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Map of Celtic-influenced regions of Europe, in dark green 1 and 2 : regions where Celtic languages are attested from the Middle Ages until today

Celtic toponymy is the study of place names wholly or partially of Celtic origin. These names are found throughout continental Europe, Britain, Ireland, Anatolia and, latterly, through various other parts of the globe not originally occupied by Celts.

Celtic languages

[edit]
Main article: Proto-Celtic language

The Proto-Indo-European language developed into various daughter languages, including the Proto-Celtic language.

In Proto-Celtic ("PC"), the Proto-Indo-European ("PIE") sound *p disappeared, perhaps through an intermediate *ɸ. It is a common point between all the Celtic languages. Examples : Latin pater "father", but Gaulish *atir / ater (atrebo, dativ plural), (Old) Irish athair / athir.[1]

After that, languages derived from Proto-Celtic changed PC *kw into either *p or *k (see: P-Celtic and Q-Celtic languages). In P-Celtic languages, PC *kw changed into *p. In Q-Celtic dialects it developed into /k/.

P-Celtic languages include the Continental Gaulish language and the Brittonic branch of Insular Celtic. Common Brittonic is the ancestor of Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

Ancient Q-Celtic languages include the Continental Celtiberian and the Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic. Goidelic is the ancestor of the Gaelic languages Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx.

Examples : PIE *kʷetwóres "four" >

  • Proto-Italic *kʷettwōr "four" > Latin quattuor
  • Proto-Celtic *kʷetwares "four" > Irish ceathair, Scottish Gaelic ceithir "four", but Gaulish petuar[ios] "fourth", Welsh pedwar "four", Old Breton petguar > Breton pevar "four"[1]

Frequent elements in place-names and their cognates in modern Celtic languages

[edit]
  • Celtic *-āko-, suffix : Gaulish -(i)acon (Latin -(i)acum / (i)acus) < endings -[a]y, -[e]y, -é, -(i)ac in Gaul.[2] Brittonic *-ocon / -*ogon 'place of, property of'; Old Breton -oc > -euc > -ek / -eg (-ec), Welsh -(i)og, etc.
  • Celtic *bonus, *bona 'base, foundation' > Old Irish bun 'base, stem, stock', Welsh bon 'base, stem, stock'
  • Celtic *briga 'hill, high place'[3] > Welsh bri 'honourable, respected' (not directly related to Welsh bryn 'hill'), Irish brí 'hill; strength, vigour, significance'.
  • Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated'; used as a feminine divine name, rendered Brigantia in Latin, Old Irish Brigit 'exalted one', name of a goddess.
  • Celtic *brīwa, *brīua 'bridge'[3]
  • Celtic *dubros 'water' > Old Irish dobur 'water', Welsh Welsh dw[f]r, Cornish dur, Breton dour 'water'
  • Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'[3] > Welsh dinas 'city' and din 'fortress', Irish dún 'fortress'
  • Celtic *duro- 'door, gate, forum'[3] > Welsh dor, Breton dor 'door'
  • Celtic *ialo- 'clearing (wood), assart' > Welsh (tir) ial[3]
  • Celtic *kwenno- 'head' > Gallo-Brythonic *penn-, Welsh pen 'head, end, chief, supreme', Breton penn, but Old Irish cenn > Irish ceann 'head'
  • Celtic *magos 'field, plain'[3] > Welsh maes 'field', Old Irish mag[3] > Irish magh 'plain'
  • Celtic *nemeto- 'wood', 'sacred enclosure', 'sanctuary'[3] > Old Irish nemed 'sanctuary'
  • Celtic *rito- 'ford' > Welsh rhyd 'ford'[3]
  • Celtic *windo- 'white, fair, blessed' > Welsh gwyn/wyn / gwen/wen 'white, blessed', Old Irish find, Irish fionn 'fair'

European connection

[edit]
  • Brigantes
  • Cambodunum > Champéon (France, Cambdonno / Cambindonno 6-7th century), Champbezon (France, Chambedon 11th century), Kempten (Germany, Camboduno 3rd century)
  • Mediolanum > Meulan (France), Milano (Italy)..
  • Noviomagus > Nouvion, Nogent, Novion, Nijon, etc. (France), Nijmegen (Netherland); former name of Chichester, Crayford, England
  • Ebur(i)acum > Ivry, Évry (France), former name of York, England
  • Epiacum > Epfig (Alsace, France, Epiaco 12th century); X (unknown location in Great-Britain)
  • Lugdunum > Lyon, Lion, Loudun, Laon, Lauzun (France), Leiden / Leyde (Netherlands)
  • Rigomagus > Riom (France), Remagen (Germany)
  • Segodunum > Suin, Syon (France); X unclear location near Würzburg (Germany)
  • Vuerodunum > several Verdun (France), Verduno (Italy, Piedmont), Verdú (Spain, Catalonia), Birten (Germany, Xanten)

Continental Celtic

[edit]

Austria

[edit]
  • Bregenz, Vorarlberg, Latin Brigantium : from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia)
  • Wien, English Vienna, Latin Vindobona : from Celtic *windo- 'white' (Welsh gwyn) + *bona 'base, foundation' (Welsh bôn 'base, bottom, stump', Irish bun 'bottom, base')

Belgium

[edit]
  • Ardennes, Latin Arduenna Silva : from divine name Arduinna : from Celtic *ardu- 'high' (Irish ard) + Latin silva 'forest'
  • Gent, English Ghent, Latin Gandavum : from divine name Gontia

France

[edit]

Most of the main cities in France have a Celtic name (the original Gaulish one or the name of the Gaulish tribe).

  • Amiens : from Ambiani, a Celtic tribe, replaces Samarobriva 'bridge on the river Somme'
  • Angers : from Andecavi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Juliomagus 'market place dedicated to Julius'
  • Argentan : from Argentomagus 'silver market', based on arganto- 'silver' cognate to Old Welsh argant > ariant, Old Breton argant > Breton arc'hant 'silver' + magos 'market'
  • Argentorate, now Strasbourg
  • Arles : from Arelate
  • Arras : from Atrebates, a Celtic tribe, replaces Nemetacum, nemeto- 'sacred place' + suffix -acon
  • Augustonemetum, now Clermont-Ferrand
  • Autun : from Augustodunum, 'town dedicated to Augustus'
  • Avignon : from Avenii a Celtic tribe. It was one of the three cities of the Cavari
  • Bayeux : from Badiocassi / Bodiocassi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Augustodurum. 'forum dedicated to Augustus'
  • Bourges : from Biturigi, a Celtic tribe, replaces Avaricum
  • Briançon < Brigantium, from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia)
    • several places called Briançon
  • Brive < Briva 'bridge'
  • Caen < Catumagos : from Old Celtic *catu- 'battle' 'fight' 'combat', Old Irish cath 'battle, battalion, troop', Breton -kad /-gad, Welsh cad 'combat, troop'; 'mago- 'field, plain', Old Irish magh. The general meaning seems to be 'battlefield'[4]
  • Cahors
  • Carentan : from Carentomagus
  • Chambord
  • Chartres : from Carnuti, name of a Celtic tribe, replaces Autricum
  • Condom : from Condatomagus
  • Divodurum (Latin), now Metz, Lorraine, from Celtic *diwo- 'god, holy, divine' (Scottish Gaelic dia 'god') + **duro- 'fort'
  • Douvres (also the French name of Dover) from Celtic dubron, dubra 'water'
    • several places called Douvres
  • Drevant : from Derventum, Celtic dervo 'oak tree' + suffix -entu
  • Évreux : from Eburovici replaces Mediolanum (see below)
  • Issoudun
  • Jort : from Divoritum 'ford on the river Dives' (Dives from Celtic *dewo 'stream')
  • Lillebonne : from Juliobona 'foundation dedicated to Julius'
  • Limoges
  • Lisieux < (Civitas) Lexoviensis; former Noviomagus[5] 'new market', Old Celtic *noviios 'new', *magos 'field, plain'.
  • Lyon, Rhône, Latin Lugdunum : from Celtic *lug- 'Lugus' (divine name) or perhaps 'light' + *dūnon 'fortress'
  • Mediolanum : from Celtic
  • Nant
    • several places called Nant, Nans
  • Nantes
  • Nanteuil
  • Nanterre (Nemptu doro 5th century) : from nemeto- 'sacred place' + duro- 'gate', 'forum'
  • Noyon, Latin Noviomagus Veromanduorum, from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd) + *magos 'field, plain'
  • Oissel
  • Orange : from Arausio, a water god
  • Paris : from Parisii (Gaul), name of a Celtic tribe, replaces Lukotekia / Lutetia
  • Périgueux / Périgord : from Petrocorii 'the four armies'
  • Pierremande < Petromantalum < petro-mantalo- 'four road' = 'crossing'
  • Rennes : from Redones, a Celtic tribe, replaces Condate
    • several places called Condé, Condat, Candé, etc.
  • Riom : from Rigomagus
  • Rouen < Rotomagus,[6] sometimes Ratómagos or Ratumacos (on the coins of the Veliocassi tribe). It can be roto-, the word for 'wheel' or 'race', cf. Old Irish roth 'wheel' 'race' or Welsh rhod 'wheel' 'race'. Magos is surer here : 'field', 'plain' or later 'market' cf. Old Irish mag (gen. maige) 'field' 'plain', Old Breton ma 'place'. The whole thing could mean 'hippodrome', 'racecourse' or 'wheel market'.[7]
  • Vandœuvre < *vindo-briga 'white fortress'
  • Verdun, Virodunum or Verodunum, from Celtic *uiro-, *uero- 'high' and *dūnon 'hill, fortress'
    • several places called Verdun
  • Verneuil : from verno- + ialo- 'clearing, plain with alder-trees'
  • Vernon < Vernomagus. There are other Vernons in France, but they come directly from Vernō 'place of the alder-trees'. 'plain of the alder-trees'. uernā 'alder-tree', Old Irish fern, Breton, Welsh gwern, dial. French verne / vergne.
  • Veuves : from vidua 'forest' Voves, Vion
    • several places called Voves, Vove
  • Vion : from Vidumagus 'forest market'

Germany

[edit]

From Celtic *alisa, s.f., 'alder'. (Compare the modern German Erlenbach) and Old High German (OHG) aha, s.n., 'flowing water'.

