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Urmia
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Urmia (Persian: ارومیه; pronounced [oɾumiˈje] ⓘ)[a] is the largest city in West Azerbaijan Province of Iran. In the Central District of Urmia County, it is capital of the province, the county, and the district.[5] The city is situated near the borders of Iran with Turkey and Iraq.[6]

Key Information

The city lies at an altitude of 1,330 metres (4,360 ft) above sea level along the Shahar River on the Urmia Plain. Lake Urmia, one of the world's largest salt lakes, lies to the east of the city, and the border with Turkey lies to the west.

The city is the trading center for a fertile agricultural region where fruits (especially apples and grapes) and tobacco are grown. Even though the majority of the residents of Urmia are Muslims, the Christian history of Urmia is well preserved and is especially evident in the city's many churches and cathedrals.

An important town by the 9th century, the city has had a diverse population which has at times included Muslims (Shias and Sunnis), Christians (Catholics, Protestants, Nestorians, and Orthodox), Jews, Baháʼís and Sufis. Around 1900, Christians made up more than 40% of the city's population; however, in the next decades most of the Christians were either killed by the advancing Ottoman troops or in raids by Kurdish tribes[7][8] or fled shortly after the end of the war.[9][10][11]

Urmia, Takab and Piranshahr respectively have the highest number of registered provincial sites in the list of national sites.[12]

Etymology

[edit]

Richard Nelson Frye suggested Urartian origin for the name,[13] while T. Burrow connected the origin of the name Urmia to Indo-Iranian urmi- "wave" and urmya- "undulating, wavy".[14]

The name could also derive from the combination of the Assyrian Aramaic words Ur (ܐܘܪ; a common name for cities around Mesopotamia, meaning "city") and Mia (Syriac: ܡܝܐ, lit. 'water'), "City of Water" referring to the great Lake Urmia nearby.[15] Compare Urhay, Ur of the Chaldees.

Variants and alternatives

[edit]

As of 1921, Urmia was also called, Urumia and Urmi.[16][17] During the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979), the city was called Rezaiyeh (رضائیه)[b] after Reza Shah, the dynasty's founder, whose name ultimately derives from the Islamic concept of rida via the Eighth Imam in Twelver Shia Islam, Ali al-Ridha.

In his seyahatname, Evliya Çelebi referred to the city as Rûmiyye (Ottoman Turkish: رومیه), also mentioning that the Mongols called the city Urumiye (Ottoman Turkish: اورمیه), Persians Rûmiyye-i Kübrâ (Ottoman Turkish: رومیه كبری), and some historians Türkistân-ı İrân (Ottoman Turkish: تركستان ایران), which he justified by the considerable amount of Turkoman awliya in the city.[18]

Due to the city's contact with many ethnic groups and cultures throughout its history, the name of the city has many linguistic variants:

History

[edit]
People of Urmia awaiting the Shah, 1911
Urmia fruit market, 1911

According to Vladimir Minorsky, there were villages in the Urmia Plain as early as 2000 BC, with their civilization under the influence of the Kingdom of Van. Excavations of the ancient ruins near Urmia led to the discovery of utensils that date to the 20th century BC. In ancient times, the west bank of Urmia Lake was part of Gilzan, and in the 9th century BC an independent government ruled there, which later joined the Urartu or Manna empire; in the 8th century BC, the area was a vassal of the Asuzh government until it joined the Median Empire.

Assyrians who did survive the invasion of Baghdad by Timur fled through northern Iraq up into the Hakkari Mountains to the west of Lake Urmia and the area remained as their homeland until the 19th century.[24][25]

During the Safavid era, the neighboring Ottoman Turks, who were the archrivals of the Safavids,[26] made several incursions into the city and captured it on more than one occasion, but the Safavids successfully regained control over the area. When in 1622, during the reign of Safavid king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) Qasem Sultan Afshar was appointed governor of Mosul,[27][28] he was forced to leave his office shortly afterwards due to the outbreak of a plague.[28] He moved to the western part of Azerbaijan, and became the founder of the Afshar community of Urmia.[28] The city was the capital of the Urmia Khanate from 1747 to 1865. The first monarch of Iran's Qajar dynasty, Agha Muhammad Khan, was crowned in Urmia in 1795.

Due to the presence of a substantial Christian minority at the end of the 19th century, Urmia was also chosen as the site of the first Christian missionaries from the United States in Iran in 1835 led by Justin Perkins (1805–1869) with Asahel Grant (1807–1844); and followed by Fidelia Fiske (1816–1864), Joseph Gallup Cochran (1817–1871), and Joseph Plumb Cochran (1855–1905).[29] Another mission was soon underway in nearby Tabriz as well. During World War I, the population was estimated by Dr. Caujole to be 30,000 people, a quarter of which (7,500) were Assyrians and 1,000 Jews.[11]

During the 19th century, the region became the center of a short-lived Assyrian renaissance with many books and newspapers being published in Syriac. Urmia was also the seat of a Chaldean diocese.[30][31]

During late 1914 Ottoman forces under the command of Enver Pasha stepped up clandestine activity in the region with the aim of committing the Ottoman Empire to war.[32] During World War I, the city changed hands several times between the Russians and the Ottoman troops and their Kurdish allies in the following two years.[33] In 1914, before the declaration of war against Russia, Ottoman forces crossed the border into Persia and destroyed Christian villages. Large-scale attacks in late September and October 1914 targeted many Assyrian villages, and the attackers neared Urmia.[34] Due to Ottoman attacks, thousands of Christians living along the border fled to Urmia.[35]

Many Christians fled during the Russian withdrawal from Azerbaijan at the beginning of January 1915,[36] and 20,000 to 25,000 refugees were left stranded in Urmia.[37] Nearly 18,000 Christians sought shelter in the city's Presbyterian and Lazarist missions. Although there was reluctance to attack the missionary compounds, many died of disease.[38] Between February and May (when the Ottoman forces pulled out), there was a campaign of mass execution, looting, kidnapping, and extortion against Christians in Urmia.[37] More than 100 men were arrested at the Lazarist compound, and dozens (including Mar Dinkha, bishop of Tergawer) were executed on 23 and 24 February.[39]

The Russian army advanced later in 1915.[citation needed] After Russia's withdrawal as a result of the 1917 Russian Revolution,[40][41] about 5,000 Assyrian[42] and Armenian militia policed the area, but they frequently abused their power and killed Muslims without provocation.[43]

Armenian and Assyrian refugees in the avenue leading out of the Kurdish Gate, Urmia, July 1918

From February to July 1918, the region was engulfed by ethnic violence.[44][45] On 22 February, local Muslims and the Persian governor began an uprising against the Christian militias in Urmia. The better-organized Christians, led by Agha Petros, brutally crushed the uprising; hundreds (possibly thousands) were killed.[43] On 16 March, Mar Shimun and many of his bodyguards were killed by the Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak, probably at the instigation of Persian officials fearing Assyrian separatism, after they met to discuss an alliance. Assyrians went on a killing and looting spree; unable to find Simko, they murdered Persian officials and inhabitants.[46][47] The Kurds responded by massacring Christians, regardless of denomination or ethnicity.[45] Christians were massacred in Salmas in June and in Urmia in early July,[44] and many Assyrian women were abducted.[48]

Christian militias in Azerbaijan were no match for the Ottoman army when it invaded in July 1918.[43] Tens of thousands of Ottoman and Persian Assyrians fled south to Hamadan, where the British Dunsterforce was garrisoned, on 18 July to escape Ottoman forces approaching Urmia under Ali İhsan Sâbis.[49][50] The Ottoman invasion was followed by killings of Christians, including Chaldean archbishop Toma Audo, and the sacking of Urmia.[51][45]

On March 22, 2025, large-scale demonstrations were held in the city. Slogans against Kurdistan were chanted during the demonstrations. Anadolu Agency reported that there was ethnic tension between Turks and Kurds in the city and that Turks were protesting the Nowruz celebrations held by Kurds living in the city a few days ago. Some protesters stated that the Iranian government was trying to change the demographics by bringing Kurds to the city. It was reported that those who participated in the demonstration chanted Turkish slogans such as "Urumiyah is Turkish and will remain Turkish" and "Urumiyah's Turkish identity is not negotiable". 2 days after the protest, 22 people were arrested.[52][53][54]

Demographics

[edit]

Ethnic composition

[edit]
Assyrian Christian women praying in Mart Maryam Church in Urmia, Iran.

