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Key Information

The Smithsonian Institution (/smɪθˈsoʊniən/ smith-SOH-nee-ən; or simply the Smithsonian) is a group of museums, education and research centers, created by the United States federal government "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge".[2][3][4] Founded on August 10, 1846, it operates as a trust instrumentality[5] and is not formally a part of any of the three branches of the federal government.[6] The institution is named after its founding donor, British scientist James Smithson.[7] It was originally organized as the United States National Museum, but that name ceased to exist administratively in 1967.[8]

The Smithsonian Institution has historical holdings of over 157 million items,[9] 21 museums, 21 libraries, 14 education and research centers, a zoo, and historical and architectural landmarks, mostly located in Washington, D.C.[7][10][4] Additional facilities are located in Maryland, New York, and Virginia. More than 200 institutions and museums in 47 states,[note 1] Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates.[11][12] Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines.

Almost all of the institution's 30 million annual visitors[13] are admitted without charge,[4] the exception being visitors to Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City, which charges an admissions fee.[14] The Smithsonian's annual budget is around $1.25 billion, with two-thirds coming from annual federal appropriations.[15] Other funding comes from the institution's endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, and licensing revenue.[7] As of 2023, the institution's endowment had a total value of about $2.4 billion.[16]

Founding

[edit]
"The Castle" (built 1847) in April 1865.
"The Castle" on the National Mall: the institution's earliest building remains its headquarters.

In many ways, the origin of the Smithsonian Institution can be traced to a group of Washington citizens who, being "impressed with the importance of forming an association for promoting useful knowledge," met on June 28, 1816, to establish the Columbian Institute for the Promotion of Arts and Sciences. Officers were elected in October 1816, and the organization was granted a charter by Congress on April 20, 1818 (this charter expired in 1838). Benjamin Latrobe, who was architect for the US Capitol after the War of 1812, and William Thornton, the architect who designed the Octagon House and Tudor Place, served as officers. Other prominent members, who numbered from 30 to 70 during the institute's existence, included John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, Judge William Cranch, and James Hoban. Honorary members included James Madison, James Monroe, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and the Marquis de Lafayette. Operating expenses were covered from the $5 yearly dues collected from each member.

The institute proposed a number of undertakings. These included the study of plant life and the creation of a botanical garden on the National Mall, an examination of the country's mineral production, improvement in the management and care of livestock, and the writing of a topographical and statistical history of the United States. Reports were to be published periodically to share this knowledge with the greater public, but due to a lack of funds, this initially did not occur. The institute first met in Blodget's Hotel, later in the Treasury Department and City Hall, before being assigned a permanent home in 1824 in the Capitol building.

Beginning in 1825, weekly sittings were arranged during sessions of Congress for the reading of scientific and literary productions, but this was continued for only a short time, as the number attending declined rapidly. Eighty-five communications by 26 people were made to Congress during the entire life of the society, with more than a half relating to astronomy or mathematics. Among all the activities planned by the institute, only a few were actually implemented. Two were the establishment of a botanical garden, and a museum that was designed to have a national and permanent status. The former occupied space where the present Botanic Garden sits.

The museum contained specimens of zoology, botany, archeology, fossils, etc., some of which were passed on to the Smithsonian Institution after its formation. The institute's charter expired in 1838, but its spirit lived on in the National Institution, founded in 1840. With the mission to "promote science and the useful arts, and to establish a national museum of natural history," this organization continued to press Congress to establish a museum that would be structured in terms that were very similar to those finally incorporated into the founding of the Smithsonian Institution. Its work helped to develop an underlying philosophy that pushed for the pursuit and development of scientific knowledge that would benefit the nation, and edify its citizens at the same time.[17]

The British scientist James Smithson (1765–1829) left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford. When Hungerford died childless in 1835,[18] the estate passed "to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge among men", in accordance with Smithson's will.[19] Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1, 1836.[20] The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest. Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. This is approximately $500,000 at the time, which is equivalent to $15,000,000 in 2024 or equivalent to £12,000,000 in 2023. However, when considering the GDP at the time it may be more comparable to $220 million in the year 2007.[21][22]

Once the money was in hand, eight years of congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithson's rather vague mandate "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge."[20][22] The money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas, which soon defaulted. After heated debate, Massachusetts representative (and former president) John Quincy Adams persuaded Congress to restore the lost funds with interest[23] and, despite designs on the money for other purposes, convinced his colleagues to preserve it for an institution of science and learning.[24] Finally, on August 10, 1846, President James K. Polk signed the legislation that established the Smithsonian Institution as a trust instrumentality of the United States, to be administered by a Board of Regents and a secretary of the Smithsonian.[20][25]

Development

[edit]

Though the Smithsonian's first secretary, Joseph Henry, wanted the institution to be a center for scientific research,[26] it also became the depository for various Washington and U.S. government collections.[27] The United States Exploring Expedition by the U.S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842.[28] The voyage amassed thousands of animal specimens, an herbarium of 50,000 plant specimens, and diverse shells and minerals, tropical birds, jars of seawater, and ethnographic artifacts from the South Pacific Ocean.[28] These specimens and artifacts became part of the Smithsonian collections,[29] as did those collected by several military and civilian surveys of the American West, including the Mexican Boundary Survey and Pacific Railroad Surveys, which assembled many Native American artifacts and natural history specimens.[30]

In 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation; in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research.[31] The institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, who formed a group called the Megatherium Club.[32] The Smithsonian played a critical role as the US partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba.[33]

Museums and buildings

[edit]
The Smithsonian Institution area around the National Mall.

Construction began on the Smithsonian Institution Building ("the Castle") in 1849. Designed by architect James Renwick Jr., its interiors were completed by general contractor Gilbert Cameron. The building opened in 1855.[34]

The Smithsonian's first expansion came with the construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881. Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, based on original plans developed by Major General Montgomery C. Meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. It opened in 1881.[35]

A school field trip to the Smithsonian Institution, c. 1900

The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonian's Department of Living Animals.[36] The park was designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted.[36]

The National Museum of Natural History opened in June 1911 to similarly accommodate the Smithsonian's United States National Museum, which had previously been housed in the Castle and then the Arts and Industries Building.[37] This structure was designed by the D.C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall.[38]

When Detroit philanthropist Charles Lang Freer donated his private collection to the Smithsonian and funds to build the museum to hold it (which was named the Freer Gallery), it was among the Smithsonian's first major donations from a private individual.[39] The gallery opened in 1923.[40]

More than 40 years would pass before the next museum, the Museum of History and Technology (renamed the National Museum of American History in 1980), opened in 1964. It was designed by the world-renowned firm of McKim, Mead & White.[41] The Anacostia Community Museum, an "experimental store-front" museum created at the initiative of Smithsonian Secretary S. Dillon Ripley, opened in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in 1967.[42][43][44] That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration (now the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum).[45] The National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building (built in 1867) on October 7, 1968.[46][47] The reuse of an older building continued with the opening of the Renwick Gallery in 1972 in the 1874 Renwick-designed art gallery originally built by local philanthropist William Wilson Corcoran to house the Corcoran Gallery of Art.[48]

The first new museum building to open since the National Museum of History and Technology was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, which opened in 1974.[49] The National Air and Space Museum, the Smithsonian's largest in terms of floor space, opened in June 1976.[50]

Eleven years later, the National Museum of African Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery opened in a new, joint, underground museum between the Freer Gallery and the Smithsonian Castle.[51][52][53] Reuse of another old building came in 1993 with the opening of the National Postal Museum in the 1904 former City Post Office building, a few city blocks from the Mall.[54]

In 2004, the Smithsonian opened the National Museum of the American Indian in a new building near the United States Capitol.[55] Twelve years later almost to the day, in 2016, the latest museum opened: the National Museum of African American History and Culture, in a new building near the Washington Monument.[56]

Two more museums have been established and are being planned for eventual construction on the Mall: the National Museum of the American Latino and the Smithsonian American Women's History Museum.