  • de Amarahe (?), a lost river name near Fulda c. 800 CE
  • Amerbach, a stream near Groß-Umstadt, Babenhausen, Ober-Ramstadt
  • Ammer
  • Ammerbach
  • Ammergraben, a stream near Harpertshausen
  • Amorbach, a stream near Mümling and the village named after it.
  • Amorsbrunn
  • Wald-Amorbach < Perhaps from Celtic *ambara, 'channel, river'. Compare Indo-European *amer-, 'channel, river' > Greek ἀμάρη (amárē), 'channel'. Or, from Celtic *amara, 'spelt, a type of grain'.
  • Annelsbach a suburb of Höchst
  • Ansbach in Mittelfranken originally Onoltesbah 837 CE : from Celtic *onno-, 'ash tree' plus an OHG bach, 'small river'.
  • Boiodurum, now Innstadt, Passau, Niederbayern : first element is Celtic *Boio-, tribal name (Boii), possibly 'cattle-owner' (cf. Irish bó 'cow') or 'warrior'. Second element is Celtic *duro- 'fort'.
  • Bonn : from Celtic *bona 'base, foundation' (Welsh bôn 'base, bottom, stump')
  • Boppard : from Gaulish Boudobriga, "hill of victory". Containing the elements *boudo- 'victory' (Welsh budd 'gain, benefit') + *briga, 'hill'.
  • Düren, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Latin Durum : from Celtic *duro- 'fort'
  • Hercynia Silva (Latin), a vast forest including the modern Black Forest : from Celtic *(φ)erkunos 'oak' or divine name Perkwunos + Latin silva 'forest'
  • Kempten im Allgäu, Bavaria, Latin Cambodūnum : Celtic cambodūnom, *cambo- 'curved, bent, bowed, crooked', dūnon 'fortress'
  • Mainz, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Moguntiacum : from Celtic *mogunt-, 'mighty, great, powerful', used as a divine name (see Mogons) + Celtic suffix -(i)acon
  • Meggingen : from Celtic *mago- 'plain, field'
  • Neumagen-Dhron, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Noviomagus Trevirorum
  • Noviomagus Nemetum (Latin), now Speyer, Rheinland-Pfalz : from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd) + *magos 'field, plain'
  • Remagen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Rigomagus or Ricomagus : second element is from Celtic *magos 'field, plain'. The first may be a variant of Celtic *rigi- 'king, chief of *touta'
  • Tübingen : maybe hybrid form comprising a Celtic element and a Germanic suffix -ingen.[8] The element tub- in Tübingen could possibly arise from a Celtic dubo-, s.m., 'dark, black; sad; wild'. As found in the Anglo-Irish placenames of Dublin, Devlin, Dowling, Doolin and Ballindoolin. Perhaps the reference is to the darkness of the river waters that flow near the town cf. river Doubs (France) and Dove (GB); if so, then the name can be compared to Tubney, Tubbanford, Tub Hole in England. Compare the late Vulgar Latin tubeta 'morass', from Gaulish. The root is found in Old Irish dub > Irish dubh, Old Welsh dub > Welsh du, Old Cornish duw > Middle Cornish du, Breton du, Gaulish dubo-, dubis, all meaning 'black; dark'
  • Worms, Rheinland-Pfalz, Latin Borbetomagus : second element from Celtic *magos, 'plain, field', first perhaps related to Old Irish borb 'fierce, violent, rough, arrogant; foolish'

Hungary

[edit]

Italy

[edit]
Further information: List of Celtic place names in Italy
  • Brianza, Lombardy, Latin Brigantia : from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia)
  • Genova, Liguria, English Genoa, Latin Genua : Perhaps from Celtic *genu- 'mouth [of a river]'. (However, this Ligurian place-name, as well as that of Genava (modern Geneva), probably derive the Proto-Indo-European root *ĝenu- 'knee'.[9])
  • Milano, Lombardy, English Milan, Latin Mediolanum : from Celtic medio- 'middle, central' > Old Irish mide 'middle, centre', Old Breton med, met > Breton mez 'middle', etc.[10] and *ɸlan- > *lan-, a Celtic cognate of Latin plānus 'plain', with typical Celtic loss of /p/ or *ɸlānos > Old Irish lán, Welsh llawn, Breton leun 'full'[10]
  • Belluno, Veneto, Latin Bellunum : from Celtic **Bhel- 'bright' and *dūnon 'fortress'.
  • Bergamo, Lombardy, Latin Bergomum : from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia)
  • Brescia, Lombardy, Latin Brixia : from Celtic *briga- 'rocky height or outcrop'.
  • Bologna, Emilia Romagna, Latin Bononia : from Celtic **bona 'base, foundation' (Welsh bôn 'base, bottom, stump')

Netherlands

[edit]
  • Lugdunum Batavorum (Latin), now Katwijk, Zuid-Holland : from Celtic *lug- 'Lugus' (divine name) or perhaps 'light' + *dūnon 'fortress'
  • Nijmegen, Gelderland, Latin Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum : from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd) + *magos 'field, plain'

Poland

[edit]

Portugal

[edit]
Further information: List of Celtic place names in Portugal
  • Braga, Braga Municipality, Portugal : from Celtic *bracari- after the Bracari Celts.
  • Bragança, Alto Trás-os-Montes, Portugal : from Celtic *brigant- 'divine name, Brigantia'.
  • Beira : from Celtic *beira- Cailleach/ Cale's other name Cailleach-Bheura or Beira, the Celtic Goddess of mountains, water and Winter. Three Portuguese provinces: Beira-Baixa, Beira-Alta and Beira-Litoral
  • Vale de Cambra, Portugal : from Celtic *cambra- 'chamber, room'.[11]
  • Conímbriga, Coimbra, Portugal : from Celtic *briga- 'rocky height or outcrop'.
  • Évora, Alentejo, Portugal : from Celtic *ebora- 'plural genitive of the word eburos (trees)'.
  • Lacobriga, Algarve, Portugal : from Celtic *Lacobriga- 'Lake of Briga'.[citation needed]

Romania

[edit]

Serbia

[edit]
  • Singidunum (Latin), now Beograd, English Belgrade : second element from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'

Slovenia

[edit]
  • Celje, Latinized Celeia in turn from *keleia, meaning 'shelter' in Celtic
  • Neviodunum (Latin), now Drnovo : second element from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'

Spain

[edit]

Asturias and Cantabria

[edit]
  • Deva, several rivers in northern Spain, and Pontedeva, Galicia, Spain : from Celtic *diwā- 'goddess; holy, divine'
  • Mons Vindius (now the Cantabrian Mountains), NW Spain : from Celtic *windo- 'white'.

Castile

[edit]

Galicia

[edit]
Main article: List of Celtic place names in Galicia
  • Tambre, a river in Galicia (Spain), Latin Tamaris : possibly from Celtic *tames- 'dark' (cf. Celtic *temeslos > Welsh tywyll 'darkness'). Other theories.
  • O Grove, Medieval Latin Ogrobre 912:[12] from Celtic *ok-ro- 'acute; promontory'[13] and Celtic *brigs 'hill'.
  • Bergantiños, Medieval Latin Bregantinos 830 : from Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated', or divine name Brigantia, or from Celtic *brigantīnos 'chief, king'.[14]
  • Dumbría, Medieval Latin Donobria 830 : from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress' + Celtic **brīwa 'bridge'.
  • Val do Dubra and Dubra River, Galicia : from Celtic *dubr- 'water', *dubrās 'waters' (Welsh dwfr).
  • Monforte de Lemos (region), Latin Lemavos, after the local tribe of the Lemavi : from Celtic *lemo- 'elm' + suffix -avo.
  • Nendos (region), Medieval Latin Nemitos 830 : from Celtic *nemeton 'sanctuary'.
  • Noia, Galicia, Spain, Greek Nouion:[15] from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd).