The city has been home to various ethnic groups during its history. The population of Urmia in the early Islamic period was Christian.[55] In late 19th century, George Curzon reported a population of 30 to 40 thousand people, chiefly Afshars, Nestorians, Jews, and Armenians,[56] while other sources also referred to an additional Persian community.[57] At the beginning of the 20th century, the city had a significant Christian minority (Assyrians and Armenians).[9][58] According to Macuch, and Ishaya, the city was the spiritual capital of the Assyrians, who were influenced by four Christian missions that had been established in the city in the period from 1830 to the end of World War I.[59] A large number of the Assyrians and Armenians were killed in 1914 during the Armenian and Assyrian genocides,[60] which resulted in a change in the city's demographics.[59] In the fourteenth edition of Encyclopædia Britannica from 1929, the town's population was roughly estimated to be 45 thousand before the war, mainly being Turkish with Armenian and Nestorian minorities.[61] During the era of Reza Shah Pahlavi, Iranian Assyrians were invited to return to the region, and several thousand did return. There are around 5,000 Assyrians remaining in the city.[62]

Until the Iran crisis of 1946 and the Establishment of the State of Israel in 1947, several thousand Jews also lived Urmia, and their language (Lishán Didán) is still spoken by an ageing community in Israel.

According to the Federal Research Division of Library of Congress, ethnic Azeris form around 40% of the population of Urmia region.[63] The majority of the city's residents are Azerbaijanis, with a large minority of Kurds, and a smaller number of Assyrians, and Armenians, as well as Persian-speakers who moved to the city mostly for employment.[64]

The majority of the population can speak the official language of Iran, Persian, in addition to their own native tongue.[65][66]

Religion

[edit]
Saint Mary Church: an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of Urmia.
Mar Toma church near Urmia.

The city is the archiepiscopal see of the Eastern Catholic Metropolitan Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Urmyā, which has a suffragan in Salmas. There are also Protestants, Church of the East adherents and Armenian Orthodox. There are four churches in the central part of the city, two being Assyrian Church of the East, one Armenian, and one Chaldean.[67][68]

When 17th-century explorer Evliya Çelebi visited the region, the city's Muslim population was mostly Sunni and not yet converted to Shia Islam.[18] Around 1900, Christians made up more than 40% of the city's population; however, most of the Christians were either killed when the Ottoman Empire invaded Qajar Iran and committed genocide against Urmia's Assyrian and Armenian population[69][70] or fled shortly after the end of the war. Approximately 15,000 Assyrians reside in northern Iran, in Urmia and various Assyrian villages in the surrounding area.[71] The Christian history of Urmia is well preserved and is especially evident in the city's many churches and cathedrals.

Historical Population
YearPop.±%
1956 67,705—    
1966 110,749+63.6%
1976 164,419+48.5%
1986 300,746+82.9%
1991 357,399+18.8%
1996 435,200+21.8%
2006 577,307[73]+32.7%
2011 667,499[74]+15.6%
2016 736,224[2]+10.3%
Source: [72]

Population

[edit]

Urmia is the 10th-most populous city in Iran. At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 577,307 in 153,570 households.[73] The following census in 2011 counted 667,499 people in 197,749 households.[74] The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 736,224 people in 225,050 households.[2]

Parks and touristic centres

[edit]

The tourist attractions of the city of Urmia include many parks and coastal villages lying on or near the shores of Lake Urmia. The oldest park in Urmia, called Park-e Saat, was established in the first Pahlavi era. Urmia's largest park is Ellar Bagi Park (Azerbaijani "People's Garden") along the Shahar Chayi, or the "City River".

Lakes and ponds

  • Urmia Lake Natural Park
  • Hasanloo Lake
  • Marmisho lake
  • Shahrchay ِDam
  • Urmia Lake Islands

Lagoons

  • Haft Abad
  • Soole Dokel
  • Dana Boğan
  • Ali Pancesi
  • Isti Sou

Parks

  • Park-e Saat (Clock Park)
  • Park-e Jangali (Jungle Park)
  • Ellar Bagi (People's Garden)
  • Park-e Shahr (City Park)
  • Park-e Saheli (Riverside Park)
  • Park-e Shaghayegh
  • Alghadir Park
  • Tokhmemorghi (Oval) Park
  • Ghaem Park

Scenic coastal villages:

  • Chichest
  • Bari
  • Fanoos
  • Sier
  • Band
  • Khoshako

Landscape attractions:

  • Qasimlu Valley
  • Kazem Dashi Islet in Lake Urmia
  • Kashtiban Village
  • Imamzada Village
  • Silvana Region
  • Rashekan to Dash Aghol
  • Nazloo
  • Dalamper
  • Kaboodan Island[75]

Climate

[edit]

Urmia's climate is cold semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk, Trewartha: BS), bordering on humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfa, Trewartha: Dc), with cold winters, mild springs, hot dry summers, and cool autumns. Precipitation is heavily concentrated in late autumn, winter (mostly in the form of snow), and especially spring, while precipitation is scarce in summer. Temperatures in Urmia are much colder than most of the remainder of Iran. The drought of Urmia Lake will have a negative impact on the climate of the region.

Being on the downwind and rain shadow side of the Zagros Mountains, its winters are relatively drier and less snowy than Hakkari's (to the west) in southeastern Turkey due to the foehn effect.[76]

Climate data for Urmia (Orumiyeh) 1991-2020, extremes 1961-2020
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 16.4
(61.5) 		19.8
(67.6) 		26.0
(78.8) 		30.8
(87.4) 		32.0
(89.6) 		37.0
(98.6) 		39.9
(103.8) 		39.2
(102.6) 		36.2
(97.2) 		30.0
(86.0) 		22.8
(73.0) 		21.4
(70.5) 		39.9
(103.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 3.6
(38.5) 		6.6
(43.9) 		12.0
(53.6) 		17.7
(63.9) 		22.8
(73.0) 		28.4
(83.1) 		31.5
(88.7) 		31.4
(88.5) 		27.3
(81.1) 		20.5
(68.9) 		12.0
(53.6) 		5.8
(42.4) 		18.3
(64.9)
Daily mean °C (°F) −1.8
(28.8) 		0.7
(33.3) 		5.9
(42.6) 		11.3
(52.3) 		16.0
(60.8) 		21.2
(70.2) 		24.2
(75.6) 		23.6
(74.5) 		19.1
(66.4) 		12.8
(55.0) 		5.6
(42.1) 		0.3
(32.5) 		11.6
(52.8)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −6.4
(20.5) 		−4.6
(23.7) 		−0.2
(31.6) 		4.4
(39.9) 		8.4
(47.1) 		12.5
(54.5) 		15.8
(60.4) 		15.0
(59.0) 		10.4
(50.7) 		5.7
(42.3) 		0.3
(32.5) 		−4.2
(24.4) 		4.8
(40.6)
Record low °C (°F) −22.8
(−9.0) 		−22
(−8) 		−19
(−2) 		−12
(10) 		−1.8
(28.8) 		3.9
(39.0) 		8.4
(47.1) 		7.8
(46.0) 		2.2
(36.0) 		−5
(23) 		−13.4
(7.9) 		−20
(−4) 		−22.8
(−9.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 27.4
(1.08) 		28.6
(1.13) 		44.2
(1.74) 		59.4
(2.34) 		38.8
(1.53) 		9.0
(0.35) 		5.1
(0.20) 		2.6
(0.10) 		4.4
(0.17) 		24.3
(0.96) 		40.5
(1.59) 		28.5
(1.12) 		312.8
(12.31)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 4.8 4.3 6.1 7.2 6.8 2.0 0.7 0.6 1.0 3.5 5.3 5.0 47.3
Average snowy days 8.5 7.5 3.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.5 5.5 27.8
Average relative humidity (%) 74 68 59 57 56 47 46 46 48 58 70 75 58.7
Average dew point °C (°F) −6.1
(21.0) 		−5.1
(22.8) 		−2.3
(27.9) 		2.0
(35.6) 		6.1
(43.0) 		8.3
(46.9) 		10.8
(51.4) 		10.1
(50.2) 		6.7
(44.1) 		3.9
(39.0) 		0.0
(32.0) 		−3.9
(25.0) 		2.5
(36.6)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 142 172 203 227 285 353 369 353 306 237 175 136 2,958
Source: NOAA[77] (snow days 1961-1990[78])(extremes from both)

Sport

[edit]

Sports are an important part of Urmia's culture. The most popular sport in Urmia is volleyball. Urmia is considered Iran's volleyball capital, and that is because of the ranks that Shahrdari Urmia VC got in Iranian Volleyball Super League and for the great volleyball players who play on the Iran men's national volleyball team (such as Saed Marouf, Abdolreza Alizadeh, and Milad Ebadipour) and first-class coaches in Iran. Recently, Urmia has also been called "the city of volleyball lovers" by the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (International Volleyball Federation, FIVB) official website.