Capital campaigns

[edit]

In 2011, the Smithsonian undertook its first-ever capital fundraising campaign.[57] The $1.5 billion effort raised $1 billion at the three-year mark. Smithsonian officials made the campaign public in October 2014 in an effort to raise the remaining $500 million. More than 60,000 individuals and organizations donated money to the campaign by the time it went public.[58] This included 192 gifts of at least $1 million.[58] Members of the boards of directors of various Smithsonian museums donated $372 million.[58] The Smithsonian said that funds raised would go toward completion of the National Museum of African American History and Culture building, and renovations of the National Air and Space Museum, National Museum of American History, and the Renwick Gallery.[58] A smaller amount of funds would go to educational initiatives and digitization of collections.[58] As of September 2017, the Smithsonian claimed to have raised $1.79 billion, with three months left in the formal campaign calendar.[59]

Separately from the major capital campaign, the Smithsonian has begun fundraising through Kickstarter.[60] An example is a campaign to fund the preservation and maintenance of the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland for her role as Dorothy Gale in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.[61]

Museums

[edit]
Main article: List of Smithsonian museums

Nineteen museums and galleries, as well as the National Zoological Park, comprise the Smithsonian museums.[62] Eleven are on the National Mall, the park that runs between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol. Other museums are located elsewhere in Washington, D.C., with two more in New York City and one in Chantilly, Virginia.

Aircraft on display at the National Air and Space Museum, including a Ford Trimotor and Douglas DC-3 (top and second from top)
Institution[62] Type of collection Location[63] Opened Ref.
Anacostia Community Museum African American culture Washington, D.C.
Anacostia 		1967 [64]
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery (affiliated with the Freer Gallery) Asian art Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1987 [65]
Arts and Industries Building Special event venue Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1881 [66]
Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum Design history New York City
Museum Mile 		1897 [67]
Freer Gallery of Art (affiliated with the Sackler Gallery) Asian art Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1923 [65]
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden Contemporary and modern art Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1974 [68]
National Air and Space Museum Aviation and spaceflight history Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1946,
1976[note 2] 		[69]
National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center Aviation and spaceflight history Chantilly, Virginia 2003 [70]
National Museum of African American History and Culture African-American history and culture Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		2003,
2016[note 2] 		[71][72]
National Museum of African Art African art Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1964,
1987[note 2] 		[73]
National Museum of American History American history Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1964 [74]
National Museum of the American Indian Native American history and art Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		2004 [75][76]
National Museum of the American Indian's George Gustav Heye Center Native American history and art New York City
Bowling Green 		1994 [75][77]
National Museum of Natural History Natural history Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1858,
1911[note 2] 		[78]
National Portrait Gallery Portraiture Washington, D.C.
Penn Quarter 		1968 [79][80]
National Postal Museum United States Postal Service; postal history; philately Washington, D.C.
NoMa 		1993 [81]
Renwick Gallery American craft and decorative arts Washington, D.C.
Lafayette Square 		1972 [82]
Smithsonian American Art Museum American art Washington, D.C.
Penn Quarter 		1968 [82]
Smithsonian Institution Building (The Castle) Visitor center and offices Washington, D.C.
National Mall 		1855 [83]
National Zoological Park (National Zoo) Zoo Washington, D.C.
Rock Creek Park 		1889 [84]
Smithsonian American Women's History Museum Women's history Washington, D.C.
2020[note 3] [85]
National Museum of the American Latino Hispanic and Latino Americans Washington, D.C.
2020[note 3] [85]

The Smithsonian has close ties with 168 other museums in 39 states, Panama, and Puerto Rico.[62] These museums are known as Smithsonian Affiliated museums. Collections of artifacts are given to these museums in the form of long-term loans. The Smithsonian also has a large number of traveling exhibitions, operated through the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service (SITES).[86] In 2008, 58 of these traveling exhibitions went to 510 venues across the country.[62]

Collections

[edit]

Smithsonian collections include 156 million artworks, artifacts, and specimens. The National Museum of Natural History houses 145 million of these specimens and artifacts, which are mostly animals preserved in formaldehyde. The Collections Search Center has 9.9 million digital records available online. The Smithsonian Institution Libraries hold 2 million library volumes. Smithsonian Archives hold 156,830 cubic feet (4,441 m3) of archival material.[87][88]

The Smithsonian Institution has many categories of displays that can be visited at the museums. In 1912, First Lady Helen Herron Taft donated her inauguration gown to the museum to begin the First Ladies' Gown display at the National Museum of American History,[89] one of the Smithsonian's most popular exhibits.[90] The museum displays treasures such as the Star-Spangled Banner, the stove pipe hat that was worn by President Abraham Lincoln, the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in The Wizard Of Oz, and the original Teddy Bear that was named after President Theodore Roosevelt.[91] In 2016, the Smithsonian's Air & Space museum curators restored the large model Enterprise from the original Star Trek TV series.[92]

Following international debates about the decolonisation of museums and the legal and moral justifications of their acquisitions, the Smithsonian adopted a new "ethical returns policy" on April 29, 2022. This will permit the deaccession and restitution of items collected under circumstances considered unethical by contemporary standards and thus places moral over legal arguments. A month before, the Smithsonian's National Museum of African Art had announced the planned return of most of its 39 Benin Bronzes to Nigeria,[93] as well as of other cultural items to Turkey.[94]

On October 11, 2022, Benin Bronzes from the National Museum of African Art, as well as the National Gallery of Art, were formally returned to Nigerian cultural officials in a ceremony held in Washington, D.C. The Nigerian Minister of Information and Culture, Lai Mohammed, and Prince Aghatise Erediauwa, representing the Oba of Benin Kingdom, spoke at the ceremony. Mohammed said the "decision to return the timeless artworks is worth emulating."[95]

Open access

[edit]

In February 2020, the Smithsonian made 2.8 million digital items available to the public under a Creative Commons Zero Public Domain Dedication, with a commitment to release further items in the future.[96]

Research Centers

[edit]

The Smithsonian has eight research centers, located in Washington, D.C.; Front Royal, Virginia; Edgewater, Maryland; Suitland, Maryland; Fort Pierce, Florida; Cambridge, Massachusetts; and Panama.[62][97][98][99][100][101][102] Formerly two separate entities, the Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Archives merged into a single research center in 2020.[103]

Research center[62] Area of focus Location[102][98][97][100] Opened Ref.
Archives of American Art History of the visual arts in the United States Washington, D.C.
New York City 		1954
1970[note 4] 		[104]
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Astrophysics Cambridge, Massachusetts 1890 [101]
Museum Conservation Institute Conservation Suitland, Maryland 1965 [99]
Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (affiliated with the National Zoo) Veterinary medicine, reproductive physiology and conservation biology Front Royal, Virginia 1974 [100]
Smithsonian Environmental Research Center Coastal ecosystems Edgewater, Maryland 1965 [98]
Smithsonian Libraries and Archives Science, art, history and culture, and museology information and reference Washington, D.C. 1968[note 5]
2020[note 6] 		[103]
Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce (affiliated with the National Museum of Natural History) Floridian marine ecosystems and lifeforms Fort Pierce, Florida 1981
1999[note 7] 		[105]
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute Tropical ecology and its interactions with human welfare Panama 1923[note 8]
1946[note 9]
1966[note 10] 		[102]

Cultural Centers

[edit]

The Smithsonian Institution includes three cultural centers among its units:

Smithsonian Latino Center

[edit]

In 1997, the Smithsonian Latino Center was created as a way to recognize Latinos across the Smithsonian Institution. The primary purpose of the center is to place Latino contributions to the arts, history, science, and national culture across the Smithsonian's museums and research centers.[106]

The center is a division of the Smithsonian Institution.[107] As of May 2016, the center is run by an executive director, Eduardo Díaz.[108]

History

[edit]

At the time of its creation, the Smithsonian Institution had other entities dedicated to other minority groups: National Museum of the American Indian, Freer-Sackler Gallery for Asian Arts and Culture, African Art Museum, and the National Museum of African-American Heritage and Culture.[109]

The opening of the center was prompted, in part, by the publishing of a report called "Willful Neglect: The Smithsonian and U.S. Latinos".[109]

According to documents obtained by The Washington Post, when former Latino Center executive director Pilar O'Leary first took the job, the center faced employees who had "serious performance issues". No performance plans existed for the staff and unfulfilled financial obligations to sponsors existed. The website's quality was poor, and the center did not have a public affairs manager, a programs director, adequate human resources support, or cohesive mission statement.[109]

