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Indian classical music
Indian classical music
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Indian classical music
Concepts

Indian classical music is the classical music of the Indian subcontinent.[1] It is generally described using terms like Shastriya Sangeet and Marg Sangeet.[2][3] It has two major traditions: the North Indian classical music known as Hindustani and the South Indian expression known as Carnatic.[4] Hindustani music emphasizes improvisation and exploration of all aspects of a raga, while Carnatic performances tend to be short composition-based.[4] However, the two systems continue to have more common features than differences.[5] Another unique classical music tradition from the eastern part of India is Odissi music, which has evolved over the last two thousand years.

The roots of the classical music of India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism and the ancient Natyashastra, the classic Sanskrit text on performing arts by Bharata Muni.[6][7] The 13th century Sanskrit text Sangeeta-Ratnakara of Sarangadeva is regarded as the definitive text by both the Hindustani music and the Carnatic music traditions.[8][9]

Indian classical music has two foundational elements, raga and tala. The raga, based on a varied repertoire of swara (notes including microtones), forms the fabric of a deeply intricate melodic structure, while the tala measures the time cycle.[10] The raga gives an artist a palette to build the melody from sounds, while the tala provides them with a creative framework for rhythmic improvisation using time.[11][12][13] In Indian classical music the space between the notes is often more important than the notes themselves, and it traditionally eschews Western classical concepts such as harmony, counterpoint, chords, or modulation.[14][15][16]

History

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The root of music in ancient India are found in the Vedic literature of Hinduism. The earliest Indian thought combined three arts, syllabic recital (vadya), melos (gita) and dance (nrtta).[17] As these fields developed, sangeeta became a distinct genre of art, in a form equivalent to contemporary music. This likely occurred before the time of Yāska (c. 500 BCE), since he includes these terms in his nirukta studies, one of the six Vedanga of ancient Indian tradition. Some of the ancient texts of Hinduism such as the Samaveda (c. 1000 BCE) are structured entirely to melodic themes,[18][19] it is sections of Rigveda set to music.[20]

Samaveda

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The Samaveda is organized into two formats. One part is based on the musical meter, another by the aim of the rituals.[21] The text is written with embedded coding, where swaras (octave notes) are either shown above or within the text, or the verse is written into parvans (knot or member); in simple words, this embedded code of swaras is like the skeleton of the song. The swaras have about 12 different forms and different combinations of these swaras are made to sit under the names of different ragas. The specific code of a song clearly tells us what combination of swaras are present in a specific song. The lyrical part of the song is called "sahityam" and sahityam is just like singing the swaras altogether but using the lyrics of the song. The code in the form of swaras have even the notation of which note to be sung high and which one low. The hymns of Samaveda contain melodic content, form, rhythm and metric organization.[21] This structure is, however, not unique or limited to Samaveda. The Rigveda embeds the musical meter too, without the kind of elaboration found in the Samaveda. For example, the Gayatri mantra contains three metric lines of exactly eight syllables, with an embedded ternary rhythm.[22]

Five Gandharvas (celestial musicians) from 4th–5th century CE, northwest South Asia, carrying the four types of musical instruments. Gandharvas are discussed in Vedic era literature.[23]

Origins

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In the ancient traditions of Hinduism, two musical genre appeared, namely Gandharva (formal, composed, ceremonial music) and Gana (informal, improvised, entertainment music).[24] The Gandharva music also implied celestial, divine associations, while the Gana also implied singing.[24] The Vedic Sanskrit musical tradition had spread widely in the Indian subcontinent, and according to Rowell, the ancient Tamil classics make it "abundantly clear that a cultivated musical tradition existed in South India as early as the last few pre-Christian centuries".[25]

The classic Sanskrit text Natya Shastra is at the foundation of the numerous classical music and dance traditions of India. Before Natyashastra was finalized, the ancient Indian traditions had classified musical instruments into four groups based on their acoustic principle (how they work, rather than the material they are made of) for example flute which works with gracious in and out flow of air.[26] These four categories are accepted as given and are four separate chapters in the Natyashastra, one each on stringed instruments (chordophones), hollow instruments (aerophones), solid instruments (idiophones), and covered instruments (membranophones).[26]

Of these, states Levis Rowell, the idiophone in the form of "small bronze cymbals" were used for tala. Almost the entire chapter of Natyashastra on idiophones, by Bharata, is a theoretical treatise on the system of tala.[27] Time keeping with idiophones was considered a separate function than that of percussion (membranophones), in the early Indian thought on music theory.[27]

The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara (literally, "Ocean of Music and Dance"), by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in Maharashtra, mentions and discusses ragas and talas.[28] He identifies seven tala families, then subdivides them into rhythmic ratios, presenting a methodology for improvization and composition that continues to inspire modern era Indian musicians.[29] Sangitaratnakara is one of the most complete historic medieval era Hindu treatises on this subject that has survived into the modern era, that relates to the structure, technique and reasoning behind ragas and talas.[30][29]