The 2010 Asian Men's Cup Volleyball Championship was held in Ghadir Arena in Urmia, 2012 WAFF Futsal Championship, and the 2012 Asian Junior Men's Volleyball Championship was also held in Urmia. It is also one of the venues of the 2019 FIVB Volleyball Men's Nations League.

Culture

[edit]
An Ashik music group
Jameh Mosque of Urmia

Azerbaijanis hold festivals and ceremonies such as Nowruz and Eid al-Adha like other Iranian ethnic groups with small differences.[79] Ashik music is one of the features of the Turkish speaking people of the world. It has different versions in Iran. Meanwhile, as many experts of this art testify the Urmia Ashik, is the most original and oldest version in the world, which has preserved its origin until the present day. Ashik music has its unique styles. As a piece of the culture of Azerbaijan, Urmia Ashik music has been registered in Iran's national heritage.

Museums

[edit]
  • Natural History Museum – Displays the animals native to the vicinity of Urmia.
  • Urmia Museum – Archaeological museum affiliated with the faculty of Shahid Beheshti University.
  • Urmia Museum of Crafts and Classical Arts.
  • Urmia Museum of َAnthropology.

Education

[edit]
A School in Urmia (1910)

The first modern style school established in Urmia in 1834.[80]

Urmia University's hall

Higher education

[edit]

Urmia was an important centre for higher education approximately a century ago; indeed, the medical college of Urmia, which was built by Joseph Cochran and a team of American medical associates in 1878, is the first modern university of Iran. Unfortunately, the college was shut down even before the establishment of the first official University of Iran, University of Tehran. Today, Urmia has become an important centre of education, with several state and private universities and institutes, including those listed below.

Universities in Urmia:

University Web Site
Urmia University [2]
Malek Ashtar University of Technology Urmia Branch [3]
Urmia University of Medical Sciences [4] Archived 1 July 2004 at the Wayback Machine
Urmia University of Technology [5]
Islamic Azad University of Urmia [6] Archived 25 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
Payame Noor University of Urmia [7]
Elmi Karbordi University of Urmia [8]
University College of Saba [9]
University College of Azarabadegan [10]
University College of Elm O fan [11]
University College of Kamal [12]
Shahid Beheshti Technical School [13]
Ghazi Tabatabaee Technical School [14]
The Girls Technical School of Urmia [15]
Najand Institute of Higher Education [16]
University College Afagh [17]

Libraries

[edit]

Media

[edit]

Television

[edit]

Urmia has one state-owned television channel, Urmia TV, which broadcasts in both Azerbaijani, and Persian, and internationally through satellite Intelsat 902.[81]

Radio

[edit]

Urmia has one radio channel broadcasting in Kurdish, Azerbaijani and Persian. The name of the local radio is Chichest.[81]

Press

[edit]

Among others, the city's print media include:

  • Orumiye
  • Barish news
  • Sedaye Urmia
  • Amanat
  • Koosha
  • Araz

Infrastructure

[edit]

Transportation

[edit]

Most of Urmia's residents travel by car through the system of roads and highways. Urmia is also served by taxis and public buses. There are also some private groups that provide services called "Phone-taxi."[citation needed] Two Tram-lines for Urmia are Planned.[citation needed]

Urmia is linked to Europe through Turkey's roads and Sero border crossing. Urmia Airport, which opened in 1964, was the first international airport in West Azerbaijan county, Iran. As of April 2015 it only has regularly scheduled domestic flights to Tehran's Mehrabad International Airport, although there are plans to establish a direct flight between Urmia and Erbil, due to the large number of passengers travelling between the two cities.[82][83] The city is recently connected to Iran National Railways (IRIR, رجا).

Health systems

[edit]

The Iranian government operates public hospitals in the Urmia metropolitan region. There are also a number of private hospitals and medical centers in the city. Hospitals include:[citation needed] Hospitals:

  • 523 Artesh(Army) Hospital
  • Arefian Hospital[84]
  • Azerbaijan Hospital[85]
  • Gholipour Children's Hospital
  • Imam Khomeini Hospital[86]
  • Imam Reza Hospital
  • Milad international medical center[87]
  • Motahari Hospital[88]
  • Omid Hospital[89]
  • Razi Psychiatry Hospital[90]
  • Taleghani Hospital[91]
  • Seyedoshohada Heart Hospital[92]
  • Shafa Hospital[93]
  • Shams Hospital[94]
  • Solati Hospital[95]

Clinics:

  • Fatimiye Pro-Medical Clinic
  • Kosar Women's Pro-Medical Clinic

Consulates

[edit]

The Turkish government has a consulate on Beheshti Avenue.

People

[edit]

During its history Urmia was the origin for many Iranian illumination[clarification needed] and modernization movements. The city was the hometown of numerous figures including politicians, revolutionaries, artists, and military leaders. Following is a partial list of some of the people who was born or lived in Urmia.

For a complete list see: Category:People from Urmia

Twin towns and sister cities

[edit]

See also

[edit]

flag Iran portal

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Urmia

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Urmia (Persian: اورمیه, Orūmīyeh) is the capital of in northwestern , situated along the Shahar Chay River approximately 20 kilometers west of and near the border with . At an elevation of 1,330 meters in the Urmia plain, the city experiences a cold characterized by cold winters, mild springs, hot dry summers, and warm autumns, with peaking in spring. Its population stood at 667,499 according to the 2012 census, making it the tenth-most populous city in and the second largest in the northwest, predominantly comprising alongside Kurdish, Assyrian, and Armenian minorities. With more than three thousand years of , Urmia ranks as the oldest continuously inhabited city in northwestern and is listed among the country's nineteen historical cities by Iranian authorities. The city has long served as a significant center for Assyrian and Syriac Christian communities, evidenced by ancient epigraphic records and structures like the Church of Saint Mary, reflecting its role in the region's early Christian heritage amid a broader multi-religious landscape that includes mosques and historical fire temples. Urmia functions as a vital trading hub for the fertile agricultural hinterland, specializing in fruits such as apples and grapes, as well as , and supports export-import routes to , , , and . Its cultural fabric, marked by ethnic diversity and traditions of , underscores a legacy of peaceful coexistence, though the severe desiccation of nearby —once the second-largest saltwater lake in the world—has introduced , economic strain on local fisheries and , and heightened regional vulnerabilities since the early .

Etymology

Name origins and historical variants

The name Urmia (Persian: Urmiyeh, ارومیه) is most plausibly derived from Assyrian Neo-Aramaic roots, combining ur (ܐܘܪ), denoting "city" as in Mesopotamian place names, with mia (ܡܝܐ), meaning "water," yielding "city of water" in reference to its proximity to ; this etymology aligns with the region's ancient Assyrian settlements documented from the BCE onward. Alternative proposals include an Urartian origin, as suggested by Iranologist Richard Nelson Frye, linking it to the kingdom's nomenclature in the basin around the 9th–7th centuries BCE, or an Indo-Iranian connection to urmi- ("wave") proposed by linguist T. Burrow, evoking the lake's undulating waters; however, the Semitic interpretation predominates in earliest textual attestations, predating Indo-Iranian dominance and lacking direct Urartian equivalents for the specific toponym. Historical variants reflect linguistic adaptations and political impositions: pre-20th-century forms included Urumia and Urmi, used interchangeably in European and missionary accounts as early as the , while Syriac sources first reference it explicitly in 1111 CE as Urūmiyya. During the (1925–1979), Pahlavi mandated the renaming to Rezaiyeh (رضائیه) to honor himself, part of broader efforts; this persisted until the 1979 Islamic Revolution, after which it reverted to Urmia or Orumiyeh, underscoring nomenclature as a tool of regime legitimacy rather than philological continuity. Turkic or later Persian folk etymologies, such as associations with "orom" (plain) or migratory narratives, lack support in pre-Islamic and appear as post hoc rationalizations amid 20th-century ethnic shifts.