After difficult times in the first few years, the center improved. According to the Smithsonian, the center "support[s] scholarly research, exhibitions, public and educational programs, web-based content and virtual platforms, and collections and archives. [It] also manage[s] leadership and professional development programs for Latino youth, emerging scholars and museum professionals."[106] Today, the website features a high-tech virtual museum including self-guided virtual tours of past and present exhibits.[110]

Young Ambassadors Program

[edit]

The Smithsonian Latino Center's Young Ambassadors Program (YAP) is a program within the Latino Center that reaches out to Latino high school students with the goal of encouraging them to become leaders in arts, sciences, and the humanities.[111]

Students selected for the program travel to Washington, D.C. for an "enrichment seminar" that lasts approximately five days. Afterwards, students return to their communities to serve in a paid, one-month internship.[107]

Pilar O'Leary launched the program when she served as executive director of the Smithsonian Latino Center.[112] According to the Latino Center, O'Leary told the press in 2007: "Our goal is to help our Young Ambassadors become the next generation of leaders in the arts and culture fields. This program encourages students to be proud of their roots and learn more about their cultural heritage to inspire them to educate the public in their own communities about how Latinos are enriching America's cultural fabric."[107]

Publications

[edit]

The institution publishes Smithsonian magazine monthly and Air & Space Quarterly. Smithsonian was the result of Secretary of the Smithsonian S. Dillon Ripley asking the retired editor of Life magazine Edward K. Thompson to produce a magazine "about things in which the Smithsonian Institution is interested, might be interested or ought to be interested".[113] Another Secretary of the Smithsonian, Walter Boyne, founded Air & Space.[114][115] Air & Space magazine was published bimonthly from 1986 to 2022.

The organization publishes under the imprints Smithsonian Institution Press, Smithsonian Books, and Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.[116][117][118]

Awards

[edit]

The Smithsonian makes a number of awards to acknowledge and support meritorious work.

  • The James Smithson Medal, the Smithsonian Institution's highest award, was established in 1965 and is given in recognition of exceptional contributions to art, science, history, education, and technology.
  • The James Smithson Bicentennial Medal, established in 1965, is given to persons who have made distinguished contributions to the advancement of areas of interest to the Smithsonian.
  • The Hodgkins Medal, established in 1893, is awarded for important contributions to the understanding of the physical environment.
  • The Henry Medal, established in 1878, is presented to individuals in recognition of their distinguished service, achievements or contributions to the prestige and growth of the Smithsonian Institution.
  • The Langley Gold Medal is awarded for meritorious investigations in connection with aerodromics ("the science or art of flying aircraft", a 19th century term predating the powered airplane)[119] and its application to aviation.[120]

Administration

[edit]
The Smithsonian Castle doorway

The Smithsonian Institution was established as a trust instrumentality by act of Congress.[121] More than two-thirds of the Smithsonian's workforce of some 6,300 persons are employees of the federal government. The Smithsonian Institution Office of Protection Services oversees security at the Smithsonian facilities and enforces laws and regulations for National Capital Parks together with the United States Park Police.

The president's 2011 budget proposed just under $800 million in support for the Smithsonian, slightly increased from previous years. Institution exhibits are free of charge, though in 2010 the Deficit Commission recommended admission fees.[122][123]

As approved by Congress on August 10, 1846, the legislation that created the Smithsonian Institution called for the creation of a Board of Regents to govern and administer the organization.[121] This seventeen-member board meets at least four times a year and includes as ex officio members the chief justice of the United States and the vice president of the United States. The nominal head of the institution is the chancellor, an office which has traditionally been held by the chief justice. In September 2007, the board created the position of chair of the Board of Regents, a position currently held by Risa Lavizzo-Mourey.[124]

Other members of the Board of Regents are three members of the U.S. House of Representatives appointed by the speaker of the House; three members of the Senate, appointed by the president pro tempore of the Senate; and nine citizen members, nominated by the board and approved by the Congress in a joint resolution signed by the president of the United States.[125] Regents who are senators or representatives serve for the duration of their elected terms, while citizen Regents serve a maximum of two 6-year terms. Regents are compensated on a part-time basis.

The chief executive officer (CEO) of the Smithsonian is the secretary, who is appointed by the Board of Regents. The secretary also serves as secretary to the Board of Regents but is not a voting member of that body. The secretary of the Smithsonian has the privilege of the floor at the United States Senate. The fourteenth and current secretary is Lonnie Bunch, who was appointed in 2019 after serving as the founding director of the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture.[126]

Current Board of Regents

[edit]

The current board members as of August 4, 2025:[127]

Position Name Party Residence Assumed office Term expiration Appointed by
Chair Risa Lavizzo-Mourey Democratic Pennsylvania February 21, 2014 March 2, 2026 Barack Obama, Donald Trump
Vice chair Franklin Raines Democratic Washington, D.C. October 2, 2020 October 2, 2026 Donald Trump
Governor Barbara Barrett Republican Arizona January 10, 2013 September 17, 2026 Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Joe Biden
Governor Toni Bush Democratic Washington, D.C. December 21, 2023 December 21, 2029 Donald Trump
Governor John Fahey Democratic Massachusetts February 21, 2014 March 2, 2026 Barack Obama, Donald Trump
Governor Roger W. Ferguson Democratic Florida May 6, 2017 December 21, 2029 Donald Trump, Joe Biden
Governor Michael Govan Democratic California May 6, 2017 December 21, 2029 Donald Trump, Joe Biden
Governor Michael Lynton Democratic New York September 29, 2014 October 2, 2026 Barack Obama, Donald Trump
Governor Denise O'Leary Independent Colorado April 10, 2020 April 10, 2026 Donald Trump
Governor
(ex officio) 		Catherine Cortez Masto Democratic Nevada February 2, 2021 January 3, 2029 President pro tempore
Governor
(ex officio) 		Gary Peters Democratic Michigan January 24, 2023 January 3, 2027 President pro tempore
Governor
(ex officio) 		John Boozman Republican Arkansas May 21, 2015 January 3, 2029 President pro tempore
Governor
(ex officio) 		Carlos A. Giménez Republican Florida January 24, 2025 January 3, 2027 Speaker of the House
Governor
(ex officio) 		Adrian Smith Republican Nebraska April 8, 2021 January 3, 2027 Speaker of the House
Governor
(ex officio) 		Doris Matsui Democratic California January 17, 2017 January 3, 2027 Speaker of the House
Chief Justice
(ex officio) 		John Roberts Independent Maryland September 29, 2005 — George W. Bush
Vice President
(ex officio) 		JD Vance Republican Washington, D.C. January 20, 2025 January 20, 2029 —

Secretaries of the Smithsonian Institution

[edit]

The following persons have served as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution:[128]

No. Portrait Secretary Term start Term end Refs.
1 Joseph Henry 1846 May 13, 1878[a] [129]
2 Spencer Fullerton Baird May 17, 1878 August 19, 1887[a] [130][131]
acting Samuel Pierpont Langley August 19, 1887 November 18, 1887 [132]
3 November 18, 1887 February 27, 1906[a] [133][134]
acting Richard Rathbun February 27, 1906 January 24, 1907 [135]
4 Charles Doolittle Walcott January 24, 1907 February 9, 1927[a] [136][137]
acting Charles Greeley Abbot February 10, 1927 January 10, 1928 [138]
5 January 10, 1928 June 30, 1944 [139][140]
acting Alexander Wetmore July 1, 1944 January 12, 1945 [141]
6 January 13, 1945 December 31, 1952 [142]
7 Leonard Carmichael January 1, 1953 December 31, 1963 [143]
8 Sidney Dillon Ripley January 1, 1964 September 16, 1984 [144]
9 Robert McCormick Adams Jr. September 17, 1984 September 18, 1994 [145][146]
10 Ira Michael Heyman September 19, 1994 December 31, 1999 [146][147]
11 Lawrence M. Small January 1, 2000 March 26, 2007[b] [148][149]
acting Cristián Samper March 26, 2007 June 30, 2008 [150]
12 G. Wayne Clough July 1, 2008 December 31, 2014 [151][152]
acting Albert G. Horvath January 1, 2015 June 30, 2015 [153]
13 David J. Skorton July 1, 2015 June 14, 2019 [154][155][156]
14 Lonnie Bunch June 15, 2019 present [126]

Table notes:

