayak and Mughal overlords.[41] [27] Rebellious Polygars faced land confiscation, with their estates auctioned or converted into government-managed khas lands, while loyal chieftains were often pensioned or demilitarized, reduced to mere revenue collectors without independent military forces.[42] This restructuring eliminated intermediate power centers that had previously obstructed centralized revenue extraction and troop requisitions, enabling systematic governance across the Madras Presidency.[43] Administrative reforms emphasized direct revenue assessment and collection to supplant the Polygar tribute (peshkash) model, which had proven unreliable amid frequent revolts. The Company introduced board of revenue oversight in affected districts, conducting surveys to classify lands and fix assessments on cultivators rather than chieftains, laying groundwork for the ryotwari system formalized later under Thomas Munro.[19] By 1802–1805, disarmament policies restricted Polygar arms possession, complemented by fortified collectorates and subsidiary alliances that integrated local forces into Company service, thereby preventing resurgence of feudal autonomy.[27] These changes prioritized fiscal stability, with revenue demands escalating to fund military campaigns, though initial implementations faced resistance from displaced intermediaries and ryots burdened by higher fixed assessments.[41] The Third Polygar War's conclusion in 1805 reinforced these transformations, as surviving chieftains like those in Tinnevelly were subdued, their territories fully annexed, and administrative districts reorganized under collector supervision. This culminated in the liquidation of Polygar authority across Tamil Nadu, transitioning the region from fragmented palayams to a unified bureaucratic framework that enhanced Company sovereignty but eroded traditional local governance.[19] [44]Casualties, Executions, and Reprisals
In the Second Polygar War, British casualties remained relatively low amid guerrilla engagements and sieges, reflecting superior firepower and organization. One notable incident involved an ambush where four European officers were killed and one native officer wounded. Polygar forces suffered heavier losses in pitched battles; for example, during operations against Outamalee and Pulitaver, approximately 200–300 troops were killed, including the Polygar of Outamalee, who had both legs severed by cannon fire, and the commander of Pulitaver's army.[45][20] Executions followed the capture of key leaders as a means of deterring further resistance. Oomaithurai, brother of the executed Polygar Kattabomman, along with the Maruthu Pandiyan brothers and their sons, were hanged on 16 November 1801 at Tirupathur. Seventy-three of their followers were also publicly executed by hanging in the aftermath. These acts targeted rebel command structures to consolidate British authority over southern poligars.[36] The Third Polygar War saw similar reprisals, culminating in the betrayal and capture of Dheeran Chinnamalai, who was hanged at Sankagiri Fort on 31 July 1805. British policies extended beyond executions to include the razing of forts like Panchalankurichi and the deposition or banishment of surviving poligars, effectively dismantling their military autonomy and imposing direct revenue collection.[46]Legacy and Interpretations
Economic and Political Impacts
The suppression of the Polygar Wars (1799–1805) marked a pivotal consolidation of British authority in southern India, eliminating the semi-autonomous poligar chieftains who had previously maintained fortified palayams and collected tribute under nominal suzerainty. This shift dismantled the decentralized feudal structure, transforming surviving poligars into subordinate zamindars obligated to remit fixed revenues to the East India Company without military prerogatives, thereby centralizing political power within the Madras Presidency administration.[9][10] The British victory secured key territories in Tirunelveli, Madurai, and Ramanathapuram districts, preventing further localized resistance and facilitating the extension of Company rule over fragmented principalities that had resisted integration since the Carnatic Wars.[2] Economically, the wars' aftermath prompted the abolition of the poligar tribute system, which had relied on chieftains for revenue intermediation, and its replacement with direct assessments under emerging ryotwari principles. Administrators such as Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras from 1820, leveraged the post-suppression pacification to implement ryotwari settlements, whereby land revenue was fixed directly with individual ryots (peasant cultivators) based on periodic surveys, aiming to enhance fiscal efficiency but often imposing higher demands—up to half the gross produce in some areas—compared to prior arrangements.[47][2] This reform altered traditional land tenures, disrupting irrigation projects and local credit networks previously maintained by poligars, while enabling the Company to extract greater surpluses for colonial expansion, though it exacerbated peasant indebtedness in rain-fed districts.[11] Politically, the conflicts underscored the East India Company's transition from commercial entity to territorial sovereign, as the defeat of poligar coalitions justified expanded military garrisons and collectorates, fostering a bureaucratic framework that prioritized revenue stability over indigenous hierarchies.[41] The execution of leaders like Kattabomman Nayak in 1799 and Oomaithurai in 1801 served as deterrent spectacles, eroding residual loyalties to pre-colonial Nayak and Maratha overlords, and aligning local elites with British paramountcy through co-optation or marginalization.[10] This consolidation reduced the incidence of palayam-based insurgencies, allowing resources to be redirected toward frontier campaigns, such as against Tipu Sultan, and laying groundwork for uniform legal codes across the presidency.[2]Historiographical Perspectives and Debates
Colonial-era British historiography portrayed the Polygar Wars as essential campaigns to subdue anarchic local chieftains who impeded the East India Company's efforts to establish orderly revenue administration following the defeat of Tipu Sultan in 1799. Official reports, including those from Major John Bannerman's 1801 expedition against southern Polygars, emphasized the rebels' disruption of tribute payments and alliances with French or Mysore remnants, justifying harsh reprisals as necessary for regional stability and fiscal reform.[48] In post-independence Indian scholarship, the wars were reframed as early manifestations of anti-colonial resistance, with Polygar leaders like Veerapandiya Kattabomman mythologized as folk heroes embodying Tamil defiance against imperial overreach. Regional narratives and some historians positioned the conflicts—particularly the Second Polygar War of 1800–1805—as the inaugural organized uprising against British rule in India, predating the 1857 Rebellion and symbolizing indigenous martial traditions against foreign subjugation.[1] Modern interpretations adopt a more granular approach, viewing Polygar actions through the lens of contested moral authority and adaptive local power struggles rather than proto-nationalism. Scholars argue that the Polygars invoked traditional kingship ideals to legitimize guerrilla warfare and fort-based defenses, resisting not abstract colonialism but tangible erosions of autonomy, such as the conversion of in-kind tributes (e.g., elephants, grain) to fixed cash peeshcush under the Permanent Settlement influences.[42] This perspective highlights causal factors like post-1792 treaty vacuums and inter-Polygar divisions, where submission by some (e.g., via subsidiary alliances) contrasted with rebellion by others allied to Tipu, underscoring pragmatic feudal defense over ideological unity.[32] Debates persist on the wars' character: nationalist accounts risk romanticizing fragmented revolts as cohesive freedom struggles, potentially overlooking economic self-interest and intra-elite violence, while revisionist analyses stress insurgency dynamics that inadvertently fortified British coercive institutions through exile and transportation of 73 surviving Polygars to Penang in 1801. Primary archival evidence, including Board Collections from 1798–1826, reveals Polygar self-justifications rooted in dharmic legitimacy rather than modern sovereignty claims, challenging overemphasis on anti-colonial teleology in favor of context-specific resistance to centralization.[42]References
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Military_Transactions_of_the_British_Nation_in_Indostan/Volume_2/Book_8