Geography

Location and topography

Urmia is situated at 37°33′N 45°04′E in , northwestern . The city lies at an elevation of 1,330 meters above along the Shahar Chay River within the Urmia Plain. This plain, a broad alluvial basin, positions Urmia approximately 20 kilometers from the southern shore of , forming a transitional zone between the lake's hypersaline expanse and encircling highlands. The topography features a flat to gently undulating plain hemmed by rugged mountain ranges, including the Mountains to the east and the Oshtoran Mountains to the west, which rise sharply to provide natural barriers and drainage divides. These elevations, part of the broader Zagros fold-thrust belt, constrain the plain's extent while channeling rivers like the Shahar Chay southward into , fostering deposition that sustains the area's fertility for historical settlement. The urban layout originated from a compact, walled core in the medieval period, centered around key historical sites for defensive advantages amid the surrounding hills. Modern expansion has radiated outward from this nucleus, incorporating grid-patterned extensions and peripheral suburbs, as evidenced by surveys showing built-up areas growing from about 2,900 hectares in 1990 to over 7,600 hectares by recent decades. This evolution reflects adaptation to the plain's , with development favoring low-gradient zones while preserving elevated fringes for vantage points.

Proximity to Lake Urmia

Urmia is located approximately 20 kilometers south of , a large endorheic saltwater lake serving as the basin's terminal sink. The city occupies a position on the Urmia Plain along the Shahar River, which contributes to the lake's seasonal inflows alongside other tributaries draining the surrounding mountains. This proximity integrates the urban area into the lake's hydrological system, where from precipitation in the basin funnels southward toward the lake, historically enabling channels extending from the city northward. The basin spans roughly 52,000 square kilometers, encompassing diverse topography from mountainous catchments to the flat plain where Urmia sits as a primary settlement. Urmia receives direct benefits from basin-wide , estimated at an annual average of 310 millimeters across the region, with runoff from higher elevations supporting local aquifers and river flows that connect to the lake. These inflows have traditionally sustained fisheries in the lake and agricultural dependencies in the vicinity of Urmia, though seasonal variability limits perennial reliability. Groundwater in the Urmia area draws from aquifers recharged by infiltration from basin rivers and rainfall, forming an interconnected subsurface network with the lake. Pre-2000 estimates indicated higher recharge relative to extraction, but subsequent has driven widespread depletion, with nationwide Iranian declining by about 3.8 millimeters per year due to reduced infiltration and increased pumping. In the basin, this manifests as falling water tables beneath the plain, altering the balance of recharge from surface sources that historically buffered urban and agricultural demands linked to the lake.

Climate and Environment

Climatic patterns

Urmia exhibits a (Köppen BSk), marked by low and pronounced seasonal temperature contrasts typical of continental regions. Annual averages 339–341 mm based on from 1988–2017, with 70–80% concentrated in winter and spring months (November–May), primarily from westerly frontal systems; summer months (June–August) receive negligible rainfall, often less than 5 mm monthly. Mean annual stands at 11.6°C, with highs averaging 30.5°C and lows around -6.1°C; recorded extremes include summer peaks exceeding 40°C and winter minima dropping to -10°C or lower, as observed at local stations. data from 1950–2020 indicate slight warming trends, with increases of 0.2–0.5°C per decade in annual means and more pronounced rises in summer maxima since the , corroborated by indices of extreme events. Prevailing winds are westerly to northwesterly, with average speeds of 5–10 m/s, intensifying in spring and contributing to events linked to regional ; suspension days peak in May–June, with frequencies up to 10–15 events annually in the basin, quantified via and ground observations from 2009–2022. These patterns reflect baseline meteorological variability without attributing causality to non-climatic factors.

Lake Urmia crisis and ecological impacts

Lake Urmia, historically spanning over 5,000 square kilometers in the with a volume of approximately 30 billion cubic meters, has shrunk dramatically to a surface area of about 850 square kilometers and a volume of less than 1 billion cubic meters by late 2024, with reports indicating further decline to around 0.5 billion cubic meters in 2025 amid ongoing . from confirms the lake's surface has contracted by more than 80% since the mid-, with water levels dropping over 7 meters in the subsequent decades due to reduced inflows rather than solely climatic variability. Hydrological data reveal that while droughts have contributed, the primary causal factors stem from anthropogenic interventions, including the expansion of irrigated consuming over 90% of basin water resources and the construction of numerous upstream dams that have curtailed river inflows. Over 50 dams built since the early , alongside a proliferation of systems, have diverted substantial portions of the Aji Chay and other feeder rivers, leading to measured reductions in lake inflows by factors exceeding 50% in peak periods compared to pre-development baselines. Empirical assessments, including flow gauging and land-use modeling, indicate that mismanagement—prioritizing short-term without sustainable allocation—outweighs exogenous effects, as evidenced by the persistence of shrinkage even during wetter years when inflows failed to reach the lake due to upstream storage. Peer-reviewed analyses attribute less than 30% of the volume loss to deficits, emphasizing instead the role of policy-driven overextraction and that fragmented the basin's . The ecological repercussions include intensified salt storms emanating from exposed lakebed sediments, which have salinized surrounding soils and reduced agricultural productivity, prompting the displacement of over 100,000 residents from rural areas since 2015, with projections of broader migration affecting up to 500,000 if desiccation continues. Biodiversity has suffered markedly, with the endemic brine shrimp Artemia urmiana populations crashing by more than 90% due to hypersalinity fluctuations and habitat fragmentation, disrupting the food web that once supported millions of migratory birds. Human health impacts encompass elevated rates of respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular issues, and skin conditions from inhaling salt-laden dust, as documented in cohort studies linking storm frequency to increased hospital admissions in adjacent provinces. These effects underscore the cascading biophysical consequences of inflow deficits, transforming the lake from a hypersaline ecosystem into a dust source exacerbating regional desertification.

History

Ancient and medieval eras

![Safiyeedin_Urmavi.jpg][float-right] The region encompassing modern Urmia was inhabited during the , falling within the sphere of the Urartian kingdom (c. 860–590 BCE), which exerted influence over northwestern including areas south of through alliances and conflicts with neighboring Mannaeans. Assyrian records detail military campaigns by in 714 BCE against Urartian holdings and allies in the Urmia plain, highlighting the area's strategic role amid rival powers. Archaeological surveys have identified Urartian-attributed settlements in , evidencing fortified structures and indicative of this era's political and economic networks. Following Urartu's collapse to and Achaemenid Persian forces around the BCE, the Urmia vicinity integrated into the Achaemenid Empire's administrative framework, likely as part of the satrapies of or Media, before successive Hellenistic, Parthian, and Sasanian dominions maintained continuity through provincial governance centered on (Atropatene). The Sasanian era (224–651 CE) saw the region as a Zoroastrian stronghold within the empire's northwestern frontier, with local elites participating in imperial horse-breeding and military levies. Arab Muslim armies conquered during the Caliphate's campaigns (636–651 CE), incorporating Urmia into the Umayyad and later Abbasid caliphates; this transition involved gradual Islamization alongside retention of Persian administrative practices and agricultural systems, as evidenced by continuity in settlement patterns from excavated rural sites. In the medieval period, Urmia emerged as a notable Christian center under Islamic rule, hosting dioceses of the (Nestorian tradition), whose ecclesiastical organization in Persia dates to the CE with bishoprics in reflecting Syriac Christian communities predating full Arab integration. The Mongol Ilkhanate's establishment in 1256 CE over Persia extended governance to the region, fostering a multicultural environment where initial Mongol tolerance toward Christians—many of whom served in administrative roles—sustained Nestorian prominence amid the khanate's Persianate court culture, though eventual Ilkhanid conversion to Islam by the late shifted dynamics toward Sunni orthodoxy. This era's intellectual output included contributions from local figures, underscoring Urmia's role in bridging pre-Islamic legacies with post-Mongol Persian revival.

Early modern period and Qajar rule

During the , Urmia experienced repeated Ottoman occupations amid the prolonged Ottoman-Safavid conflicts, particularly in the 16th and 18th centuries, as Ottoman forces targeted the region alongside during invasions into Safavid territory. These incursions disrupted local stability, with traveler accounts and military records noting population displacements, including migrations of Christian communities fleeing violence along the frontier. The city's strategic position near the Ottoman-Iranian border made it a focal point for such struggles, serving as a market hub for irrigated agricultural plains vulnerable to raiding. Under Qajar rule from 1789 to 1925, Urmia stabilized as a provincial administrative center following the delineation of borders in the (1823 and 1847), which confirmed Persian sovereignty over the city and resolved longstanding territorial disputes with the Ottomans. The founder of the dynasty, Agha Muhammad Khan, was crowned shah in Urmia in 1795, underscoring its political significance prior to the full integration of the Urmia Khanate into central Qajar administration by 1865. This era saw enhanced Persian centralization, yet the predominance of Azerbaijani Turkic speakers—reinforced by the Qajar rulers' own Turkic origins—shaped local cultural and linguistic dominance in the region. Economically, Urmia functioned as a key node on pre-rail caravan routes linking Persian Azerbaijan to Ottoman territories, facilitating trade in agricultural goods such as fruits from the surrounding plains and contributing to broader commerce networks via nearby . These routes supported the exchange of local produce for Anatolian goods, bolstering the city's role amid imperial rivalries, though exact caravan volumes remain unquantified in surviving records.