Switzerland

[edit]

Switzerland, especially the Swiss Plateau, has many Celtic (Gaulish) toponyms. This old layer of names was overlaid with Latin names in the Gallo-Roman period,[16] and, from the medieval period, with Alemannic German[17] and Romance[18] names.

For some names, there is uncertainty as to whether they are Gaulish or Latin in origin. In some rare cases, such as Frick, Switzerland, there have even been competing suggestions of Gaulish, Latin and Alemannic etymologies.[19]

Examples of toponyms with established Gaulish etymology:

Insular Celtic

[edit]
Main article: List of generic forms in place names in the United Kingdom and Ireland
Further information: List of British place-names containing reflexes of Celtic *kaitos "woodland"

Brittonic

[edit]

England (excluding Cornwall)

[edit]

The main survey of Celtic place-names in this region is by Richard Coates and Andrew Breeze.[21] Evidence for a Celtic root to place names in England is widely strengthened by early monastic charters, chronicles and returns: examples relate to Leatherhead and Lichfield. To describe a place as of the Celts, the Old English wealh becoming Wal/Wall/Welsh is often used. This was the main Germanic term for Romano-Celtic peoples, such as the Britons. Such names are a minority, but are widespread across England. For example, a smattering of villages around the heart and east of The Fens hint at this: West Walton, Walsoken, and the Walpoles indicate their continued presence. Nearby Wisbech, King's Lynn and Chatteris have Celtic topographical elements.

  • Amwythig (Welsh; Shrewsbury), Shropshire, from Brittonic *ambi-uk-t-iko ("little defense").[22]
  • Arden (forest of), Warwickshire - from Celtic *ardu- 'high' (Irish ard)
  • From Brythonic *abona 'river' (Welsh afon):
    • Avon (river), Gloucestershire/Wiltshire/Somerset
    • Avon (river), Wiltshire/Hampshire/Dorset
    • Avon (river), Northamptonshire/Warwickshire/Worcestershire/Gloucestershire
    • Avon or Aune (river), Devon
  • From Celtic *iska 'water' (Irish uisce):
  • First element from Celtic *briga 'hill':
  • From Celtic *brigant- 'high, lofty, elevated' (or divine name, Brigantia):
    • Brent (river), Greater London
    • Brentford, Greater London
    • Bryn, Greater Manchester - from Welsh bryn, 'hill'.
  • Burslem, Stoke-on-Trent, the -lem element is a Celtic district name from *lemano ("elm").
  • Camulodunum (Latin), now Colchester, Essex - from *kamulos 'Camulus' (divine name) + Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'
  • Catterick, North Riding of Yorks., *catu ("battle") + *ratis ("rampart") + onjon (suffix).[23]

From *cem (root associated with cefn below) + *-*ed (suffix)[23]

  • Chevin, Wharfedale, equivalent to Welsh cefn ("ridge").
  • Crayke, North Riding of Yorkshire, equivalent to Welsh craig ("rock").[23]
  • From Brythonic *crüg 'hill'[24] (Irish cruach)
  • Crewe, Cheshire - from Old Welsh *criu 'river crossing'
  • Cunececestre (Old English), now Chester-le-Street, County Durham, from Latin Concangis, from *cönig, a root of uncertain meaning.[23]
  • Devon, Latin Dumnonia - from tribal name Dumnonii or Dumnones, from Celtic *dumno- 'deep', 'world'
  • From Celtic *dubr- 'water', *dubrās 'waters' (Welsh dwfr; Breton dour):
  • Durham, County Durham, Latin Dunelm - first element is possibly dun, ' hill fort' (Welsh ddin, 'fort').
  • First element from Celtic *duro- 'fort'; in Dūrobrīvae, Celtic *brīwa 'bridge':
  • From Celtic *iska 'water' (Irish uisce); second element in Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) is a tribal name (see Devon):
  • Gloucester, Gloucestershire, from Latin Glevum (+ Old English ceaster), from *gleiwom ("bright place").
  • Holland, Lincolnshie, possibly from haiw- ("a swamp") (+ OE land).[25]
  • From the equivalent of Welsh ynys ("island").
  • Inskip, Lancashire, equivalent to ynys-cyb ("bowl-shaped island").[23]
  • Kesteven, Lincolnshire, from cēt- ("a wood") (+ Old Norse stefna ("a meeting place") added later).[26]
  • Leatherhead, Surrey - from Brythonic *lēd- [from Celtic *leito-] + *rïd- [from Celtic *(φ)ritu-] = "Grey Ford"[24]
  • Lincoln, Lincolnshire, Latin Lindum Colonia - from Celtic *lindo- 'pool' + Latin colonia 'colony'
  • From Brittonic *mamm- 'breast'
  • Noviomagus (Latin), now Chichester, West Sussex and Crayford, Kent - from Celtic *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd) + *magos 'field, plain'
  • Onn, Staffordshire, from *onnā ("ash trees").[29]
  • From *panto- and its descendants (Welsh pant, Cumbric pant).
    • Pant, Austwick, West Riding of Yorkshire[23]
    • Pant Foot, Ingleton, West Riding of Yorkshire[23]
    • Pantend, Westmorland
    • Pauntley, Gloucestershire
    • Pont (river), Ponteland, Northumberland[23]
  • Pen y Ghent, Yorkshire - equivalent with Welsh pen-y-gant ("summit of the border") or pen-y-gynt ("summit of the heathen").[23]
  • Pengethley, Herefordshire - from Brythonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen) + possibly *kelli 'to stand' (Welsh gelli)
  • From Brythonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen) + *koid- 'wood' (Welsh coed), or *cēd- 'wood':[24]
  • First element from Brittonic *penn- 'hill, top, head, chief' (Welsh pen 'head, end, chief, supreme') = Irish ceann 'head', from Proto-Celtic *kwenno-:
  • Pen Bal Crag, Tynemouth, from pen ("head") + wāl ("wall") (+ English crag).[23]
  • Old Sarum, Wiltshire, Latin Sorviodūnum - second element from Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'
  • Segedunum (Latin), now Wallsend, Tyne and Wear - from Celtic for 'victorious', 'strength' or 'dry' (theories). Second element is Celtic *dūnon 'fortress'.
  • Sinodun Hills, south Oxfordshire - from Celtic *seno- 'old' + *dūnon 'fortress'
  • Possibly from Celtic *tames- 'dark' (cf. Celtic *temeslos > Welsh tywyll 'darkness'):
    • Tamar (river), Devon/Cornwall
    • Tame (river), Greater Manchester
    • Tame (river), North Yorkshire
    • Tame (river), West Midlands
    • Team (river), Tyne and Wear
    • Teme (river), Welsh Tefeidiad, Wales/Shropshire/Worcestershire
    • Thames (river), Latin Tamesis
  • Trinovantum (Latin), now London - 'Of the Trinovantes', a tribal name, perhaps 'very energetic people' from Celtic *tri- (intensive) + *now- 'energetic', related to *nowijo- 'new' (Welsh newydd)
  • Verulamium (Latin), now St Albans, Hertfordshire - from Brittonic *weru- 'broad' + *lam- 'hand' [from Celtic *(φ)lāmā] (Welsh llaw, Irish láimh)
  • Wigan, from *wīg ("Roman vicus") + ann (suffix).[23]
  • First element from Celtic *windo- 'white' (Welsh gwyn); in Vindolanda, Celtic *landā 'land, place' (Welsh llan). In Vindomora, second element could be 'sea' (Welsh môr, Irish muir):
  • Yeavering, Northumberland, formerly Gefrin, equivalent to Welsh gafrfryn ("goat hill").[30]
  • York, Greek Ebōrakon, Latin Eboracum or Eburacum - from Celtic *eburo- 'yew'

Scotland

[edit]

The post-6th century AD Brittonic languages of Northern England and Scotland were Cumbric and Pictish. Cumbric place-names are found in Scotland south of the River Forth,[23] while Pictish names are found to the north.[31]