  1. ^ a b c d Died in office
  2. ^ Forced to resign due to fiscal irregularities

Controversies

[edit]

Enola Gay display

[edit]
See also: Enola Gay exhibition controversy

In 1995, controversy arose over the exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum with the display of the Enola Gay, the Superfortress used by the United States to drop the first atomic bomb used in World War II. The American Legion and Air Force Association believed the exhibit put forward only one side of the debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and that it emphasized the effect on victims without discussing its use within the overall context of the war.[157] The Smithsonian changed the exhibit, displaying the aircraft only with associated technical data and without discussion of its historic role in the war.[158]

Censorship of Seasons of Life and Land

[edit]

In 2003, a National Museum of Natural History exhibit, Subhankar Banerjee's Seasons of Life and Land, featuring photographs of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, was censored and moved to the basement by Smithsonian officials. They were concerned that its subject matter was too politically controversial.[159]

In November 2007, The Washington Post reported internal criticism has been raised regarding the institution's handling of the exhibit on the Arctic. According to documents and e-mails, the exhibit and its associated presentation were edited at high levels to add "scientific uncertainty" regarding the nature and impact of global warming on the Arctic. Acting Secretary of the Smithsonian Cristián Samper was interviewed by the Post, and claimed the exhibit was edited because it contained conclusions that went beyond what could be proven by contemporary climatology.[160] The Smithsonian is now a participant in the U.S. Global Change Research Program.[161]

[edit]

The Smithsonian Institution provides access to its image collections for educational, scholarly, and nonprofit uses. Commercial uses are generally restricted unless permission is obtained. Smithsonian images fall into different copyright categories; some are protected by copyright, many are subject to license agreements or other contractual conditions, and some fall into the public domain, such as those prepared by Smithsonian employees as part of their official duties. The Smithsonian's terms of use for its digital content, including images, are set forth on the Smithsonian Web site.[162][163]

In April 2006, the institution entered into an agreement of "first refusal" rights for its vast silent and public domain film archives with Showtime Networks, mainly for use on the Smithsonian Channel, a network created from this deal. Critics contend this agreement effectively gives Showtime control over the film archives, as it requires filmmakers to obtain permission from the network to use extensive amounts of film footage from the Smithsonian archives.[164]

Trump executive order

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See also: Executive Order 14151, Executive Order 14168, and Executive Order 14172

On March 27, 2025, President Donald Trump signed an executive order titled "Restoring Truth and Sanity to American History", referencing the Smithsonian Institution. The order directed Vice President JD Vance, in his capacity as a member of the Smithsonian Board of Regents, to review Smithsonian content for what it described as "improper, divisive, or anti-American" ideology. As of June 2025, no official actions or institutional changes at the Smithsonian have been publicly announced in response.[165][166][167] In July 2025, "The American Presidency: A Glorious Burden" exhibit at the National Museum of American History removed a temporary label from 2021 in a section on impeachments addressing the two impeachments of Donald Trump. The Smithsonian told The Washington Post that it was done to harmonize with the rest of the section, which otherwise had not been updated since 2008, and that an updated section would cover all impeachments. A source told The Washington Post that change came as a review implemented in response to pressure from the Trump administration to remove a museum director.[168] As of August 12, 2025, the White House sent a letter to Lonnie Bunch, the Smithsonian Institution Secretary, ordering a review of all of the Smithsonian's public-facing content, including social media, text in exhibitions, and educational materials, to “assess tone, historical framing, and alignment with American ideals”.[169]

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Smithsonian Institution

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The Smithsonian Institution is the world's largest museum, education, and research complex, administered by the government and consisting of 21 museums, the National Zoological Park, and multiple research centers and facilities, most located in It was established on August 10, 1846, when President signed an creating the institution as a trust to carry out the terms of a bequest from British chemist and mineralogist (c. 1765–1829), who directed his estate toward founding in the "an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." The Smithsonian maintains collections totaling approximately 157 million objects, specimens, artworks, and artifacts, spanning , culture, science, and technology, with most facilities offering free public admission. Governed by a Board of Regents and led by a , the institution operates as a instrumentality, receiving roughly 62 percent of its funding from federal appropriations and the balance from trust endowments, private donations, and self-generated revenues. It conducts research, publishes findings, and educates millions of annual visitors—17.7 million in 2023—while digitizing collections and extending reach through digital platforms serving over 150 million unique online users yearly. Notable achievements include pioneering contributions to fields like via the and preservation of national heritage artifacts, though the institution has periodically faced controversies over exhibition content, including recent 2025 federal reviews scrutinizing interpretations of history, race, and amid accusations of ideological bias from multiple political perspectives.

History

Founding and Establishment

James Smithson (c. 1765–1829), a British chemist and mineralogist born in Paris as James Lewis Macie, was the illegitimate son of Hugh Smithson, 1st Duke of Northumberland, and Elizabeth Keate Macie. Despite his noble parentage, Smithson faced social exclusion due to his illegitimacy and pursued a career in science, publishing papers on topics such as mineral composition and chemical analysis for the Royal Society. In his will dated October 23, 1826, Smithson bequeathed his estate—valued at approximately £100,000 (equivalent to over $500,000 at the time)—to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, with a contingent clause directing the funds to the United States should the nephew die without legitimate heirs, to establish "at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge among men." Smithson died on June 27, 1829, in Genoa, Italy, and his nephew passed away childless on June 5, 1835, activating the bequest. The received formal notification of the bequest in 1835, prompting President to appoint a to investigate its legitimacy. After verification, the funds—initially in British gold sovereigns—were transferred to the U.S. Treasury in 1838, where they were reminted into American coinage totaling $508,318.13. Congressional debates ensued from 1836 to 1846, marked by contention over the institution's purpose: proposals ranged from a , agricultural school, library, or , reflecting partisan divides between advocates for practical (often Democrats) and those favoring pure scientific (often Whigs). These discussions delayed action, with some members questioning the federal government's role in accepting foreign bequests and others fearing misuse of funds. On August 10, 1846, signed "An Act to Establish the Smithsonian Institution, for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge Among Men," resolving the debates by creating a under federal oversight rather than a government department. The act established a Board of Regents, comprising the , , and cabinet secretaries ex officio, plus six senators, six representatives, and three citizens appointed by the president, tasked with governing the institution and investing its funds. It emphasized and publication over collections, prohibiting the use of funds for a library or museum unless derived from interest income. was appointed the first Secretary in December 1846, steering early efforts toward scientific inquiry, including meteorological observations and scholarly exchanges, while the Regents selected a site on the for future buildings. This foundational structure positioned the Smithsonian as an independent entity dedicated to advancing knowledge through empirical study.

19th-Century Development

Following its establishment in 1846, the Smithsonian Institution prioritized scientific research and the diffusion of knowledge under the leadership of its first , , who served from December 1846 until his death in 1878. Henry, a renowned for his work on , directed resources toward fostering original investigations rather than amassing collections, establishing a network of volunteer observers to collect meteorological data across the , which laid the groundwork for systematic weather reporting and forecasting. This initiative involved coordinating daily observations from over 600 stations by the 1860s, contributing to early understandings of atmospheric phenomena through published annual reports. The completion of the , known as the , in February 1855 marked a significant infrastructural milestone, constructed at a cost of $318,727.01 in Norman Revival style from red sandstone to house administrative functions, a , and initial exhibits. In June 1857, designated the Smithsonian as the National Museum, transferring federal collections of art, , and curiosities to its care and providing annual appropriations starting at $5,000 for maintenance and growth. Under Henry, the Institution also initiated international exchanges of publications and specimens, building a foundational that by 1878 held over 40,000 volumes focused on scientific periodicals. The tenure of second Secretary , from May 1878 to 1887, shifted emphasis toward museum development and collections, reflecting Baird's expertise as an ornithologist and ichthyologist. As since 1850, Baird had already expanded holdings from approximately 6,000 specimens to over 2 million by the late 1870s through field expeditions and acquisitions, including surveys that informed of the U.S. Fish Commission in 1871. In March 1879, the was founded with a $20,000 appropriation under Major to document indigenous cultures systematically. The Arts and Industries Building opened in 1881, serving as the new home for the National Museum and exemplifying Victorian while accommodating growing exhibits from the 1876 . Under third Secretary , appointed in November 1887, the Institution advanced astrophysical research with the establishment of the Astrophysical Observatory in March 1890, equipped for solar radiation studies using precision instruments south of the . In April 1891, the National Zoological Park opened in Rock Creek Valley on 163 acres, emphasizing live animal exhibits for public education and conservation, with initial collections of over 300 species sourced from government and private donations. These developments solidified the Smithsonian's dual role in research and public access, with collections surpassing 3 million items by century's end, supported by increasing federal funding that rose from $30,000 annually in the 1880s to over $200,000 by 1900.