The centrality and significance of music in ancient and early medieval India is also expressed in numerous temple and shrine reliefs, in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, such as through the carving of musicians with cymbals at the fifth century Pavaya temple sculpture near Gwalior,[31] and the Ellora Caves.[32][33]

Texts

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The post-Vedic era historical literature relating to Indian classical music has been extensive. The ancient and medieval texts are primarily in Sanskrit (Hinduism), but major reviews of music theory, instruments and practice were also composed in regional languages such as Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil and Telugu.[34] While numerous manuscripts have survived into the modern era, many original works on Indian music are believed to be lost, and are known to have existed only because they are quoted and discussed in other manuscripts on classical Indian music.[34][35] Many of the encyclopedic Puranas contain large chapters on music theory and instruments, such as the Bhagavata Purana, the Markandeya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Linga Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Purana.[36][37][38]

The most cited and influential among these texts are the Sama Veda, Natya shastra (classic treatise on music theory, Gandharva), Dattilam, Brihaddesi (treatise on regional classical music forms), and Sangita Ratnakara (definitive text for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions).[8][34][39] Most historic music theory texts have been by Hindu scholars. Some classical music texts were also composed by Buddhists and Jain scholars, and in 16th century by Muslim scholars. These are listed in the attached table.

Major traditions

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Indian classical music performances

The classical music tradition of the ancient and medieval Indian subcontinent (modern Bangladesh, India, Pakistan) were a generally integrated system through the 14th century, after which the socio-political turmoil of the Delhi Sultanate era isolated the north from the south. The music traditions of the North and South India were not considered distinct until about the 16th century, but after that the traditions acquired distinct forms.[4] North Indian classical music is called Hindustani, while the South Indian expression is called Carnatic (sometimes spelled as Karnatic). According to Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition acquired its modern form after the 14th or the 15th century.[43]

Indian classical music has historically adopted and evolved with many regional styles, such as the Bengali classical[44] tradition. This openness to ideas led to assimilation of regional folk innovations, as well as influences that arrived from outside the subcontinent. For example, Hindustani music assimilated Arabian and Persian influences.[44] This assimilation of ideas was upon the ancient classical foundations such as raga, tala, matras as well as the musical instruments. For example, the Persian Rāk is probably a pronunciation of Raga. According to Hormoz Farhat, Rāk has no meaning in modern Persian language, and the concept of raga is unknown in Persia.[45]

Carnatic music

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Main article: Carnatic Music

If Hindustani music is taken in as an entirely new form of music created from Indian classical music and Persian music, then Carnatic music was a form from the south of the sub-continent that developed further natively after this divergence. Carnatic music is the ancient Indian classical music that became distinct after Hindustani music was established. It is dated back to ancient periods, but was only distinct after Hindustani music was established. Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) was a Hindu composer and musicologist who lived in Hampi of the Vijayanagara Empire.[46][47] He is considered Pithamaha (literally, "great father or grandfather") of the Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa was a monk and a devotee of the Hindu god Krishna (Vishnu, Vittal avatar).[46] He systematised classical Indian music theory and developed exercises for musicians to learn and perfect their art. He travelled widely sharing and teaching his ideas, and influenced numerous South Indian and Maharashtra Bhakti movement musicians.[48] These exercises, his teachings about raga, and his systematic methodology called Suladi Sapta Tala (literally, "primordial seven talas") remains in use in contemporary times.[47][49] The efforts of Purandara Dasa in the 16th century began the Carnatic style of Indian classical music.[48]

Saraswati is the goddess of music and knowledge in the Indian tradition.

Carnatic music, from South India, tends to be more rhythmically intensive and structured than Hindustani music. Examples of this are the logical classification of ragas into melakartas, and the use of fixed compositions similar to Western classical music. Carnatic raga elaborations are generally much faster in tempo and shorter than their equivalents in Hindustani music. In addition, accompanists have a much larger role in Carnatic concerts than in Hindustani concerts. Today's typical concert structure was put in place by the vocalist Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar. The opening piece is called a varnam, and is a warm-up for the musicians. A devotion and a request for a blessing follows, then a series of interchanges between ragams (unmetered melody) and Tanam (the ornamentation within a melorhythmic cycle, equivalent to the jor). This is intermixed with hymns called krithis. The pallavi or theme from the raga then follows. Carnatic pieces also have notated lyrical poems that are reproduced as such, possibly with embellishments and treatments according to the performer's ideology, referred to as Manodharmam.[citation needed]

Primary themes include worship, descriptions of temples, philosophy, and nayaka-nayika (Sanskrit "hero-heroine") themes. Tyagaraja (1759–1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776–1827) and Syama Sastri (1762–1827) have been the important historic scholars of Carnatic music. According to Eleanor Zelliot, Tyagaraja is known in the Carnatic tradition as one of its greatest composers, and he reverentially acknowledged the influence of Purandara Dasa.[48]

A common belief is that Carnatic music represents a more ancient and refined approach to classical music, whereas Hindustani music has evolved by external influences.[50]

Hindustani music

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Main article: Hindustani classical music
The 16th century musician Tansen, who about the age of 60 joined the Mughal Akbar court. For many Hindustani music gharanas (schools), he is their founder.