  • Aberdeen, Aberdeenshire - from **aber ("river mouth").[32]
  • Applecross, Ross-shire - formerly Abercrosan, from aber ("river mouth").[32]
  • Arran - possibly equivalent to Middle Welsh aran ("high place").[33]
  • Aviemore, Inverness-shire - An Aghaidh Mhòr in Gaelic, possibly involving Brittonic *ag- ("a cleft").[34]
  • Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire - Lomond is equivalent to Welsh llumon ("beacon").[23]
  • Blantyre, Lanarkshire - equivalent to Welsh blaen ("extremes, source, front") + tir ("land").[23]
  • Blebo, Fife - formerly Bladebolg, from Brittonic *blawd ("meal") + *bolg ("sack").[35]
  • Burnturk, Fife - formerly Brenturk, equivalent to Welsh bryntwrch ("boar hill").[32]
  • Dallas, Moray - equivalent to Welsh dôl ("haugh, meadow") + gwas ("abode").[32]
  • Darnaway, Moray - possibly from ancient Brittonic Taranumagos ("thunder-plain").[32]
  • Daviot, Inverness-shire - perhaps from Brittonic *dem- meaning "sure, strong".[34]
  • Dull, Perthshire - equivalent to Welsh dôl ("haugh, meadow").[32]
  • Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire - equivalent to Welsh eglwysfechan ("small church").[23]
  • Edinburgh, Midlothian - from Din Ediyn, from a Brittonic form meaning "fort of Ediyn" (cf. Welsh din).
  • Esslemont, Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh iselfynydd ("low hill").[32]
  • Glasgo, Aberdeenshire - see Glasgow, Lanarkshire below.[32]
  • Glasgow, Lanarkshire - equivalent to Welsh glascau ("blue hollow").[32]
  • Hebrides - Ebudes in Ptolemy (c. 140 AD), possibly from ancient Brittonic ep- ("a horse"; cf. Welsh ebol).[36]
  • Keith, Banffshire - equivalent to Welsh coed ("wood, forest").[32]
  • Lanark, Lanarkshire - equivalent to Welsh llanerch ("a glade").[23]
  • Landrick, Perthshire - see Lanark, Lanarkshire.[37]
  • Lanrick, Perthshire - see Lanark, Lanarkshire.[37]
  • Lauder, Berwickshire - equivalent either to Middle Breton louazr or Welsh llawedrawr.[23]
  • Lendrick, Kinross-shire - see Lanark, Lanarkshire.[37]
  • Lendrick, Perthshire - see Lanark, Lanarkshire.[37]
  • Lomond Hills, Fife - see Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire.[35]
  • Mayish, Arran - possibly from Brittonic maɣes ("field"; Welsh maes).[38]
  • Meggernie, Perthshire - from an element cognate with Welsh migwernydd ("boggy meadow").[32]
  • Methven, Perthshire - equivalent to Welsh meddfaen ("meadstone").[32]
  • Midmar, Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh mig(n) ("bog, swamp") + Mar (a district name).[32]
  • Migvie, Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh mig(n) ("bog, swamp").[32]
  • Mounth, Perthshire, Angus and Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh mynydd ("mountain, moor, hill").[31]
  • Ochil Hills, Fife - probably from Common Brittonic *okelon ("a ridge").[31]
  • Orchy, Argyll (river) - in Gaelic Urchaidh, from ancient Brittonic are-cētia ("on the wood").[32]
  • Panbride, Angus - from pant ("a hollow").[32]
  • Panlathy, Angus - from pant ("a hollow").[37]
  • Panmure, Angus - equivalent to Welsh pantmawr ("big hollow").[32]
  • Pendewen, Angus - first element is possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source").[37]
  • Penicuik, Midlothian - equivalent to Welsh pen-y-cog ("summit of the cuckoo").[23]
  • Pennan, Aberdeenshire - probably equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source").
  • Pennygant Hill, Roxburghshire - see Pen y Ghent, Yorkshire, England.[23]
  • Perth, Perthshire - probably equivalent to Welsh perth ("bush").
  • Pinderachy, Angus - first element is possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source").[37]
  • Pinnel, Fife - possibly equivalent to Welsh pen ("head, top, summit, source").[35]
  • Pulrossie, Sutherland - possibly equivalent to Welsh pwllrhos ("promontory pool").[39]
  • Rattray, Aberdeenshire - equivalent to Welsh rhawdtref ("ramparts town").[32]
  • Urquhart, Ross-shire - formerly Airdchartdan, equivalent to Middle Welsh ar-cardden ("on the enclosure").[32]
  • Yell, Shetland - probably from Common Brittonic iâla ("unfruitful land, pasture").[40]

Wales

[edit]
Main article: Welsh toponymy

The vast majority of placenames in Wales (part of the United Kingdom) are either Welsh or anglicized Welsh.

Cornwall

[edit]

The vast majority of placenames in Cornwall are either Cornish or anglicized Cornish. For examples, see List of places in Cornwall.

Brittany

[edit]

The vast majority of placenames in the west of Brittany (part of France) are either Breton or derived from Breton. For examples, see Category:Populated places in Brittany.

Goidelic

[edit]

England

[edit]

Place names in England derived partly or wholly from Goidelic languages include:

  • Aireyholme, Yorkshire (Great Ayton), recorded as Erghum (1138), from Old Irish airgh ("summer pastures").[41]
  • Ben, Yorkshire (Sedbergh), probably from the Gaelic benn ("a peak").[41]
  • Cambois, Northumberland, possibly from Old Irish cambas ("bay, creek")[42]
  • Carkin, Yorkshire, possibly from Old Irish carric ("a rock").[43]
  • Castle Eden, County Durham, possibly from Old Irish étan ("forehead, hill-brow").[44]
  • †Crosskelloc, Lancashire (Ulverston), from Irish cros ("a cross") + Chelloc (personal name).[45]
  • Dunmallard, Cumberland, possibly from Middle Irish dùn-mallacht ("fort of curses")[23]
  • Durdar, Cumberland (St Cuthbert Without), from Gaelic doiredarach ("oak copse").[41]
  • Greysouthen, Cumberland, from Irish craicc-Suthan ("Suthán's rock/cliff").[41]
  • Kilmond, Yorkshire (Bowes), possibly from Gaelic ceann-monadh ("head of the hill").[41]
  • Knockupworth, Cumberland (Grinsdale), from Irish cnocc ("hillock") (+ the Germanic personal-name Hubert).[41]
  • Latrigg, Cumberland, possibly from Old Irish lettir ("a slope").[41]
  • Latterbarrow, Lancashire (Hawkshead), possibly from Irish lettir ("a slope").[45]
  • Liscard, Cheshire, possibly from Irish Gaelic lios na carraige meaning "fort of the rock".[46]
  • Noctorum, Cheshire, from Irish cnocc-tírim ("dry hill").[41]
  • Pool Darkin, Westmorland (Beetham), possibly from Gaelic poll ("pool") + the personal name *Dercan.[41]
  • Ravenglass, Cumberland, from Irish rann-Glas ("Glas's part/share").[41]
  • Torkin, Cumberland (Thursby), from Irish tor-cheann ("peak-head").[41]

Furthermore, some non-Goidelic place-names in mainly Northern and Midland England reference Irish personal names, due to Norse-Gaelic settlement Britain during the 10th century.

  • Carperby, Yorkshire containing the Irish Gaelic given-name Cairpe[47]
  • Dovenby, from personal name Dufan of Irish origin (OIr 'Dubhán')
  • Dunkenhalgh, Lancashire (Hyndburn), from the Gaelic personal name Donnchad (> English Duncan) (+ Old English halh, "haugh").[45]
  • Fixby, Yorkshire, from the Gaelic Irish personal name Fiach
  • Gatenby, Yorkshire, from the Irish personal name Gaithen (+ Old Norse byr, "farm").[41]
  • Glassonby, from the Irish personal name Glassan
  • †Iocemhil, Lincolnshire (Killingholme), possibly contains the Irish personal name Eogan.[41]
  • Malmesbury, Wiltshire, from the Irish founder of the abbey Máel Dub
  • Mellishaw, Lancashire (Lancaster), possibly the Irish personal name Mdeldn (+ Old Norse haugr).[45]
  • Melmerby, Yorkshire, from the Old Irish personal name Máel Muire
  • Yockenthwaite, Yorkshire, contains the Irish personal name Eogan (+ Old Norse þveit, "clearing").[41]

Place names that directly reference the Irish include Irby, Irby upon Humber, Ireby and Ireleth. Place names with Scot- or similar, such as Scothern in Lincolnshire or Scotton in the North Riding of Yorkshire, may refer to Gaelic speakers from Scotland or Ireland, since Old English Scottas originally had connotations of Irish Gaels.

Ireland

[edit]
Main article: Place names in Ireland

The vast majority of placenames in Ireland are anglicized Irish language names.

Scotland

[edit]
Main article: Scottish toponymy

The majority of placenames in the Highlands of Scotland (part of the United Kingdom) are either Scottish Gaelic or anglicized Scottish Gaelic. Gaelic-derived placenames are very common in the rest of mainland Scotland also. Pictish-derived placenames can be found in the northeast, while Brythonic-derived placenames can be found in the south.

Isle of Man

[edit]
Main article: List of places in the Isle of Man

Many placenames on the Isle of Man (a Crown dependency) are Manx or anglicised Manx, although there are also many Norse-derived place names.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Celtic toponymy

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Celtic toponymy is the study of place names derived wholly or partially from , including the extinct continental branches such as and Celtiberian, as well as the insular branches: the Goidelic (Q-Celtic)—such as Irish, , and Manx—and the Brythonic (P-Celtic), including Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. These names, which form the oldest linguistic stratum in much of , particularly the and , originated with Celtic-speaking peoples who migrated and settled across the region from around the 1st millennium BCE, influencing nomenclature for rivers, hills, settlements, and other features. The scope of Celtic toponymy extends beyond mere linguistics to reveal insights into ancient migrations, cultural practices, and environmental interactions, with common elements like aber or inver (river mouth), dun (fort), and pen or ceann (head or end) denoting geographical and human elements that persist today. In Scotland, for instance, Celtic names dominate the toponymy, reflecting Gaelic and Pictish influences until the Norman period, while in Ireland, they incorporate mythological and saintly references, such as those tied to figures like St. Patrick or deities in names like Éire. Despite later overlays from Roman, Anglo-Saxon, and Norse languages, Celtic toponyms endure as vital records of pre-medieval heritage, aiding in the reconstruction of lost languages and societal structures. Notable aspects include the distinction between Q- and P-Celtic forms, stemming from divergent evolutions of Indo-European sounds—such as qu becoming c in Goidelic versus p in Brythonic—which is evident in paired names like Welsh pen (headland) and Gaelic ceann. This field also highlights regional variations, with hydronyms (water names) like Avon ("river") showing widespread Celtic substrate influence even in anglicized areas. Scholarly analysis, supported by sources like Ogham inscriptions and historical texts, underscores Celtic toponymy's role in preserving cultural identity amid linguistic shifts.