20th-Century Expansion

Under Secretary Charles D. Walcott (1907–1927), the Smithsonian completed construction of the building, which opened to the public on March 17, 1910, providing dedicated space for its growing natural science collections. Walcott's administration also secured the opening of the in 1923, the first Smithsonian museum dedicated to Asian art, funded by industrialist and housing his extensive collection of over 9,000 works. These developments marked early 20th-century efforts to accommodate expanding holdings, with federal appropriations increasing to support infrastructure and research initiatives, including field expeditions that bolstered paleontological and geological specimens. The and constrained growth under Secretary Charles G. Abbot (1928–1944), who prioritized Astrophysical Observatory operations amid reduced funding, though collections continued incremental acquisitions. further challenged the institution, with staff reductions, exhibit closures for preparations, and relocation of vulnerable artifacts to secure sites, while Smithsonian expertise aided military efforts in areas like aviation history and natural resources. Postwar recovery under Alexander Wetmore (1945–1953) initiated planning for major facilities, including congressional authorization of the in 1946 and establishment of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in 1946 to advance studies. The most extensive expansion occurred under Secretary S. Dillon Ripley (1964–1984), who oversaw the addition of eight museums and seven research facilities, transforming the Smithsonian into a . Key openings included the Anacostia Community Museum in 1967 focusing on local , the in 1972 for American crafts, the in 1974 showcasing , and the in 1976, which drew over 5 million visitors in its first year and housed pioneering aircraft and spacecraft. Ripley's tenure emphasized international collaborations and public outreach, with collections growing to encompass millions more artifacts through acquisitions and expeditions, supported by rising federal budgets that reflected Cold War-era emphasis on scientific and cultural prestige. This era solidified the Smithsonian's role as a comprehensive repository, with total holdings expanding dramatically from earlier 20th-century baselines to over 100 million items by the 1980s.

21st-Century Growth and Challenges

The Smithsonian Institution expanded its footprint in the early with the opening of the National Museum of African American History and Culture on September 24, 2016, which quickly became one of its most visited facilities, drawing over 1 million visitors in its first year. Plans for further growth advanced, including site identifications in October 2022 for the proposed National Museum of the American Latino and the Smithsonian American Women's History Museum on federal land near the . Annual visitation peaked at around 30 million in fiscal years prior to the , reflecting sustained public interest, though numbers declined to 17.7 million in 2023 and 16.8 million in 2024 amid lingering pandemic effects and operational constraints. Federal appropriations supporting operations grew from approximately $665 million in total budget for 2001 (with 57% from direct federal sources) to $1.09 billion in federal funding for 2024, supplemented by private contributions and enterprise revenues to reach overall spending of $1.42 billion. The institution's collections expanded to over 157 million items, bolstered by initiatives aimed at broader . Leadership transitions marked periods of instability, beginning with Lawrence M. Small's resignation on March 26, 2007, following an revealing $90,000 in unauthorized personal expenses, including private jet travel and club memberships charged to the institution. His successor, G. Wayne Clough (2008–2014), encountered backlash for decisions such as the 2010 removal of a video from the National Portrait Gallery's "Hide/Seek" exhibition after congressional complaints over its depiction of ants crawling on a , a move criticized as yielding to . Financial pressures compounded operational difficulties, including a $42 million cut from federal funding due to sequestration in 2013, which strained facilities maintenance and contributed to a backlog of deferred repairs estimated in the hundreds of millions. Content-related controversies emerged, notably in July 2020 when the National Museum of African American History and Culture published an online listing traits such as hard work, rational linear thinking, and the as "aspects and assumptions of whiteness," drawing accusations of stereotyping normative values as racially pathological; the material was promptly removed amid public outcry. By 2025, external scrutiny intensified with a White House-directed review of Smithsonian exhibitions, targeting perceived imbalances such as an overemphasis on and racial division in displays like those at the , prompting debates over curatorial objectivity and the influence of ideologically driven scholarship from academia. These challenges highlight tensions between the institution's federal mandate for public education and pressures to prioritize empirically grounded narratives over interpretive frameworks that critics argue distort causal historical realities.

Facilities and Collections

Museums and Galleries

The Smithsonian Institution operates 21 museums and galleries, complemented by the National Zoological Park, collectively safeguarding approximately 155 million artifacts, specimens, and objects spanning , American culture, science, and . These venues are concentrated in , with 17 facilities situated on or adjacent to the , alongside others in (such as the ), Virginia (including the ), and Maryland. Admission remains free to nearly all sites, fostering broad public access and drawing 16.8 million in-person visitors in , alongside over 150 million unique online engagements that year. The museums are organized thematically to advance public understanding through empirical exhibits grounded in scientific and historical evidence. Science and collections dominate in scale, exemplified by the , which opened on March 17, 1910, as the United States National Museum and now houses extensive holdings in paleontology, mineralogy, and anthropology, including the and fossilized dinosaur skeletons; it recorded 3.9 million visitors in 2024. The , established as the National Air Museum in 1946 and opened on the Mall on July 1, 1976, displays pivotal aircraft like the and Apollo 11 command module, emphasizing engineering milestones and aerospace innovation, with its companion Udvar-Hazy Center in , opening December 15, 2003, to accommodate larger artifacts. Historical and cultural institutions preserve material evidence of American development, such as the National Museum of American History, which debuted January 28, 1964, as the Museum of History and Technology and features 1.7 million objects including the original Star-Spangled Banner flag and Abraham Lincoln's top hat; it hosted 2.1 million visitors in 2024. Art-focused galleries, including the Smithsonian American Art Museum and Renwick Gallery (reopened 2015 after renovation), showcase over 7,000 works from the colonial era to contemporary periods, while the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, dedicated in 1974, prioritizes modern and contemporary visual arts with a collection exceeding 12,000 pieces. Specialized venues address niche domains, such as the , tracing 5,000 years of communication history through stamps and artifacts, and the National Museum of and Culture, opened September 24, 2016, documenting contributions via 40,000 objects amid ongoing debates over interpretive balance in historical narratives. International and design-oriented sites like the (opened 1923) and Sackler Gallery (1987) exhibit Asian art, underscoring the Institution's role in cross-cultural preservation without endorsing unsubstantiated ideological framings prevalent in some academic sources. These facilities collectively enable rigorous examination of causal historical processes and empirical data, though visitation fluctuates with federal funding dependencies, as evidenced by closures during government shutdowns.

Research Centers and Observatories

The Smithsonian Institution operates eight principal centers, alongside specialized observatories, focused on advancing empirical understanding in , , , and related sciences. These facilities, distributed across the and internationally, employ hundreds of scientists and produce peer-reviewed outputs that inform global environmental and cosmic . Funding derives primarily from federal appropriations and , enabling fieldwork, , and independent of museum priorities. The (SAO), established in 1890 in , and relocated to , in 1955, specializes in astrophysical studies including , exoplanets, solar phenomena, asteroids, comets, black holes, and cosmology. In 1973, it merged with the Observatory to form the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, a joint entity that has generated over 10,000 scientific publications. SAO manages key astronomical facilities, such as the —launched in 1999 and orbiting to detect X-rays from over 100,000 cosmic sources—and contributes to the Submillimeter Array in , which probes star and galaxy formation as part of the Event Horizon Telescope network imaging supermassive black holes. The Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC), located in , near the , investigates interactions between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in coastal zones, addressing challenges like proliferation, global climate shifts, , , land-use changes, and dynamics. Operational for over six decades, SERC integrates long-term monitoring with experimental approaches to quantify ecological responses, such as how rising sea levels alter estuarine habitats, yielding data that underpin predictive models for coastal resilience. Its findings have influenced policies on management and pollution mitigation in U.S. waterways. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), headquartered in , , functions as the world's leading platform for since its founding in 1923 as the Barro Colorado Island Laboratory following the 's completion. Spanning tropical forests and marine environments across 13 field sites, STRI examines evolutionary processes, species interactions, and anthropogenic impacts, hosting approximately 800 researchers annually from undergraduate to postdoctoral levels. Key outputs include documentation of tropical hotspots and assessments of effects, with empirical studies revealing causal links between and species decline rates exceeding 50% in some Neotropical systems. The Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute (SCBI), based in , as an extension of the National Zoological Park, prioritizes applied conservation to avert extinctions through veterinary advancements, reproductive technologies, and genomic analyses. Established to counter biodiversity erosion, SCBI coordinates global programs tracking over 500 , employing techniques like and habitat restoration that have boosted success rates for taxa such as giant and black-footed ferrets. Its research emphasizes causal factors in population declines, including habitat loss and disease, informing international treaties like .