20th century upheavals

The early 20th century brought severe disruptions to Urmia due to conflicts in the region. As Russian forces withdrew in 1917-1918, and Ottoman-aligned forces attacked Assyrian communities, leading to massacres that killed thousands of the estimated 25,000 Assyrian refugees who had fled to Urmia from Ottoman territories during earlier waves of violence in 1915. These events, part of the broader genocide targeting Assyrians alongside , decimated the local Christian populations and left lasting demographic scars, with survivors scattering or facing further perils. Under Pahlavi's rule from 1925, Urmia experienced centralizing reforms, including a renaming to Reza'iyeh to honor the monarch, reflecting efforts to impose Persian nationalist nomenclature on provincial centers. Modernization initiatives emphasized infrastructure development, such as road construction and administrative consolidation, which facilitated urban expansion and integration into national networks, though specific projects in Urmia were part of broader Pahlavi-era pushes to curb tribal autonomy and enhance state control. These changes contributed to amid improving security, though ethnic tensions persisted amid forced policies affecting minority communities. The in August 1941, aimed at securing supply routes and oil, led to Reza Shah's abdication and occupation of northwestern , including the Urmia region under Soviet administration until 1946. This power vacuum enabled local autonomy movements, with Soviet-backed separatists establishing the in in November 1945, extending influence to and fostering ethnic Azerbaijani mobilization in Urmia through and militias. The regime's in December 1946, following Soviet withdrawal under international pressure, resulted in Iranian military reassertion, purges of separatist elements, and heightened central government oversight, marking the end of wartime instabilities but underscoring foreign interference's role in regional upheavals.

Islamic Revolution and contemporary developments

Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the city's name was restored to Urmia from Rezaiyeh, the designation imposed during the Pahlavi era to honor . This reversion aligned with broader efforts to eliminate Pahlavi-era nomenclature and emphasize pre-modern Iranian toponymy. The new Islamic Republic's policies accelerated Islamization, imposing restrictions on non-Muslim practices, including church operations and public religious expression, which prompted significant emigration among the Assyrian and Armenian communities historically concentrated in Urmia. The Christian population, a substantial minority in the early comprising up to 20-30% amid refugee influxes from Ottoman genocides, contracted sharply post-1979 due to systemic , property seizures, and conversion pressures under theocratic governance. By the 2020s, their share had fallen below 5%, reflecting national trends where Iran's Christian numbers dropped from around 300,000 alone in 1979 to under 200,000 total amid ongoing exodus. Emigration was compounded by economic marginalization and legal inequalities, such as restrictions favoring , driving many to , , and . During the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War, Urmia, located near the border in , experienced artillery shelling and influxes of internal refugees fleeing frontline combat in Kurdish and Azerbaijani areas. Displacements totaled millions nationally, with Urmia serving as a transit and resettlement hub for ethnic minorities, exacerbating resource strains and demographic shifts as war damage to and lingered into the . Casualties in the province, including civilians, contributed to further minority outflows, though precise Urmia-specific figures remain undocumented in open sources. In the , acute water shortages from Lake Urmia's —driven by upstream damming and over-allocation to —sparked protests in Urmia and nearby , with demonstrators decrying government neglect of local Azerbaijani communities. In August 2011, Iran's parliament rejected an emergency bill to divert Araz River water to the lake, triggering clashes where security forces deployed and arrested hundreds; similar unrest in 2010 involved violent dispersals requiring aerial reinforcements. These events highlighted ethnic grievances over perceived favoritism toward central Persian regions in water policy. Contemporary unrest intensified with 2022 nationwide protests following Mahsa Amini's death, extending to Urmia amid ethnic Azerbaijani demands for resource equity, though suppressed by force. By 2023-2025, lake-related demonstrations evolved into broader ethnic tensions, including Azerbaijani Turkic rallies against , raising risks of inter-ethnic clashes amid regime tactics of divide-and-rule; documented incidents included arrests during marches, but no large-scale violence was reported by mid-2025. Restoration efforts, such as limited inter-basin transfers, yielded marginal gains but failed to reverse salinization displacing farmers and fueling migration.

Demographics

Population growth and statistics

The population of Urmia, as recorded in national censuses conducted by Iran's Statistical Centre, has exhibited steady urban expansion. In the 2006 , the enumerated 577,307 inhabitants. By the 2016 , this figure rose to 736,224 residents, reflecting broader provincial trends. The surrounding , encompassing suburban and rural peripheries, counted 1,040,565 people in 2016, up from 963,738 in the 2011 , corresponding to an annual growth rate of 1.6%. Post-2016 estimates for the indicate continued moderate expansion, with the reaching approximately 836,000 in 2023 and projected to approach 850,000 by 2025, driven by an average annual growth rate of about 1.4% in recent years. This trajectory aligns with national patterns of decelerating rates, below replacement levels since the early 2000s, partially offset by rural-to-urban inflows. in the core city exceeds 9,000 persons per square kilometer based on built-up areas spanning roughly 81 square kilometers, though county-wide figures average 197 persons per square kilometer due to expansive rural lands. Suburban development accelerated after the , incorporating peripheral zones to accommodate housing demands amid constrained central land availability. Environmental stressors, particularly the desiccation of since the mid-2010s, have induced notable out-migration, with and salinization prompting rural departures toward larger Iranian cities; qualitative assessments highlight agriculture-dependent households as primary movers, though net urban growth persists via compensatory . Fertility rates in , encompassing Urmia, have contributed to a moderated growth pace, averaging below 1.5 children per woman in recent surveys, exacerbating reliance on migration balances for stability.

Ethnic composition

Urmia's ethnic composition is dominated by Azerbaijani Turks, who constitute approximately 70-80% of the according to linguistic proxies from Iran's 2016 and regional ethnographic surveys that correlate mother-tongue data with ethnic identity. Kurds form the largest minority group at 15-20%, concentrated in urban peripheries and surrounding rural areas, while Assyrians and Armenians each account for less than 5%, often in compact enclaves. These proportions reflect indirect indicators, as Iran does not officially enumerate , relying instead on and settlement patterns for estimation. The Turkic demographic preponderance emerged through successive migrations beginning in the , when Oghuz Turkic tribes under Seljuk influence settled in northwestern , displacing or assimilating indigenous Iranian and Semitic populations via nomadism and . This process accelerated from the onward during Safavid and Qajar eras, with tribal confederations like the Afshars establishing dominance in Urmia through land grants and inter-ethnic unions, resulting in Azerbaijani Turkish becoming the in markets, administration, and daily commerce by the 19th century. Empirical observations of language use confirm this, with over 80% of public interactions in Azerbaijani Turkish, underscoring incomplete assimilation of non-Turkic groups amid persistent cultural boundaries. Tensions between Azerbaijani Turks and have intensified in recent years, culminating in escalations during March 2025 celebrations, where clashes in Urmia involved anti-Kurdish slogans and reported displacements from mixed neighborhoods. These incidents, documented in multiple reports, stem from competition over urban resources and historical grievances, exacerbating segregation without evidence of broad assimilation.