Introduction and Overview

Definition and Scope

Celtic toponymy is the branch of that examines the origins, meanings, and cultural significance of place names derived wholly or partially from , encompassing designations for settlements, rivers, mountains, and other geographical features. These names preserve elements of ancient and surviving Celtic linguistic forms, often reflecting interactions between the and their landscapes. The scope of Celtic toponymy extends across prehistoric to modern eras, tracing back to the spoken around 1300–800 BCE and continuing through influences in contemporary , including surviving ones like Irish and Welsh and revived ones like Cornish and Manx. Geographically, it covers , including regions once inhabited by Celtic tribes in (modern ), Iberia, and ; insular areas like Britain and ; and in . Celtic toponyms also appear in , particularly in ancient settled by Celtic migrants around 278 BCE, where Celtic toponyms such as Vindia and Binzea are attested in ancient sources like Ptolemy's Geography. Beyond core Celtic territories, vestiges persist in non-Celtic regions, such as Anglo-Saxon , through substrate influences on local . This field includes diverse categories of names, such as those derived from tribal identities, descriptive terms for natural features, and references to deities. For instance, the city of originates from the Celtic tribe Parisii, who inhabited the valley during the . Similarly, numerous rivers named Avon stem from the Proto-Celtic root abonā, meaning "river," illustrating a common descriptive element for waterways.

Historical Context

The Celtic expansion across Europe is closely associated with the , which flourished from approximately 800 to 450 BCE in , and the subsequent , spanning from around 450 BCE to the early CE. These archaeological horizons represent phases of cultural and technological development among proto-Celtic and Celtic-speaking populations, originating in the Alpine region and Hallstatt heartland before radiating outward through migrations and trade networks. Evidence from linguistic distributions, artifacts, and genetic studies indicates that Celtic influences extended westward to Iberia, where Celtiberian languages emerged by the 6th century BCE, northward to Britain and during the late to early transitions, and eastward to via the Galatians' settlement in the 3rd century BCE following their incursions into the Hellenistic world. This widespread dissemination laid the foundation for toponymic patterns reflecting Celtic settlement, resource exploitation, and territorial organization. Key historical events further shaped the preservation and transformation of Celtic place names. The Roman conquest of Gaul, culminating in Julius Caesar's campaigns from 58 to 50 BCE, incorporated vast Celtic territories into the , where indigenous toponyms were often Latinized but retained their underlying Celtic roots, as seen in the transmission of pre-conquest names through Roman administrative records and inscriptions. Subsequent Germanic migrations, beginning in the late Roman period and intensifying from the 4th to 6th centuries CE, overlaid Celtic substrates in regions like and Britain, yet many hydrological and settlement names persisted as linguistic fossils, influencing modern Romance and due to the conservative nature of in substrate retention. Cultural influences among Celtic societies profoundly impacted toponymic naming conventions, particularly through tribal organization and religious practices. Druids, as high-ranking intermediaries between communities and the divine, played a central role in maintaining oral traditions and legal customs that likely informed place-naming tied to sacred landscapes and tribal identities. Tribal structures centered on oppida—large fortified settlements that served as political, economic, and defensive hubs—frequently incorporated the Proto-Celtic element *dūnon, meaning "fortress" or "enclosed strong place," derived from an Indo-European root denoting durability or enclosure, as evidenced in and other Celtic inscriptions. Similarly, religious sites known as *nemeton, referring to sacred groves, were pivotal in Celtic spirituality, functioning as open-air sanctuaries for rituals and assemblies, with the term's etymology linking to Proto-Indo-European concepts of sanctity and holiness, preserved in both continental and insular toponyms. In the modern era, 19th- and 20th-century movements revitalized interest in toponymic studies, prompting efforts to restore and standardize indigenous names in regions like and . These nationalist and cultural initiatives, fueled by organizations such as the Gaelic League in Ireland from 1893 onward, emphasized the recovery of Gaelic place names to reconnect with pre-colonial heritage, leading to scholarly publications and official policies that influenced contemporary mapping and heritage preservation. In , parallel revivals during the same period, including the establishment of the Welsh Language Society in 1962, supported the reclamation of Brythonic-derived toponyms, enhancing academic analysis of Celtic linguistic substrates.

Celtic Languages

Continental Celtic Languages

The Continental Celtic languages, spoken across much of prehistoric and early historic Europe, are classified primarily into two branches based on a key phonological innovation: the P-Celtic languages, which underwent the sound shift of Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *kʷ to /p/, and the Q-Celtic languages, which retained the labiovelar as /kʷ/ or /k/. This distinction is evident in lexical comparisons, such as the P-Celtic form *petia for "four" (from PIE *kʷetwores) in languages like Gaulish, contrasting with the Q-Celtic retention of *kʷ in forms like Celtiberian *kʷe. The P-Celtic branch includes Gaulish, Galatian, and Lepontic, while the Q-Celtic branch encompasses Celtiberian, reflecting dialectal divergences within the broader Celtic family that emerged around the 1st millennium BCE. Among the most extensively attested Continental Celtic languages is Gaulish, a P-Celtic tongue spoken across Gaul (modern France, Belgium, and parts of surrounding regions) from approximately the 6th century BCE until its decline. Gaulish is documented through over 800 inscriptions, including the famous Coligny calendar, a bronze tablet from the 2nd century CE that records a lunisolar cycle with month names like *samoni- ("summer") and intercalary markers, providing insight into Gaulish temporal and religious terminology. In the Iberian Peninsula, Celtiberian, a Q-Celtic language, was spoken by Celtic tribes in northeastern Spain from the 3rd century BCE onward, with key evidence from the Botorrita plaques—four bronze tablets from the late 2nd to 1st century BCE containing legal and administrative texts in the Iberian script, such as references to communal decisions (toutam "tribe" or "community"). Lepontic, classified as P-Celtic (though its exact affinities are debated), was used in the Alpine regions of northern Italy and southern Switzerland between the 6th and 1st centuries BCE, attested in about 140 short inscriptions using the Lugano alphabet, including funerary texts like the Vergiate stele with phrases such as leponzio ("of the Lepontii people"). These languages left a profound mark on European toponymy through direct survivals in Roman Latin records and as substrates influencing later Romance languages. For instance, the name Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France), recorded by Roman sources as a major Gaulish settlement, derives from Gaulish Lugus-dūnon, combining the name of the deity Lugus with dūnon ("fortress" or "hill-fort"), signifying "fort of Lugus." Similarly, the Rhine River's name stems from Gaulish rēnos ("flowing" or "that which flows"), a hydronym reflecting Celtic descriptive nomenclature for waterways and preserved in Latin Rhenus. Such toponyms often incorporated common elements like dūnon for fortified sites or river terms, embedding Celtic linguistic patterns into the landscape even as the spoken languages faded. The Continental Celtic languages largely disappeared by the 5th to 6th centuries CE, driven by Romanization, which promoted Latin as the administrative and cultural lingua franca across Gaul and Hispania. The latest direct attestations of Gaulish, such as curse tablets from the 2nd–4th centuries CE, indicate bilingualism with Latin before full extinction, while Celtiberian and Lepontic ceased earlier under Roman conquest. Their legacy endures primarily in these persistent place names, which outlived the languages themselves and occasionally show parallels to Insular Celtic forms for comparative reconstruction.

Insular Celtic Languages

, spoken in the and , are classified into two main branches: the Brittonic (or Brythonic) group, which is P-Celtic and includes Welsh, Cornish, and Breton, and the Goidelic (or Gaelic) group, which is Q-Celtic and encompasses Irish, , and Manx. This division reflects phonological differences, such as the retention of Proto-Celtic kw as p in Brittonic (e.g., Welsh pen "head") versus k in Goidelic (e.g., Irish ceann). The historical development of these languages diverged significantly after the Roman withdrawal from Britain around the 5th century CE, amid invasions by , Scots, and others, leading to the confinement of Brittonic speech to western regions like and , while Goidelic expanded from to and the Isle of Man. Early attestations appear in poetry from the 6th century, such as the works of , which preserve toponyms like Caer (fort) in references to ancient sites. Similarly, from the 7th century onward, including the , document early Goidelic place names, such as Dún Dá Lethglas (fort of the two green sides), illustrating continuity in naming conventions for landscape features. Toponymic features of demonstrate remarkable survival despite layers of Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman influences, with Brittonic elements like Welsh aber ("estuary" or "river mouth") appearing in names such as and even , where it overlays earlier Pictish forms. In Goidelic contexts, Irish dún ("fort") persists in fortified site names like Dundrum and underlies (Beal Feirste, "ford at the sandbank"). The 5th-century migration of Britons to (modern ) further extended these features, introducing Brittonic toponyms into French usage, such as plou- (parish, e.g., Plouha), lan- (hermitage, e.g., Landévennec), and tre- (homestead, e.g., Tréguier), which mark settlement patterns from the north coast southward. In the modern era, revived continue to shape local toponymy, particularly Cornish, which, following its recognition as a in 2002, has influenced bilingual signage and street naming by since 2009, reviving forms like Kernow for itself. This revival extends to personal and organizational names, reinforcing through "Kernowisation" practices that prioritize Cornish over English equivalents.