Specialized Cultural Centers

The Smithsonian Institution operates three specialized cultural centers dedicated to preserving and promoting diverse aspects of through , , and public engagement, distinct from its traditional museums and research institutes. These centers focus on intangible cultural practices, community representation, and affinity-based initiatives, fostering inclusivity across ethnic and cultural groups. The Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage (CFCH), established as a research unit evolving from the Smithsonian Folklife Festival initiated in 1967, promotes the of living cultural traditions through documentation, archiving, and community collaboration. It hosts the annual Smithsonian Folklife Festival on the , which in 2025 featured themes of youth and cultural futures from July 2 to 7, drawing millions of visitors since its inception to showcase global , music, and crafts. The center also manages Recordings, a nonprofit label preserving over 60,000 tracks of musical and oral heritage since 1987, and maintains the Ralph Rinzler Folklife Library and Archives with extensive ethnographic materials. CFCH's efforts extend to cultural vitality programs supporting Indigenous languages, crafts, and initiatives in partnership with communities worldwide. The Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center (APAC), founded in 1997, advances the representation of , , and Pacific Islanders by integrating their histories, arts, and contributions into Smithsonian programming through traveling exhibitions, public events, and educational resources. Operating without a fixed physical site, APAC collaborates across Smithsonian units to produce initiatives like the "Living Together" series, which explores AAPI cultural narratives via digital platforms and on-site programs, and supports research into migration, identity, and innovation among these communities. Key activities include internships in and studies, publications documenting AAPI heritage, and partnerships amplifying underrepresented stories, such as those from early Asian laborers in U.S. history. The Smithsonian Latino Center (SLC), also established in 1997 and evolving into the framework for the forthcoming National Museum of the American Latino, coordinates efforts to highlight Latino contributions to U.S. art, history, science, and culture via cross-institutional programs rather than a single venue. It develops exhibitions, digital content, and youth initiatives, such as the Latino Youth Leadership Program reaching thousands annually, and collaborates on events during National Hispanic Heritage Month to document Latino immigration patterns, civil rights milestones, and cultural festivals. The center's work includes advocacy for a dedicated museum, authorized by Congress in 2020 with a planned opening on the National Mall, emphasizing empirical documentation of Latino demographics—now comprising 19% of the U.S. population per 2020 Census data—while partnering with affiliates for traveling displays.

Governance and Administration

Board of Regents and Leadership

The Board of Regents governs the Smithsonian Institution, having been established by an act of Congress on August 10, 1846, which vested it with responsibility for the Institution's administration as a public trust instrumentality. The Smithsonian Institution is a trust instrumentality of the United States, not a non-governmental organization (NGO), characterized by its close connection to the federal government, including federal appropriations comprising about 62% of its funding and a Board of Regents with members from the executive, judicial, and legislative branches. The Board consists of 17 members: the Vice President of the United States and the Chief Justice of the United States serve ex officio; three members of the Senate are appointed by the President pro tempore of the Senate; three members of the House of Representatives are appointed by the Speaker of the House; and nine citizen regents are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Chief Justice serves as Chancellor, presiding over Board meetings, which occur at least four times annually, typically in the Regents Room of the Smithsonian Castle. The Board appoints the Secretary, approves major policies, and oversees strategic direction, including budget and institutional independence from partisan influence. Citizen regents, selected for expertise in fields such as science, arts, education, and public service, provide continuity amid changes in congressional appointees tied to election cycles. Congressional members include, as of early 2025, Representatives Doris Matsui (D-CA), Adrian Smith (R-NE), and Carlos Gimenez (R-FL), the latter appointed by Speaker Mike Johnson on January 24, 2025. Senate appointees and full citizen lists evolve with appointments, emphasizing bipartisan representation to maintain the Institution's nonpartisan status. Board committees, such as the Executive, Audit, and Nominating Committees, handle specialized oversight, with members elected by the full Board. The serves as the , managing daily operations across 21 museums, centers, and facilities with approximately 6,000 employees and an annual exceeding $1.5 billion as of fiscal year 2024. Lonnie G. Bunch III, the 14th , assumed the role on June 16, 2019, overseeing collections of over 155 million items and leading initiatives in , , and public access. The Board retains ultimate authority, including the power to direct or replace the to ensure alignment with the Institution's founding mandate for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge."

Secretaries and Key Administrators

The of the Smithsonian Institution functions as its , directing the administration of museums, research facilities, libraries, and educational programs while reporting to the Board of Regents, which appoints the position. Since the Institution's in 1846, 14 individuals have served as , with tenures varying from short acting roles to decades-long terms shaping its evolution from a nascent research body to a vast cultural and scientific enterprise. Key administrators beyond the Secretary include under secretaries for , and culture, and finance; provosts overseeing academic affairs; and directors of major museums, who manage specialized operations under the 's authority. Notable examples encompass figures like Alexander Wetmore, who served as acting before his full term and advanced ornithological research, and modern leaders such as Deputy Meroë Park, responsible for strategic operations since 2022. The following table enumerates the Secretaries chronologically, including tenures and principal contributions verified from archival records:
NameTenureKey Contributions
Joseph Henry1846–1878Established foundational emphasis on scientific research over a national library or museum, pioneering electromagnetic studies and institutional policies prioritizing empirical inquiry.
Spencer Fullerton Baird1878–1887Expanded natural history collections and founded the National Museum (now National Museum of Natural History), integrating fish commission work with institutional growth.
Samuel Pierpont Langley1887–1906Directed astrophysical observatory development and aeronautical experiments, including early heavier-than-air flight models, while enhancing international scientific exchanges.
Charles Doolittle Walcott1907–1927Oversaw construction of major facilities like the Natural History Museum building and expanded paleontological research, discovering significant Cambrian fossils.
Charles Greeley Abbot1928–1944Advanced solar energy research through the Astrophysical Observatory and managed wartime resource allocation, maintaining institutional stability amid economic challenges.
Alexander Wetmore1945–1952Stabilized post-war operations, promoted biodiversity studies, and served initially as acting Secretary from 1944, focusing on avian taxonomy.
Leonard Carmichael1953–1964Initiated modernization efforts, including staff expansions and facility upgrades, while navigating Cold War-era scientific collaborations.
S. Dillon Ripley1964–1984Directed extensive museum constructions, such as the Hirshhorn and Air and Space Museums, and emphasized interdisciplinary research amid rapid institutional growth.
Ira Michael Heyman1994–2000Implemented administrative reforms post-interim leadership, including technology integrations and public access enhancements following acting terms by Robert McC. Adams Jr. and others.
Lawrence M. Small2000–2007Focused on revenue diversification through private partnerships and international outreach, though tenure ended amid governance reviews.
G. Wayne Clough2008–2013Prioritized digital initiatives and sustainability, launching open-access policies for collections data after interim leadership by Cristián Samper.
David Skorton2014–2019Advanced health sciences integrations and public engagement programs, bridging medical research with museum exhibits.
Lonnie G. Bunch III2019–presentOversees 21 museums and research centers as of 2025, emphasizing inclusive historical narratives while managing federal appropriations exceeding $1 billion annually.
This roster reflects transitions often involving acting administrators during vacancies, underscoring the Regents' role in continuity.