Religious demographics

Urmia is predominantly Shia Muslim, with adherents estimated to comprise over 90 percent of the city's of approximately 736,000 as of the 2016 Iranian . This aligns with the ethnic composition dominated by Azerbaijani Turks, who overwhelmingly follow , supplemented by smaller numbers of Sunni Muslims, primarily in peripheral districts. Reliable granular data on religious affiliation remains limited due to the Iranian government's practices, which underreport minorities and aggregate Muslims without sect breakdown, but regional patterns confirm Shiism's in urban Urmia proper. Christian communities, chiefly Assyrian (including Chaldean Catholic and Assyrian Orthodox adherents) with a smaller Armenian contingent, have dwindled to an estimated 2-3 percent or fewer of the population. The Assyrian Policy Institute reports fewer than 15,000 Assyrians remaining in Urmia as of recent assessments, down from historical concentrations that supported dozens of churches. Other faiths, such as or Baha'i, exist in negligible numbers, often facing emigration pressures akin to . Historically, Christians formed a plurality of 40 percent or more around 1900, per missionary accounts from American Presbyterian and other Western missions active in the region, which documented thriving Nestorian (Church of the East) and Protestant converts amid the Urmia plain's villages. This demographic eroded sharply during the 1914-1918 Assyrian genocide and associated World War I upheavals, including Ottoman invasions and Russian withdrawals, which killed tens of thousands and prompted mass flight to the Caucasus; missionary records from 1915 note panic-driven exoduses of up to 25,000-40,000 from the Urmia plain alone. Post-1918 emigration, compounded by 20th-century persecutions and economic factors, reduced the community to remnants, verified by cross-referenced church registries and refugee tallies rather than official Iranian statistics, which historically minimized non-Muslim presence. Surviving Christian sites, such as the 12th-century St. Mary Church (Nane Maryam), exemplify syncretic continuity, blending early Christian with possible pre-Christian Zoroastrian foundations, though doctrinal adherence remains strictly Christian among current congregants. These demographics underscore a transition from pluralistic coexistence to Muslim-majority homogeneity, driven by demographic collapse of minorities rather than conversion, as evidenced by persistent low rates in archival mission data.

Economy

Primary sectors and trade

Agriculture remains the backbone of Urmia's economy, with the surrounding specializing in fruit cultivation, particularly apples and grapes. The province produces over 1.5 million tons of apples annually, accounting for a significant portion of Iran's total output, historically estimated at one-third of national production. Grapes, long renowned in the region for quality and use in wine production prior to shifts in cultivation patterns, continue to support local farming, though apple orchards have expanded due to higher yields and market demand. These sectors contribute substantially to provincial GDP, often exceeding 20% through direct output and related activities, employing a large share of the in rural areas. Fruit exports form a key component, with up to 400,000 tons of apples from West Azerbaijan prepared for international markets in recent seasons, targeting neighbors like , , and . Urmia's cold storage infrastructure, capable of handling over 1 million tons of , facilitates this by preserving perishable goods for and domestic distribution. Historically, annual shipments from the area have surpassed 100,000 tons, bolstering non-oil revenues amid Iran's broader agricultural push. Light industries complement , focusing on for fruits, juices, and preserves, alongside limited utilizing local and . These activities, supported by small-scale factories, process agricultural surpluses into value-added goods for regional trade. Informal cross-border commerce, particularly with via nearby hubs, sustains petty trade in foodstuffs and basic manufactures, though formal data from the 2020s highlights a pivot toward services as agricultural viability wanes, correlating with provincial rates climbing to 15-20%.

Challenges from resource depletion

The desiccation of , driven primarily by upstream damming, expansive , and overexploitation, has inflicted profound economic damage on basin livelihoods, with annual water inflows dropping to approximately 2.5 billion cubic meters—insufficient to sustain the lake's prior volume. This has dismantled key sectors, amplifying and fiscal strain across a basin supporting over 5 million residents, where employs the rural majority. Policy shortcomings, including unchecked expansion of irrigated lands by up to 20% in recent decades without corresponding efficiency gains, have accelerated the crisis, prioritizing short-term yields over ecological balance. Fisheries, centered on endemic brine shrimp (Artemia urmiana) harvested for global feed, collapsed as surged beyond 350 g/L, eradicating populations by the mid-2010s. Pre-desiccation yields averaged 4,200–4,500 tons of dry annually in the , sustaining local processing and export chains; by the , viable extraction neared zero, idling thousands of dependent workers and evaporating related revenues. This mirrors broader failure, where hypersalinity precluded or recovery despite intermittent trials. Agricultural salinization has degraded up to significant portions of basin farmlands, with toxicity and depletion reducing productivity through yield drops of 20–50% in vulnerable zones via scenario modeling. demands, fueled by dam-induced shortages, have induced widespread land abandonment, as salt intrusion from exposed lakebed aerosols contaminates fields and , compelling shifts to less viable crops or fallowing. Over 90,000 unauthorized wells in the basin exacerbate this, drawing down resources without regulatory enforcement, underscoring systemic mismanagement in water allocation. Tourism revenues, tied to the lake's former scenic and migratory appeal, have plummeted amid storms and desiccated vistas, with basin operators reporting near-total cessation of lake-centric visits since peak shrinkage around 2015. This sector's contraction compounds , as rural households—facing basin-wide joblessness spikes—experience income shortfalls exceeding national averages, prompting environmental migration. Between 2006 and 2016, over 70% of East Azerbaijan Province's rural out-migrants hailed from lake-proximate villages, yielding labor deficits in remaining farms and inflating urban underemployment.

Government and Politics

Administrative structure

Urmia serves as the capital of and Urmia County, operating within Iran's hierarchical administrative system where provinces are subdivisions headed by a appointed by the Minister of the Interior in . The current governor-general of is Reza Rahmani, overseeing provincial coordination with national policies on security, economy, and infrastructure. This structure aligns with the 1979 Constitution's provisions for centralized executive authority, dividing the country into 31 provinces, each with counties (shahrestan) like Urmia County further segmented into districts (bakhsh) and rural areas (dehestan). At the municipal level, Urmia's city government is directed by a chosen by the locally elected Islamic City Council, comprising members directly voted by residents every four years, though the mayor's appointment must receive final approval from the Ministry of Interior to ensure alignment with national directives. This process embodies Iran's limited , codified in post-revolutionary laws such as the 1983 Municipalities Law and subsequent regulations from the 1980s that established councils but retained veto powers for central authorities amid concerns over regional autonomy following ethnic conflicts in the early 1980s. The handles urban services including , , and , operating under a constrained fiscal framework where local revenues from taxes and fees supplement national allocations, with annual budgets historically around 550 billion tomans (roughly equivalent to $100-130 million USD depending on exchange rates). Central oversight persists through supervisory bodies like the provincial governor's office and the Interior Ministry's inspectorate, limiting independent policymaking and enforcing uniformity in areas such as budgeting and personnel appointments, as reinforced by amendments to municipal laws that prioritized national cohesion over expansive local powers. Urmia's border proximity to and underscores its administrative role in facilitating and , evidenced by the presence of a Turkish General handling visa services, consular , and economic liaison since its establishment to support cross-border exchanges. No equivalent Iraqi consulate operates in the city, with bilateral matters routed through provincial channels or Tehran's embassy in .

Ethnic politics and representation issues

Azerbaijanis, who form the ethnic majority in Urmia and while comprising an estimated 25-30% of Iran's overall population, experience significant underrepresentation in national institutions, including the , , and executive branches. This imbalance, despite their demographic weight, has historically fueled autonomy demands, as seen in the short-lived of 1946 and recurring protests in the over cultural suppression and environmental neglect. Iranian authorities have responded with repression, issuing prison sentences to at least two dozen Azerbaijani activists since October 2024 for activities deemed separatist or threatening to national unity. Locally, ethnic representation disputes manifest in electoral outcomes that disadvantage the Azerbaijani majority; in the March 2024 parliamentary elections for , Kurdish candidates secured two of three seats through tactics perceived as manipulative, despite Kurds forming a smaller share of the population. Such disparities intensify grievances over power allocation, with Azerbaijani communities viewing them as emblematic of Tehran's favoritism toward minority groups like in provincial governance. These tensions escalated into open clashes in March 2025, when hundreds of in Urmia protested with anti-Kurdish slogans and gestures, triggered by disputes over local authority and perceived Kurdish overreach during celebrations. Authorities attributed the unrest to isolated incitement but cracked down amid broader ethnic friction, with groups reporting arrests and condemning state-orchestrated divisions. Centralized water policies exacerbating Lake Urmia's desiccation—through upstream dams and diversions—have further eroded trust in , heightening inter-ethnic rivalries over resource access and amplifying tribalistic tendencies among both and . -led protests against these policies frame them as discriminatory neglect, linking ecological decline to unmet demands for decentralized control and equitable representation. This dynamic underscores a pattern where environmental mismanagement intersects with political exclusion, sustaining calls for without widespread secessionist consensus.