Common Elements in Celtic Place Names

Principal Roots and Meanings

Celtic toponymy draws heavily on Proto-Celtic roots that describe landscape features, reflecting the terrain's influence on naming practices. Among the most prevalent are terms denoting fortified or elevated sites. The root *dūnon signifies a fortified hill or stronghold, derived from Proto-Indo-European *dʰuh₂-no- meaning "enclosed" or "fortified place," and appears in numerous place names such as the element in (modern in ) and British compounds like (modern in ). Similarly, *briga denotes a hill or elevated , often implying a strategic height, as seen in Brigantium (modern in ) and numerous Iberian examples like Segobriga. Another key landscape element is *magos, referring to a plain or open field, which underlies names like the element magos and compounds such as Vernomagus (' plain'), parallel to Irish Fearnmhaigh (modern ). Water-related roots are equally fundamental in Celtic nomenclature, capturing rivers, depths, and natural sanctuaries. The term *abū (or *abonā) means "river," stemming from Proto-Indo-European *h₂ep- ("water"), and is the basis for widespread hydronyms including the Avon River in Britain. *Dubro-, denoting deep or dark water, derives from Proto-Indo-European *dʰub- ("deep"), and manifests in names like Dubron (modern Dover in ) and the in Iberia. For sacred natural sites, *nemeton refers to a or sanctuary, from Proto-Indo-European *nem- ("to allot" or "holy place"), evident in Nemetocenna (modern in ) and other continental loci associated with spaces. Human and societal elements also feature prominently, often incorporating tribal or authoritative connotations. The root *damo- signifies "people" or "tamed/domesticated," linked to Proto-Indo-European *demh₂- ("to tame"), and appears in compounds like (a tribal name in ). *Rixo- means "king" or "ruler," from Proto-Indo-European *h₃rḗǵs, as in Rixovium (modern in ). Tribal or symbolic prefixes such as *eburo-, meaning "yew tree" (from Proto-Indo-European *h₁ebʰros), evoke natural totems and are found in (modern in ). These roots exhibit semantic patterns reconstructed through comparative linguistics, primarily descriptive (topographical, focusing on physical features like hills or rivers) versus possessive (indicating ownership by tribes, deities, or individuals, such as in tribal compounds). Descriptive forms dominate in hydronyms and landscape terms, while possessive structures often integrate personal or group names, as analyzed in Gaulish onomastics.

Cognates in Modern Celtic Languages

In the Brittonic branch of modern Celtic languages, ancient Proto-Celtic roots have undergone systematic sound changes that preserve key elements in place names. For instance, the Proto-Celtic penno-, meaning "head" or "end," evolved into Welsh pen, often denoting a hilltop or promontory in toponymy, as seen in the Cumbric-derived name Penrith, where pen combines with rith ("ford") to indicate a "chief ford" or "ford at the head." Similarly, Proto-Celtic dūnon, denoting a "fortress" or "stronghold," developed into Welsh din, a common element in fortified site names like Din Lligwy, reflecting continuity in denoting defensive structures. In the , parallel evolutions link ancient roots to contemporary forms, facilitating the interpretation of historical toponyms. Proto-Celtic briga, signifying a "hill" or "," corresponds to Irish brí, which appears in place names such as Brí Chualann (modern Bray), emphasizing elevated terrain. Proto-Celtic magos, meaning "field" or "plain," persists as magh, evident in toponyms like (machaire, "plain land") and influencing surnames through compounds, underscoring the root's role in denoting open landscapes. These evolutions highlight the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic divide, a key phonological distinction arising from the treatment of Proto-Indo-European *kʷ in Proto-Celtic. In P-Celtic languages (Brittonic), *kʷ shifted to *p, while in Q-Celtic (Goidelic), it remained *kʷ (later *c). The following table illustrates this with examples from the numeral "four" (*kwetwar in Proto-Celtic):
Proto-CelticP-Celtic (e.g., Welsh)Q-Celtic (e.g., )Meaning
*kwetwar*petwar (pedwar)*kʷethar (cethair)four
This sound shift aids in classifying ambiguous toponyms, such as those with initial p- versus c-. Contemporary usage of these cognates extends beyond preservation, influencing revival efforts and cross-linguistic borrowing. In , the revived employs tre ("farmstead" or "settlement," from Proto-Celtic treb-) in naming new housing developments, such as streets in , to reinforce . Additionally, Proto-Celtic tūros ("hill" or "mound") has impacted non-Celtic languages, yielding English tor for rocky hilltops, as in , borrowed via from Celtic substrates.

Methodological Approaches

Identification Techniques

The identification of Celtic toponyms primarily relies on linguistic reconstruction through the comparative method, which examines correspondences between attested Celtic forms and cognates in other Indo-European languages to infer proto-forms and semantic origins. For instance, river names incorporating the root for "salmon," such as the Gaulish salmonā, are reconstructed by comparing Celtic variants with Latin salmo and other Indo-European terms, revealing a shared Proto-Indo-European *sal- 'to leap' associated with the fish's behavior. Specialized onomastic databases facilitate this process; the Electronic Dictionary of the Irish Language (eDIL), covering Old to Early Modern Irish up to circa 1700, provides etymological entries for Goidelic place names, enabling cross-referencing with continental Celtic forms. Historical sources form another cornerstone, drawing on ancient records that preserve Celtic names in non-native scripts. Roman itineraries, such as the (compiled circa CE), list over 100 stations in Britain with Celtic-derived names like Durobrivae (from *dūro- 'fort' + *briva- 'bridge'), offering direct attestations of pre-Roman toponymy along trade and military routes. Similarly, Gaulish glosses in Greek and Latin texts, including over 800 inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE to the CE, document tribal and locative names like Vellaunos (a river or name), transcribed by classical authors such as and . Medieval charters further supplement these, recording Insular Celtic names in Latinized forms from the onward, as seen in Welsh and that retain Brittonic and Goidelic elements. Archaeological correlation integrates with material evidence to validate linguistic identifications. The widespread Celtic root dūnon ('fortified place'), appearing in names like Gaulish Lugdunum and Brittonic Dunedin, is frequently linked to sites through excavations revealing defenses, such as ramparts and enclosures dating to 800–100 BCE. (GIS) mapping enhances this by overlaying toponym distributions with archaeological data; for example, databases like PlacenamesNI use to visualize concentrations of dūn-derived names against excavated s in , confirming spatial patterns of Celtic settlement. Recent advances since 2020 have incorporated digital tools and interdisciplinary methods to refine identification. Onomastic databases like aggregate global place-name data, allowing queries for Celtic roots across and facilitating pattern analysis through geospatial algorithms. AI-assisted , as in geoparsing models, automates the detection of linguistic features in large corpora, improving accuracy in parsing hybrid Celtic-Latin names from historical texts. Additionally, and oxygen isotopic studies of human remains from Celtic contexts, such as 3rd–1st century BCE sites in , trace migration patterns that align with toponym distributions, supporting the spread of Celtic nomenclature via population movements. More recent genomic analyses, such as a 2025 study using from Bronze and , further correlate population movements with the spread of Celtic toponymy, supporting Central European origins over Atlantic models. These approaches, often integrated into digital etymological dictionaries, enable more robust reconstructions while addressing fragmentary .