Funding Mechanisms and Budget

The Smithsonian Institution maintains a hybrid funding structure, combining federal appropriations with non-federal trust funds to support its operations, research, and public programs. Federal appropriations, enacted annually through congressional legislation, primarily finance salaries, facility maintenance, collections care, and core operations of the Institution's museums and research centers in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. These funds, which account for approximately 62% of the total budget, also include federal grants and contracts for specific projects, ensuring accountability to public oversight while prohibiting uses such as political advocacy. In fiscal year 2024 (October 1, 2023, to September 30, 2024), enacted federal appropriations totaled $1.09 billion, reflecting a 4.7% reduction from the prior year amid broader budgetary constraints. Of this amount, roughly $892.9 million supported operating expenses, with the remainder allocated to facilities revitalization and capital projects. Trust funds, comprising the remaining 38% of funding, derive from the Institution's endowment income, unrestricted and restricted private donations, and revenues generated by Smithsonian Enterprises—a division handling retail operations, licensing, publications, and media productions. These non-federal sources provide flexibility for discretionary initiatives, including special exhibitions, educational outreach, and advanced research not covered by appropriations, as federal rules restrict commingling of funds. Private contributions often target donor-designated purposes, such as exhibit sponsorships or program endowments, with the Institution actively soliciting to bridge gaps in federal support. The endowment, principally originating from James Smithson's 19th-century bequest and subsequent accretions, yields investment returns that bolster long-term stability, though market fluctuations can impact yields. The annual budget process involves the Smithsonian submitting a justification to , detailing proposed appropriations alongside trust fund projections, with final figures subject to negotiation and sequestration risks. For 2025, the Institution requested increased federal funding for priorities like deferred and scientific , while emphasizing partnerships to sustain growth amid fiscal pressures. Historically, the federal share has hovered between 60% and 70% since the early 2000s, reflecting a deliberate balance that leverages public investment for national treasures while insulating innovative programming from sole reliance on taxpayer dollars. This model, unique among U.S. cultural institutions, underscores the Smithsonian's status as a instrumentality, where federal dominance ensures broad but trust funds enable entrepreneurial diversification.

Research, Education, and Outreach

Scientific and Scholarly Research

The Smithsonian Institution conducts scientific and scholarly across disciplines including , , , earth sciences, and , primarily through its 14 dedicated research and education centers and museum-based programs. These efforts emphasize collections-based analysis, field investigations, and interdisciplinary collaborations, yielding empirical insights into , cosmic phenomena, and human-environment interactions. In 2020, affiliated researchers generated 2,299 peer-reviewed journal articles across 621 journals, comprising 82% of total outputs and marking a 7% rise from 2019's 2,511 articles; of these, 1,501 were openly accessible. Smithsonian Research Online catalogs these outputs, highlighting 49 highly cited papers in 2019 alone, placing them in the top 1% by citation impact per metrics. At the National Museum of Natural History, over 450 scientists pursue research in departments such as anthropology, botany, entomology, paleobiology, and vertebrate zoology, leveraging vast biorepositories—including 40 million fossils, 7 million insects, and genomic samples—to study evolutionary timelines, biodiversity patterns, and geological processes. Notable contributions include genomic sequencing of extinct species and analysis of ancient human migrations via artifactual evidence, supporting causal models of adaptation and extinction driven by environmental pressures. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, operating since 1890 and integrated with the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, employs astronomers for observational and theoretical work using facilities like the Chandra X-ray Observatory; key outputs encompass detections of exoplanets, black hole mergers via gravitational waves (collaborating with LIGO since 2015), and solar physics data informing space weather predictions. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), established in 1923 in , hosts over 1,200 scientists annually for studies of neotropical ecosystems, producing long-term datasets on dynamics, interactions, and ; for example, its 50-hectare plot network, initiated in 1980, tracks 300+ tree to quantify carbon cycling and defaunation effects, countering overreliance on short-term surveys in assessments. Complementarily, the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC), founded in 1965, investigates coastal and estuarine systems, with empirical findings on proliferation—such as the ecological impacts of zebra mussels introduced in the —and nutrient pollution's role in algal blooms, derived from decades of monitoring. These centers collectively advance causal understandings of ecological tipping points and astronomical mechanisms, often through peer-reviewed syntheses that prioritize data over interpretive narratives.

Educational Programs and Public Engagement

The Smithsonian Institution delivers extensive educational programs targeting students from through grade 12, educators, and adult learners, emphasizing hands-on learning in , , and arts. The Smithsonian Science Education Center develops curricula and professional development resources distributed to schools worldwide, fostering inquiry-based instruction aligned with national standards. Complementing these, the Office of the Under Secretary for Education coordinates initiatives such as the Smithsonian Learning Lab, a digital platform granting free access to over 1.7 million artifacts, images, and documents for customized lesson creation and sharing. Smithsonian Associates operates the world's largest museum-based program, hosting more than 1,000 events annually, including lectures, seminars, studio arts classes, and study tours, both in-person and via livestream, serving diverse audiences seeking intellectual enrichment. For K-12 audiences, specialized offerings include school group visits, youth programs at facilities like the , and distance learning resources such as podcasts and virtual courses adapted for remote access. Professional development for teachers encompasses workshops on culturally responsive and national summits, with one 2024 academy providing stipends and itineraries for selected educators. A notable virtual exchange program, in , trains teachers to facilitate student dialogues on civic topics, requiring recruitment of at least 15 participants per cohort. Public engagement extends beyond formal through community collaborations and audience analysis tools to enhance visitor experiences. Smithsonian Affiliations partners with over 200 and cultural organizations to localize collections and programs, promoting neighborhood access to Smithsonian expertise. The Rural Initiative addresses regional needs by prioritizing diverse voices and examining biases in collections to support inclusive programming. In fiscal year 2023, these efforts contributed to broad participation metrics tracked in annual performance reports, reflecting public use of education outputs. attendance reached 16.8 million visits in 2024, with many involving interactive public programs, while digital platforms drew 150 million unique website visitors, amplifying outreach. One collaborative program, launched in the 2022-23 school year, engaged 40,000 students via 1,487 sessions across 48 states by 2025.

Publications and Media

The Smithsonian Institution publishes Smithsonian Magazine, a monthly periodical launched in April 1970 to extend public engagement with its collections and research, initially achieving a circulation of 180,000 subscribers that expanded to nearly 2 million by 1982. By 2010, the magazine maintained a rate base of 2 million paid subscriptions and reached a total audience of approximately 7 million readers, focusing on articles about history, science, archaeology, arts, and culture drawn from the Institution's expertise. Through the Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, the Institution disseminates peer-reviewed monographs, exhibition catalogs, and serial publications in disciplines including , , , life sciences, and , with a policy of providing to digital versions of formal scholarly outputs produced by its staff and affiliates. Smithsonian Books, an imprint emphasizing the Institution's authoritative domains, releases trade and reference works on , , , , and , often tying content to exhibits and findings. The , a cable and streaming network launched in as a joint venture with (later acquired by ), produces and airs original documentaries, series, and specials exploring science, nature, aviation, history, and cultural topics, with programming such as Air Warriors and The in Color reaching audiences via linear , on-demand services, and platforms like Paramount+. Complementary digital media includes Smithsonian.com, which hosts extended articles, multimedia features, and news aligned with the magazine's editorial scope, alongside the Smithsonian initiative enabling free download and reuse of over 4.7 million digitized images and 510,000 3D models from its collections as of 2020.