Culture

Traditions and heritage

Urmia's traditions are deeply rooted in Azerbaijani Turkic , prominently featuring the ashiq bardic art, a syncretic form combining , , , , and performed on the , which serves as a symbol of regional identity and has been inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. This oral tradition, transmitted through master-apprentice lineages, preserves pre-Islamic motifs alongside Islamic influences and remains active in local performances. The city's musical heritage includes contributions from Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (c. 1216–1294), born in Urmia, who advanced theoretical frameworks for Middle Eastern music by systematizing scales, intervals, and modal structures in treatises like Kitāb al-Adwār, influencing subsequent Persian and Ottoman traditions. Nowruz, the spring equinox festival marking renewal, is observed with Azerbaijani-specific customs in Urmia, including the four preceding Tuesdays (Charshanbe Suri series) each honoring an element—water, fire, earth, and air—through rituals like fire-jumping to ward off misfortune and promote prosperity, blending Zoroastrian origins with Turkic communal feasts. Agricultural heritage manifests in ancient fruit harvest festivals, such as the annual grape festival in September, with origins exceeding 3,000 years predating , involving communal celebrations of the harvest that highlight Urmia's viticultural productivity and continuity of pre-Islamic agrarian rites adapted over centuries. Architectural legacies include the Urmia Bazaar, constructed during the Safavid era (1501–1736), characterized by domed vaults, arched iwans, and labyrinthine passages that facilitated trade in silk, spices, and local produce while embodying Persianate design principles integrated with regional adaptations.

Religious and minority cultures


Urmia's religious minority cultures center on longstanding Christian communities, predominantly Assyrian adherents of the and Chaldean Catholics, alongside smaller Armenian Apostolic groups, who preserve ancient liturgical traditions amid ongoing demographic erosion. These groups trace their presence to early Christian missions in the region, maintaining distinct rites separate from the Shia Muslim majority. Historic sites like St. Mary Church (Nane Maryam), potentially dating elements to the , serve as focal points for worship, though many structures face maintenance challenges due to reduced congregants. Assyrian cultural holdouts include the annual festival, marking the on with roots in Mesopotamian antiquity, featuring communal prayers, processions, and symbolic renewals adapted to contemporary settings. This observance persists in Urmia despite restrictions on public minority gatherings under Iranian law, which limits non-Islamic religious expressions to designated areas. Armenian influences appear in shared and feast days, such as water festivals occasionally echoed in local customs, though formal Armenian parishes remain limited compared to Assyrian ones. , accelerated by post-1979 revolutionary policies favoring Islamic conformity and sporadic persecutions, has dwindled active parishes; estimates indicate fewer than 50,000 Assyrians nationwide by 2022, with Urmia's share contracting sharply, rendering many festivals intimate family affairs rather than communal events. Syncretic elements emerge in everyday practices, particularly cuisine, where Assyrian and Armenian variants—stuffed grape leaves or vegetables with rice, meat, and herbs—blend into broader Azerbaijani-Turkic preparations, reflecting inter-ethnic exchanges over centuries. These dishes, often prepared for Christian holidays like , incorporate local ingredients while retaining minority-specific seasonings, such as tangy or , fostering subtle cultural continuity. Assimilation pressures, including mandatory Persian-language education and curbs on minority-language media, compound emigration drivers, with international reports noting systemic incentives for minorities to adopt dominant norms or relocate abroad, further eroding distinct practices by 2025.

Education and Media

Higher education institutions

Urmia , founded in 1965 as a public institution, is the largest higher education center in , enrolling around 13,800 students with a balanced male-female ratio. Its faculties emphasize sciences, , , and , supporting through centers in , , and antenna technology. The university's agricultural programs address regional needs, including crop sciences tied to local challenges around . Urmia University of Medical Sciences, established in 1980 initially as a medical faculty under Urmia University and gaining independence in 1985, focuses on health-related disciplines with schools in , , , , and . It oversees affiliated hospitals and contributes to research, though specific enrollment figures remain around 3,000 for core programs based on available data. The Urmia branch, part of Iran's extensive private network, prioritizes engineering and technology fields, with faculty research outputs in areas like and potentially applicable to regional issues such as hydrology. Enrollment details are not publicly detailed, but it ranks among active contributors to technical education in the province. Urmia University of Technology, a specialized public entity, concentrates on applied engineering and , supplementing the broader ecosystem with targeted vocational outputs. Collectively, these institutions reflect provincial literacy rates exceeding 82% as of 2016, with urban Urmia aligning closer to national figures over 90% by 2023, though higher education faces challenges from brain drain, where substantial graduate —driven by and political constraints—has intensified since the 2010s, contributing to a national loss of skilled professionals.

Local media landscape

The media landscape in Urmia is dominated by state-controlled outlets under the (IRIB), which operates a regional television and radio station for , including limited local programming focused on provincial news and official narratives. Primarily broadcast in Persian, these channels provide restricted Azerbaijani-language content, reflecting broader policies that prioritize Persian as the official medium while marginalizing ethnic languages in . Local print media consists of a small number of licensed newspapers, whose circulation has grown modestly with support, but all operate under oversight from the and Islamic Guidance, enforcing on sensitive topics like ethnic identity and resource disputes. Censorship severely restricts independent coverage of ethnic Azerbaijani issues, with authorities prohibiting Azerbaijani-language publications or broadcasts that challenge state unity narratives, leading to frequent suspensions or closures of outlets perceived as separatist. Underground and dissident media, such as online platforms like Araz News, have emerged to report on suppressed topics including environmental crises and ethnic discrimination, though these face periodic blocks and contributor arrests. Following the 2022 , which saw Urmia as a hotspot for Azerbaijani-led demonstrations over ethnic and economic grievances, state crackdowns intensified, shutting down informal networks disseminating protest footage and commentary. A shift toward digital platforms has amplified alternative voices, with serving as a primary channel for real-time reporting on unrest despite government filtering and VPN requirements; nationwide surveys indicate 68% of Iranians frequently access such platforms for news, a trend evident in Urmia's youth-driven ethnic . This reliance on Telegram, , and similar tools bypasses traditional but exposes users to , with post-2022 protest coverage in Urmia highlighting water mismanagement and representation failures often omitted from . Overall, the landscape reinforces central authority, limiting substantive discourse on local Azerbaijani concerns.

Infrastructure

Transportation systems

Urmia is connected to regional centers via the –Urmia freeway, a key segment of Iran's east-west corridor spanning approximately 145 kilometers and enabling a driving time of under two hours to . This infrastructure supports commerce and passenger movement, with ongoing developments including bridges and causeways over to enhance connectivity. Shahid Bakeri International Airport serves as the city's primary air hub, equipped with a 3,250-meter runway, , and terminals for domestic flights to , , and other Iranian cities, alongside limited international services such as to via . Rail access is provided by Urmia Railway Station, operational since November 2018 and linked to the national network through the Maragheh–Urmia branch line, which connects to and onward to for passenger services. Trains from Urmia to cover 122 kilometers, with schedules facilitating regional travel. The city's proximity to the border, about 100 kilometers north, bolsters trade logistics, with Urmia province's border crossings handling exports exceeding 1 million tons of goods valued at over $1 billion in 2023, reflecting a 31% value increase from the prior year. Intra-urban mobility relies on bus networks from terminals like the one on Haft-e Tir Street and shared taxis, typical of Iranian provincial capitals.

Healthcare and utilities

Urmia features five major hospitals, including Motahari Hospital and Khomeini Hospital under Urmia of Medical Sciences, alongside facilities such as Shams Hospital and Milad Hospital, which provide specialized services like emergency care and advanced diagnostics. The region's healthcare system aligns with Iran's national physician density of 1.58 doctors per 1,000 residents as of 2018, though provincial disparities in West Azerbaijan suggest effective ratios closer to 1:2,000 in underserved areas due to specialist shortages and uneven distribution. Local facilities experience strain from elevated rates of respiratory conditions and shortening in exposed populations, attributed to salt-dust emissions, which increase demand for pulmonary and pediatric care beyond WHO benchmarks for service coverage. Water utilities in Urmia provide intermittent supply to urban households, with distribution networks covering approximately 60% of needs amid regional shortages exacerbated by basin-wide depletion, falling short of WHO standards for continuous access and safe equity. Electricity remains largely reliable for residential use, supported by the 1,434 MW Urmia Gas Fired Power Plant, but prioritizes agricultural pumps during high-demand periods, leading to scheduled outages that disrupt urban reliability.