Challenges and Debates

One major challenge in Celtic toponymy arises from ambiguities in distinguishing Celtic elements from pre-existing substrates, particularly in regions like the where Basque or Vasconic influences overlap with Celtic names. For instance, hydrotoponyms and settlement names in northwest Iberia often exhibit forms that could derive from either Celtic roots or the non-Indo-European Basque substrate, complicating attributions due to shared phonetic patterns and limited epigraphic evidence. Similarly, Indo-European homonyms across branches, such as roots like *bʰerǵʰ- ('high') appearing in Celtic *briga and Italic forms, create interpretive overlaps that hinder precise classification of toponyms like fortified hill names in . Latinization further obscures Celtic origins by imposing standardized forms on indigenous names, leading to multi-etymological interpretations for common elements like *Mediānum, which may stem from Celtic *medyos ('middle') in places like () but could also reflect Latin or other Indo-European influences without clear phonological markers. In Galatian , debates persist over the extent of Celtic linguistic influence, contested due to rapid and sparse inscriptions, raising questions about whether Galatian toponymy represents sustained Celtic substrate or transient impositions. The boundary between Q-Celtic (Goidelic) and P-Celtic (Brittonic and ) languages remains debated in , as transitional zones in Britain and show mixed reflexes of Proto-Celtic *kw (e.g., Q-Celtic *kʷetwo- vs. P-Celtic *petwar- in numerals influencing place names), challenging rigid divisions and suggesting dialect continua rather than sharp borders. Post-2010 arguments surrounding the "Celtic from the West" theory have intensified disputes by proposing an Atlantic origin for Proto-Celtic around 3000–2000 BCE, minimizing Central European Hallstatt-La Tène expansions and relying on toponymic patterns in Iberia and Britain, though critics argue this underplays eastern evident in river names. Evidence gaps exacerbate these issues, primarily due to the scarcity of pre-Roman written records, with most Celtic toponyms surviving only through Roman or later medieval transcriptions that alter original forms and contexts. Modern political influences also skew interpretations, as seen in Galicia where nationalist movements emphasize Celtic toponymy (e.g., briga elements) to assert cultural distinctiveness from , often amplifying tenuous linguistic links despite scholarly caution on Gallaecian as a transitional Indo-European variety. Looking ahead, integrating and offers promising directions, with 2020s DNA studies linking Celtic-associated populations to Yamnaya steppe ancestry via Bronze Age migrations into around 2500 BCE, providing genetic correlates for toponymic spreads without relying solely on linguistic evidence. Underrepresented areas like , where Celtic toponyms such as Noviodunum mark fleeting expansions but lack comprehensive surveys compared to Western studies, warrant further interdisciplinary research to clarify peripheral influences.

Continental Celtic Toponymy

Western Europe

Celtic toponymy in Western Europe is particularly dense in the regions of ancient Gaul, encompassing modern France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland, where Gaulish names survived through Roman adoption and later Germanic influences. These place names often reflect tribal identities, divine associations, geographic features, and sacred sites, preserved in Roman-era records and inscriptions. The Gaulish language, a Continental Celtic tongue, underpins many of these toponyms, with common elements like dūnon (fortress) and nemeton (sacred grove) indicating fortified settlements and religious centers. In , the heartland of Gaulish culture, tribal names frequently form the basis of enduring toponyms. The city of derives from the Gaulish tribal name Parisioi or Parisi, associated with the Parisii who inhabited the Seine valley; interpretations include "the workers" or "craftsmen" from para- (near) combined with a work-related root, though the tribe is also linked to riverine activities as "boatmen" in Roman records like the Nautae Parisiaci inscription. Similarly, , the Roman name for , combines Lugus—a major Celtic deity associated with light and oaths—with dūnon (fortress), denoting "Lugus' fort," a pattern seen in multiple Gaulish sites. River names often invoke deities, as with the , derived from Sequana, the goddess of its source springs near , possibly meaning "the flowing one" from the root sequ- (to flow) or linked to sacred streams. Extending into Belgium and the Netherlands, Celtic toponymy appears in Belgic territories with emphases on sacred and foundational sites. , the Roman name for in northern (near modern ), stems from (sacred grove or ), highlighting a religious center of the tribe, a motif common in inscriptions. In the and adjacent German areas, (modern ) likely derives from bonā or bonnā (base or foundation), referring to a settlement or estate, as evidenced in toponymic patterns for early fortifications. tributaries bear hydronyms rooted in rēnos (flowing or rushing water), a Proto-Celtic term for rivers, reflecting the waterway's centrality in Celtic across these lowlands. In and , Celtic names cluster around the and Alpine zones, often tied to tribal lands and passes. Mogontiacum () originates from the Mogont- (a Celtic god, possibly "mighty" or great) combined with -tiacum (place or settlement), potentially evoking a "place of the mighty one" or market plain from magos (field or market). The tribe's territory in yields names like those around (ancient Genava, possibly "mouth" or bend of water), preserving ethnic identifiers from hel- (high or shining), amid a landscape of oppida and sanctuaries. Alpine passes feature toponyms such as Brigantium (near , France, and , / border), from briga (hill or citadel) denoting elevated strongholds, a recurrent element in mountainous nomenclature. Overall patterns in Western European Celtic toponymy reveal a substrate resilient to Roman Latinization and later Germanic overlays. Dense concentrations occur in the heartland, where compounds like + place (e.g., Lugus-dūnon) dominate, while river names like the (Mosella, diminutive of Mosa, possibly "mossy" or little flowing one from Celtic mos- for marshy terrain) exemplify a persistent hydrological layer beneath Frankish and Alemannic influences. This substrate underscores Celtic cultural continuity, as seen in post-Roman survivals where Germanic names often mask underlying roots.

Central and Eastern Europe

Celtic toponymy in reflects the marginal and transient presence of Celtic groups during the , primarily along migration routes from the and La Tène cultural spheres. In , the kingdom of , encompassing much of modern and parts of , provides key examples of Celtic naming practices. The capital, , served as the political and religious center of this Celtic federation, with its name linked to a local worshipped in the region. The name itself derives from the Celtic tribal name Norici, indicating the area's integration into broader Celtic networks in the . Hydronyms along the River further illustrate Celtic influence in . The river's ancient name, Danuvios, stems from the Proto-Celtic dānu, meaning "river" or "flowing ," a root common in Indo-European river names across . This underscores the ' role in naming major waterways during their expansion eastward, with tributaries like the Enns (Aniensis) potentially preserving similar Celtic elements related to or settlement. Such names highlight the strategic importance of riverine routes for Celtic mobility in the region. To the north and east, in areas corresponding to modern , , and the , the tribe left traces of their presence in . The , a prominent Celtic group, settled in this region around the 4th century BCE, giving rise to toponyms like Boiodurum (modern area, though associated with Bohemian influences), where Boio- refers to the tribal name, possibly meaning "" or linked to bovine symbolism in Celtic culture. This settlement pattern reflects the Boii's migration from the Upper , establishing oppida and influencing local nomenclature before their displacement by Germanic tribes in the 1st century BCE. In , the , a Celtic tribe formed through interactions with local Illyrian and Thracian groups, occupied the confluence of the and rivers from the BCE. Their principal settlement, Singidunum (modern ), bears a Celtic name, likely incorporating dunum ("fort" or "hill-fort"), a common element in Celtic toponymy denoting fortified sites. The prefix may derive from sindo-, potentially related to concepts of strength or a demonstrative root, emphasizing the site's defensive role along migration corridors. The Scordisci's territory extended into parts of and , but their linguistic legacy was largely overwritten by later Roman and Slavic layers. Further southeast, in and , evidence of Dacian-Celtic contacts appears in border regions, though Celtic toponymy is sparse due to subsequent Dacian, Roman, and Slavic overlays. In 's Dacian territories, names like Porolissum (a Roman castrum near modern Moigrad) have been interpreted as reflecting Celtic-Dacian interactions, with possible elements from poro- ("before" or "passage") and lisso- or similar roots denoting a fort or , suggesting hybrid naming during Celtic incursions into the Carpathians. In , Celtic substrates persist in archaic place names, such as those ending in -amo or -ama (e.g., river names like Gabernica), which predate Slavic settlement and indicate Celtic influences from . These examples are underrepresented, as Slavic migrations from the 6th century CE imposed new linguistic layers, obscuring earlier Celtic forms. Overall patterns in Central and Eastern European Celtic toponymy are characterized by sparsity and linearity, often aligned with migration routes from the Alpine forelands toward the and Carpathians. Unlike denser distributions elsewhere, these names mark transient occupations by groups like the and , with many lost to later cultural shifts. Recent archaeological discoveries in the , including a large Celtic settlement in northern Czechia yielding over 13,000 artifacts and gold coins dated to the BCE from the La Tène period, have reinforced connections between toponymy and early Celtic expansion in the region. These finds, including a 2025 excavation of a 62-acre settlement, highlight ongoing revelations of Celtic presence along these eastern fringes.

Iberian Peninsula

In the , Celtic toponymy reflects the influence of Celtic-speaking groups, particularly the in the east and the in the west, with distinct linguistic traits such as the preservation of the Indo-European p in Lusitanian (though its classification as Celtic remains debated), contrasting with Q-Celtic features in Celtiberian. These names often incorporate common Celtic elements like briga ("hill" or "fortress," from Proto-Indo-European bhergh-) and dūnon ("fort"), surviving into Roman and modern eras despite substrate influences from pre-Celtic languages. In Spain, eastern Celtiberian regions feature prominent examples such as Segobriga, etymologized as sego- ("" or "strength") + briga ("hill-fort"), denoting a " hill" or "strong fortress," a name attested in Roman sources and linked to a major near modern Saelices. In the northwest, particularly Galicia and , numerous toponyms end in -briga, including Nemetobriga ("sacred hill-fort"), reflecting fortified settlements of the associated with Celtic groups like the . Cantabrian areas show dūnon elements in fort names, such as those in hilltop oppida, indicating defensive structures typical of Celtic military architecture in the northern mountains. In Portugal, Lusitanian toponymy includes Bracara (modern ), derived from briga and possibly linked to a local or denoting a "hill temple" or fortified high place, serving as a key Roman administrative center in . Southern regions influenced by the feature names like Pax Julia (modern Beja), a Roman foundation on a pre-existing settlement, though its pre-Roman substrate remains debated. Celtic toponyms have persisted into through substrate effects, with elements like water-related terms influencing hydronyms, though many were overlaid by Latin. Debates persist over origins, such as whether names like those incorporating casc- ("white," possibly in cascade formations) are Celtic or pre-Celtic Iberian substrates. In modern Galicia, a cultural revival emphasizes this Celtic heritage, promoting toponyms and traditions as part of a broader Atlantic Celtic identity.