Controversies and Criticisms

Enola Gay Exhibit Dispute

The Enola Gay exhibit dispute centered on a planned 1995 display at the Smithsonian's (NASM) featuring the restored B-29 Superfortress bomber, which dropped the atomic bomb on on August 6, 1945, contributing to Japan's surrender and the end of . The exhibit, titled "The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the ," was intended to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the war's conclusion but included an interpretive script drafted by curators that emphasized the bomb's destructive impact on Japanese civilians, with estimates of 200,000 to 300,000 deaths and graphic photographs of victims, while questioning the bombing's strategic necessity and suggesting alternatives like a naval blockade or might have prompted surrender without atomic weapons. Critics, including the Air Force Association and , contended the script unbalanced the narrative by minimizing Japanese aggression—such as the attack and atrocities like the Rape of Nanking—and omitting context on projected U.S. casualties from , an estimated 500,000 to 1 million American lives potentially saved by averting a full of . Opposition escalated in spring 1994 after the script's leak, with veterans groups protesting that it portrayed American airmen as criminals and focused disproportionately on Hiroshima's aftermath over the Pacific War's broader context, including Japan's tactics and unconditionally despite heavy conventional bombing. Congressional figures, such as 81 members who demanded , threatened to withhold Smithsonian , arguing the exhibit dishonored veterans and promoted revisionist history unsubstantiated by military records showing Japan's militarist leadership rejected peace overtures until after and Soviet entry. In response, NASM director Martin Harwit oversaw revisions in October 1994, removing victim photos, casualty estimates, and panels questioning the bomb's role, while adding context on Japanese strategy and U.S. ; however, these changes were deemed insufficient by detractors who noted persistent emphasis on moral ambiguities over empirical wartime calculations. By January 1995, amid sustained pressure including hearings, the Smithsonian canceled the interpretive components, opting for a neutral display of the fuselage with factual labels on its mission and technical specifications, devoid of broader historical narrative. Harwit resigned on May 2, 1995, stating his departure would appease critics and enable the museum's recovery, following accusations that curatorial choices reflected academic biases favoring victim-centered interpretations over veterans' accounts and declassified assessments justifying the bomb as a decisive, casualty-minimizing action. The scaled-back exhibit opened on June 22, 1995, attracting over 3.7 million visitors in three months but drawing counter-criticism from some historians for sanitizing complex ethical debates; it underscored tensions between first-principles evaluation of military efficacy—evidenced by Japan's swift capitulation—and institutional tendencies toward equivocal framing influenced by post-war pacifist scholarship. The controversy prompted Smithsonian policy reviews on exhibit balance and later influenced the 2003 relocation of the full to NASM's Udvar-Hazy Center with expanded contextual panels acknowledging both the bomb's role in ending the war and its human costs.

Censorship and Exhibit Alterations

In 2010, the Smithsonian's National Portrait Gallery removed an 11-second clip from artist David Wojnarowicz's video installation A Fire in My Belly as part of the Hide/Seek: Difference and Desire in American Portraiture exhibition, following complaints from the Catholic League over imagery depicting ants crawling on a crucifix. The institution stated the removal on November 30 was due to the clip's distraction from the exhibition's broader focus on LGBTQ+ themes in portraiture, amid threats of funding cuts from congressional Republicans. Critics, including the ACLU and art advocates, described the action as yielding to political pressure and self-censorship to avoid controversy over religiously sensitive content. The decision prompted protests and an internal review that deemed it a misstep, though the gallery maintained the rest of the exhibit unchanged. The Science in American Life exhibition, which opened at the in May 1994, faced criticism from scientists for emphasizing negative social consequences of scientific advancements—such as the atomic bomb's destructiveness—over achievements and portraying researchers as influenced by commercial or pressures. In response to petitions from over 14,000 physicists and other experts highlighting factual inaccuracies and imbalance, the Smithsonian added interpretive panels in 1995 to include positive aspects of scientific progress, such as contributions to and , while retaining core elements. officials described these as enhancements for balance rather than censorship, though detractors argued the original curatorial framing reflected an anti-science bias corrected only under external scrutiny. In July 2025, the Smithsonian altered its "Presidential" exhibit at the by removing specific references to Donald Trump's two impeachments (2019 and 2021), reducing the section's emphasis amid a broader review of federal museums initiated by a March targeting "improper ideology" in displays. The institution attributed the change to routine maintenance and space constraints for updating content on recent events, denying any direct administration mandate, though the timing aligned with executive directives prohibiting funding for ideologically slanted exhibits. Opponents labeled it politicized to align with Trump-era narratives, while supporters viewed it as rectifying partisan overemphasis in historical presentation. These alterations reflect patterns where the Smithsonian has modified exhibits in response to ideological critiques from both conservative and progressive quarters, often citing institutional neutrality or operational needs, though external pressures—including funding threats—have influenced outcomes. In 2025, additional concerns arose, such as artist Amy Sherald's cancellation of a planned National Portrait Gallery show over fears that her depiction of a " " would be excised under review processes, highlighting preemptive adjustments amid heightened scrutiny.

Intellectual Property and Access Restrictions

The Smithsonian Institution maintains rights over its original creations, including publications, exhibitions, and , while enforcing terms of use that prohibit unauthorized commercial exploitation of restricted content. Under its general Terms of Use, users must obtain permission from relevant Smithsonian units for commercial applications of materials bearing usage conditions, such as certain photographs or artifacts not designated as . This policy balances public dissemination with protection against infringement, though critics have argued it creates barriers for educators and researchers seeking non-commercial reproductions. In 2020, the Institution launched Smithsonian Open Access, releasing approximately 2.8 million digital images and datasets into the under a Zero (CC0) designation, allowing unrestricted use, modification, and distribution without permission or attribution. However, this initiative excludes third-party copyrighted works, trademarks, and sensitive cultural items, with access to physical collections often limited by factors including conservation needs, privacy concerns, and legal mandates like the National Museum of the American Indian Act. Repatriation policies under this Act and related guidelines further restrict researcher and public access to Native American human remains, sacred objects, and associated funerary items, requiring tribal consultation and prior , which has temporarily halted some projects amid ongoing inventories. Criticisms of these restrictions have centered on perceived overreach in partnerships that limit broader access. In 2006, a licensing agreement with Showtime Networks for exclusive use of Smithsonian archives, scientists, and collections in a World War II documentary series drew rebuke from the American Historical Association and other scholars, who contended it unduly favored one producer and impeded independent filmmakers' and historians' ability to consult primary sources. Repatriation-driven limitations have also sparked debate among anthropologists and archaeologists, who argue that stringent access controls under cultural heritage laws hinder empirical research on human remains and artifacts, potentially prioritizing repatriation over scientific inquiry without sufficient evidence of harm from study. These policies reflect causal tensions between preservation, equity claims from descendant communities, and open scholarship, with the Institution defending restrictions as compliant with federal statutes while committing to case-by-case reviews for legitimate research proposals.

Recent Political Reviews and Ideological Debates

In July 2020, the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture published an online resource featuring a titled "Aspects and Assumptions of White Culture in the United States," which listed traits such as , the , hard work, objective rational thinking, and the as elements of or privilege. The , part of a broader "Talking About Race" portal, drew immediate from conservative commentators for framing empirically beneficial cultural norms—such as emphasis on and —as inherently racialized and problematic, potentially discouraging assimilation or personal responsibility among non-white groups. The museum removed the within days, issuing an apology stating it did not reflect institutional views and was developed by a single employee without broader review, amid accusations of promoting tenets that prioritize group identity over universal values. This incident fueled ongoing ideological debates about the Smithsonian's curatorial direction, with critics arguing it exemplified a shift toward progressive activism over neutral scholarship, influenced by left-leaning biases in academia and cultural institutions. Conservative outlets and think tanks, such as the Heritage Foundation and National Review, contended that such materials distorted history by emphasizing systemic oppression and identity politics, sidelining evidence of American exceptionalism and individual agency in favor of narratives aligned with diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) frameworks. Defenders, including museum leadership, maintained the portal aimed to foster dialogue on racial inequities, though the rapid retraction underscored tensions between interpretive advocacy and factual presentation. These debates intensified in 2025 during the second Trump administration, which initiated a comprehensive review of Smithsonian exhibitions and materials across eight major museums, citing excessive focus on "divisive narratives" about race, , and at the expense of national unity and achievements. On August 12, 2025, the directed the institution to conduct an within 120 days, targeting content perceived as promoting "" ideologies, including lingering echoes of the 2020 white culture materials and exhibits prioritizing victimhood over or . The administration argued this realignment was essential for the 250th anniversary of U.S. independence in 2026, ensuring museums reflect empirical histories of progress rather than ideologically driven critiques. Opposition from progressive media and museum advocates framed the review as unprecedented political interference, likening it to authoritarian control and warning of censored histories that downplay structural inequalities. However, supporters highlighted prior congressional scrutiny and surveys showing public concern over politicized curation, with 41.3% of museum leaders fearing Republican oversight but minimal reciprocal worry about left-leaning influences. An executive order signed March 27, 2025, further empowered federal oversight to excise content fostering division, extending the debate to broader questions of institutional neutrality versus taxpayer-funded advocacy. As of October 2025, the review remains ongoing, with citizen documentation efforts tracking potential changes to exhibits on topics like slavery and indigenous histories.

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