Sports and Recreation

Sporting facilities and teams

Volleyball dominates organized sports in Urmia, with the city recognized as a hub for the sport in Iran. Shahrdari Urmia Club, founded in 1996, competes in the Iranian Volleyball Premier League and uses Ghadir Arena as its home venue, an indoor facility equipped specifically for with a seating capacity of 6,000. Ghadir Arena has hosted major international events, including the third week of the on June 14-16, 2019, and matches of the 22nd Asian Senior Men's Volleyball Championship in August 2023. Football maintains a presence through Shahrdari Urmia F.C., which has competed in Iran's 2nd Division since its establishment. The club plays home matches at Takhti Stadium, supporting local competitive play in lower professional tiers. Wrestling reflects regional traditions, with Urmia serving as a venue for national and international competitions that highlight athletic prowess from the area. The city hosted the 43rd Takhti International Competition on May 25-26, 2023, where Iran's team claimed the championship. In 2025, Urmia hosted the Asian Pahlevani and Zurkhaneh Wrestling Championships, featuring 180 athletes from 17 countries, with Iran securing the overall title through multiple medals, including golds in heavyweight divisions.

Tourism and natural sites

, the largest saltwater lake in the prior to its significant shrinkage, formerly served as a primary natural attraction for tourists seeking therapeutic benefits from its saline waters and mud, believed to alleviate skin and joint ailments. The lake's shores drew visitors for eco-tourism activities, including and salt flat exploration, but its —driven by upstream damming, agricultural overuse, and prolonged droughts since the —has drastically reduced accessibility and appeal. Exposed lake beds now generate frequent salt-laden dust storms, exacerbating health risks and rendering surrounding areas inhospitable for , leading to a substantial decline in visitor numbers and collapsed lake-dependent recreational infrastructure. Hot springs in the Urmia vicinity persist as viable natural sites, attracting seasonal tourists particularly during winter for their warm, mineral-rich waters purported to treat , skin disorders, and respiratory issues. Additional attractions include Saholan Cave, known for its geological formations, and Marmisho Lake, offering scenic wetlands for limited eco-tourism despite regional dust pollution challenges. Cultural tourism bolsters Urmia's offerings through historical sites such as the ancient Urmia Bazaar, featuring traditional architecture and artisan shops, and Assyrian churches like St. Mary Church, dating back centuries and highlighting the region's minority heritage. These landmarks hold potential for enhanced international recognition, akin to nearby UNESCO-listed sites, but and logistical barriers have hindered broader development and visitor influx.

Controversies

Ethnic conflicts and tensions

In March 2025, ethnic tensions between Azerbaijani Turks and Kurds in Urmia escalated following large-scale Newroz celebrations, with Azerbaijani protesters chanting anti-Kurdish slogans and displaying ultranationalist gestures such as the Grey Wolves salute during street demonstrations. These events, triggered by perceptions of Kurdish "immigration" and competition for local resources amid ongoing water scarcity, prompted threats of violence from pan-Turkist groups and calls for de-escalation from Kurdish and Azerbaijani human rights organizations. Iranian authorities attributed the unrest to isolated provocateurs, including specific individuals at an Alawite religious gathering, while deploying security measures to prevent physical clashes. Such flare-ups echo patterns of resource-driven inter-ethnic friction in Urmia, where Azerbaijani majorities and Kurdish minorities have vied over access to diminishing supplies from the shrinking basin, exacerbating tribal-like rivalries during drought periods. Historical precedents include the 1915-1918 massacres, during which local Kurdish and Persian militias targeted Assyrian Christian communities in Urmia amid wartime chaos, resulting in widespread displacement and deaths estimated in the thousands. In the post-World War II era, the collapse of Soviet-backed ethnic autonomous entities in 1946, such as the , led to reprisals against minority militias in the region, including uprisings against Christian armed groups in Urmia by local Muslim forces. These incidents recurred in cycles tied to , with similar water-related protests in 2011 heightening fears of Azeri-Kurd confrontations over irrigation and settlement rights. Government interventions, often involving mass arrests and force by , have quelled immediate violence but deepened mistrust among ethnic groups, as evidenced by surges in detentions of both Azerbaijani and Kurdish activists in 2025 amid broader minority crackdowns. Surveys and reports from monitors indicate declining confidence in state impartiality, with ethnic communities perceiving responses as favoring suppression over equitable , perpetuating cycles of latent hostility.

Environmental mismanagement debates

The shrinkage of has sparked debates centering on institutional failures in water resource management, with hydrological analyses attributing the primary drivers to anthropogenic factors such as excessive agricultural withdrawals and dam construction rather than variability alone. Approximately 90% of the basin's is allocated to , predominantly for inefficient of water-intensive crops like and sugar beets, leading to overextraction that has drastically reduced natural inflows to the lake. Hydrological models indicate that human activities account for the majority of the decline, with factors contributing only about 20% to the water level drop, as evidenced by simulations integrating land-use changes, dam impoundments, and precipitation data from 1970 to 2020. The Urmia Lake Restoration Program, initiated in the 2010s under Iran's Department of Environment, aimed to reverse the desiccation through measures like inter-basin water transfers and conservation incentives but largely failed due to prioritization of supply-side infrastructure, such as additional dams, over demand-side reforms like curbing agricultural overuse. Program evaluations highlight implementation shortcomings, including inadequate enforcement of water quotas and resistance from agricultural lobbies, resulting in continued inflow reductions estimated at over 70% from pre-2000 levels. Political analyses attribute this to fragmented governance, where line ministries favored short-term economic gains from dam projects—numbering over 50 in the basin—without integrating comprehensive basin-wide planning, exacerbating the lake's hypersaline state and dust storm risks. While have constrained technology imports for efficient , debates emphasize that these are secondary to endogenous errors, as domestic policies subsidizing water-intensive farming and unchecked dam proliferation predated sanctions and persist regardless. As of August 2025, the lake's water levels reached an "undeclared" status—below measurable thresholds—with surface area contracted to approximately 581 square kilometers, underscoring the program's inability to halt the despite partial recoveries in wetter years. Critics, drawing from satellite-derived inflow models, argue that reallocating even 20-30% of agricultural water through policy enforcement could stabilize levels, yet institutional inertia favors status quo extraction patterns.

Social and political unrest

In July 2022, hundreds of residents protested in Urmia against the ongoing desiccation of , chanting slogans criticizing parliamentary inaction and government mismanagement of , which prompted police intervention and arrests. detained at least 16 participants, accusing them of disturbing public order amid demands for urgent restoration efforts to avert ecological and . These demonstrations, part of sporadic water-related unrest from 2018 to 2023, stem from acute shortages that have crippled irrigation-dependent , fisheries, and related industries, contributing to widespread and household income erosion in the region. The lake's shrinkage has accelerated environmental migration, displacing rural households reliant on farming and , with patterns indicating heavy outflux from basin villages to urban centers like and since the early 2010s. Ethnic minorities, including Assyrians and concentrated in vulnerable peripheral areas, exhibit higher displacement rates due to limited adaptive resources and disproportionate exposure to salinization-induced , compounding preexisting socioeconomic marginalization. Chronic resource neglect by Tehran's central authorities has deepened local distrust, evident in protests voicing ethnic and regional grievances among the Azerbaijani Turkish majority, including muted demands for devolved control over water allocation and infrastructure to counter perceived discriminatory policies. Such sentiments, amplified by unaddressed environmental failures, have sustained low-intensity separatist rhetoric focused on cultural-linguistic preservation rather than outright , though suppressed by security measures.

Notable People

Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (c. 1216–1294), born in Urmia, was a musician, music theorist, and calligrapher who advanced Middle Eastern classical music through his lute playing and theoretical writings, including systematization of musical modes.
  • Fatma Mukhtarova (1893–1972): Opera singer born in Urmia to an Iranian Azeri father and Tatar mother; she became a prominent Soviet mezzo-soprano, performing in Baku and earning recognition as an Honorary Artist of Georgia.
  • Saeid Marouf (born October 20, 1985): Volleyball setter born in Urmia, who captains the Iranian national team and has led it to multiple Asian Championship golds (2013, 2019) and Asian Games victories (2014, 2018).
  • Davood Azad (born October 6, 1963): Singer, multi-instrumentalist, and composer born in Urmia, specializing in Iranian classical and Azerbaijani folk music.
  • Mehrsa Baradaran (born April 3, 1978): Legal scholar and professor born in Urmia, specializing in banking law, financial regulation, and wealth inequality; author of books like How the Other Half Banks.

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  197. https://timenote.info/lv/person/view?id=2716718&l=en
  198. https://www.fivb.com/saeid-marouf/
  199. https://volleybox.net/saeid-marouf-m11211
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