Other Continental Regions

In northern Italy, the region of Cisalpine Gaul was settled by Celtic tribes including the Insubres, whose principal settlement was Mediolanum, the modern city of Milan, etymologically derived from the Celtic elements medio- ("middle") and lano- ("plain" or "open space"). This toponym exemplifies the descriptive nature of Celtic place names in the Po Valley, where Celtic speakers established themselves around the mid-1st millennium BCE. The Po River itself, recorded in Latin as Padus, bears a name of Celtic origin, potentially from a root pād- or pō- connoting protection or flowing water, as evidenced by comparative Indo-European hydronymy in the region. Lepontic inscriptions, the earliest attested Celtic texts in Italy dating from the 7th to 1st centuries BCE, further illuminate this toponymy; these short graffiti and engravings, written in a North Italic script derived from Etruscan, appear in areas around Lakes Como, Maggiore, and Lugano, mentioning place names such as Oscela (near Domodossola) and Bilitio (modern Bellinzona), often in funerary or dedicatory contexts. A corpus of approximately 430 such inscriptions underscores the linguistic continuity of Lepontic, an early branch of Continental Celtic, in this hybrid Italic-Celtic cultural zone. Further east in , Celtic toponymy is represented by the Galatians, who migrated from the in the BCE and established a centered on cities including Ancyra (modern ) and . The name Ancyra has been proposed to derive from a Celtic root ank- ("bend" or "curve"), possibly alluding to the site's geographical features, though it was rapidly to Ἄγκυρα ("anchor"). Gordion, a Phrygian site incorporated into Galatian territory, shows influences from Celtic settlement patterns, with nearby toponyms like Ουινδια potentially reflecting tribal nomenclature such as "border-nomads' place." However, Galatian toponymy remains limited, comprising fewer than a dozen securely identified names, due to extensive following the Roman annexation of in 25 BCE; by the 2nd century CE, Greek replaced Celtic in , resulting in hybrid Greco-Celtic forms like Atoroistochorion ("village of Atoroistos"), a Galatian anthroponym adapted to local usage. This assimilation obscured Celtic elements under Phrygian, Greek, and later Anatolian overlays, rendering the corpus understudied compared to western Continental examples. Beyond these Mediterranean outliers, Celtic toponymy in , extending past into and , reveals sparse but verifiable traces linked to 3rd–2nd century BCE migrations. In the region of , names such as Noviodunum (near Isaccea) combine Celtic nouio- ("new") and dūno- ("fortress"), while Aliobrix (near Orlovka) derives from h₂elio- ("other") and brig- ("hill" or "fort"), attesting to fortified settlements. Further south in (modern and European ), toponyms like Bergule (near Lüleburgas) and Bononia (near ) exhibit Celtic morphology, with Bononia likely from bon- ("good") and a denoting a settlement. These names, preserved in Ptolemy's and other ancient sources, indicate transient Celtic polities like , but they are complicated by Thracian and Dacian substrata, leading to debates over hybrid forms such as Lucunanta ("white river") in the Tran region. Overall, these peripheral regions highlight the challenges of tracing Celtic toponymy through cultural hybridization and limited epigraphic survival.

Insular Celtic Toponymy

Brittonic Toponymy

Brittonic toponymy encompasses the place names derived from the Brittonic branch of the Celtic languages, spoken across much of Britain and parts of Brittany from antiquity through the early medieval period. These names, rooted in Common Brittonic (also known as Ancient British), reflect topographic features, settlements, and natural elements, surviving in regions where Brittonic languages like Welsh, Cornish, and Breton persisted or influenced later linguistic layers. In England outside Cornwall, river names form the oldest stratum, with many preserving pre-Roman Brittonic origins despite Anglo-Saxon overlays. For instance, the River Avon derives from the Brittonic *abonā, meaning "river," a generic term applied to multiple watercourses across southern and western England. Similarly, the River Itchen in Hampshire stems from an uncertain Brittonic root, possibly related to flowing water features common in Celtic hydronymy. Settlement names in often incorporate Brittonic elements denoting fortifications or homesteads, particularly near Roman sites. The element *cair, meaning "fort" or "stronghold," appears in Caerwent in (originally Venta Silurum), where it directly translates the Latin site's role as a defended tribal capital. Along the Cornish border in and eastern , *tre(f), signifying "farmstead" or "settlement," marks early agrarian communities, as seen in names like Treby or Trewin, which persisted into the Anglo-Saxon era before partial anglicization. In Wales and southern Scotland, Brittonic toponymy emphasizes riverine and coastal landscapes, with *aber (river mouth or confluence) forming a hallmark pattern. in translates as "mouth of the Ystwyth River," highlighting estuarine locations central to early settlements. The cognate form in Goidelic, *inbher, appears in Scottish names like , meaning "mouth of the Ness," in Gaelic-speaking areas with historical Pictish influence, where Brythonic and Pictish elements blended, as Pictish shared P-Celtic features with Brittonic, yielding hybrid names like those incorporating *penn (head, end, or promontory). in , for example, denotes "headland stone," referring to a prominent coastal rock formation. Cornish toponymy, closely related to Welsh, features elements like *pol (pool, creek, or harbor), evident in Polperro, a fishing village name combining *pol with a personal or descriptive suffix for "cove by the pool." Across the Channel in Brittany, 5th-century migrations from Britain preserved and adapted Brittonic naming conventions amid Gallo-Roman substrates. The prolific *plou- prefix, from Latin *plebs (people or community) via Brittonic mediation, denotes parishes, as in Plouescat (parish of Saint Escat), reflecting the ecclesiastical organization brought by migrant settlers fleeing Anglo-Saxon incursions. Brittonic names endured as substrates in Anglo-Saxon , where Celtic river terms underlay hybrid formations like -ton (from *tūn, enclosure) suffixes, preserving pre-English in over two-thirds of major rivers. In modern times, cultural revivals have reinforced these elements, particularly in , where bilingual signage mandates Welsh forms for place names, aiding and public awareness of Brittonic heritage.

Goidelic Toponymy

Goidelic toponymy encompasses the study of place names derived from the branch of , primarily Irish Gaelic, , and Manx, reflecting historical settlements, landscapes, and cultural interactions in Ireland, , the Isle of Man, and scattered traces in . These names often preserve elements of early medieval society, including fortifications, sites, and natural features, with Goidelic languages characterized by their retention of the Proto-Celtic *kw sound as *k (Q-Celtic). In Ireland, a prominent element is dún, meaning "fort" or "stronghold," which appears in numerous place names denoting ancient defensive structures, such as in , referring to a fort associated with the 5th-century Lóegaire mac Néill. Lakes are frequently marked by locha or lough, as in in , derived from the Gaelic term for a , highlighting the hydrological focus in naming conventions. Ecclesiastical influences are evident in names incorporating cill ("church"), often overlaid on pre-Christian pagan sites during the early medieval ; for instance, Kilkenny (Cill Chainnigh) combines cill with the name of Saint Chainnech (Canice), signifying the church of the saint and illustrating the replacement of older sacred loci. Scottish Gaelic toponymy features elements like achadh ("field" or "cultivated land"), common in the Highlands and Lowlands, as seen in Auchtermuchty in Fife, from Scottish Gaelic Uachdar Mucadaidh, meaning "upland of the pigs," evoking agrarian settlements associated with wild boar. On the Isle of Man, Manx Gaelic employs balley ("farmstead" or "town"), forming names such as Ballasalla (Balley Sallagh), meaning "farm of the willows," derived from balley + sailagh ("willow grove"), reflecting rural topography. Norse-Gaelic hybrids emerged in areas of Viking settlement, like Kirkwall in Orkney, where the Norse kirkja ("church") blended with Gaelic influences in bilingual contexts, though primarily Old Norse kirkju-vagr ("church bay"), demonstrating linguistic layering from Norse-Gaelic interactions. Traces of Goidelic toponymy appear in through Irish monastic foundations, where names involving Celtic church terms like eccles (from Brittonic but adopted in Goidelic contexts via Irish monks) contrast with Norse kirk + bý ("farm") in places like ; Irish missionaries established sites such as those near , leaving subtle Goidelic loans. During the period, limited Goidelic elements entered via Norse-Irish contacts, including rare borrowings like those in place names with airgh ("" or "summer pasture") in Aireyholme. Broader patterns in Goidelic toponymy include mythological roots, where names draw from Irish legends such as ("Land of Youth"), influencing designations for otherworldly or idyllic locales like certain western islands evoking eternal paradise themes in . In the , standardization efforts, notably the Place-Names (Irish Forms) Act of 1973, mandated official Irish-language versions alongside English ones, reviving and codifying Gaelic forms to preserve linguistic heritage amid anglicization.

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