It is unclear when the process of differentiation of Hindustani music started. The process may have started in the 14th century courts of the Delhi Sultans. However, according to Jairazbhoy, the North Indian tradition likely acquired its modern form after the 14th or after the 15th century.[51] The development of Hindustani music reached a peak during the reign of Akbar. During this 16th century period, Tansen studied music and introduced musical innovations, for about the first sixty years of his life with patronage of the Hindu king Ram Chand of Gwalior, and thereafter performed at the Muslim court of Akbar.[52][53] Many musicians consider Tansen as the founder of Hindustani music.[54]

Tansen's style and innovations inspired many, and many modern gharanas (Hindustani music teaching houses) link themselves to his lineage.[55] The Muslim courts discouraged Sanskrit, and encouraged technical music. Such constraints led Hindustani music to evolve in a different way than Carnatic music.[55][56]

Hindustani music style is mainly found in North India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Prior to the Taliban's ban on music, it also had a strong presence in Afghanistan. It exists in four major forms: Dhrupad, Khyal (or Khayal), Tarana, and the semi-classical Thumri.[57] Dhrupad is ancient, Khyal evolved from it, Thumri evolved from Khyal.[58] There are three major schools of Thumri: Lucknow gharana, Banaras gharana and Punjabi gharana. These weave in folk music innovations.[57] Tappa is the most folksy, one which likely existed in Rajasthan and Punjab region before it was systematized and integrated into classical music structure. It became popular, with the Bengali musicians developing their own Tappa.[59]

Khyal is the modern form of Hindustani music, and the term literally means "imagination". It is significant because it was the template for Sufi musicians among the Islamic community of India, and Qawwals sang their folk songs in the Khyal format.[60]

Dhrupad (or Dhruvapad), the ancient form described in the Hindu text Natyashastra,[61] is one of the core forms of classical music found all over the Indian subcontinent. The word comes from Dhruva which means immovable and permanent.[62][58]

A Dhrupad has at least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sanchari and Abhoga. The Sthayi part is a melody that uses the middle octave's first tetrachord and the lower octave notes.[58] The Antara part uses the middle octave's second tetrachord and the higher octave notes.[58] The Sanchari part is the development phase, which builds using parts of Sthayi and Antara already played, and it uses melodic material built with all the three octave notes.[58] The Abhoga is the concluding section, that brings the listener back to the familiar starting point of Sthayi, albeit with rhythmic variations, with diminished notes like a gentle goodbye, that are ideally mathematical fractions such as dagun (half), tigun (third) or chaugun (fourth).[63] Sometimes a fifth stanza called Bhoga is included. Though usually related to philosophical or Bhakti (emotional devotion to a god or goddess) themes, some Dhrupads were composed to praise kings.[62][63]

Improvisation is of central importance to Hindustani music, and each gharana (school tradition) has developed its own techniques. At its core, it starts with a standard composition (bandish), then expands it in a process called vistar. The improvisation methods have ancient roots, and one of the more common techniques is called Alap, which is followed by the Jor and Jhala. The Alap explores possible tonal combinations among other things, Jor explores speed or tempo (faster), while Jhala explores complex combinations like a fishnet of strokes while keeping the beat patterns.[64] As with Carnatic music, Hindustani music has assimilated various folk tunes. For example, ragas such as Kafi and Jaijaiwanti are based on folk tunes.[citation needed]

Persian and Arab influences

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Hindustani music has had Arab and Persian music influences, including the creation of new ragas and the development of instruments such as the sitar and sarod.[44] The nature of these influences are unclear. Scholars have attempted to study Arabic maqam (also spelled makam) of Arabian peninsula, Turkey and northern Africa, and dastgah of Iran, to discern the nature and extent.[65][66] Through the colonial era and until the 1960s, the attempt was to theoretically study ragas and maqams and suggested commonalities. Later comparative musicology studies, states Bruno Nettl – a professor of music, have found the similarities between classical Indian music and European music as well, raising the question about the point of similarities and of departures between the different world music systems.[65][66]

One of the earliest known discussions of Persian maqam and Indian ragas is by the late 16th century scholar Pundarika Vittala. He states that Persian maqams in use in his times had been derived from older Indian ragas (or mela), and he specifically maps over a dozen maqam. For example, Vittala states that the Hijaz maqam was derived from the Asaveri raga, and Jangula was derived from the Bangal.[67][68] In 1941, Haidar Rizvi questioned this and stated that influence was in the other direction, Middle Eastern maqams were turned into Indian ragas, such as Zangulah maqam becoming Jangla raga.[69] According to John Baily – a professor of ethnomusicology, there is evidence that the traffic of musical ideas were both ways, because Persian records confirm that Indian musicians were a part of the Qajar court in Tehran,[70] an interaction that continued through the 20th century with import of Indian musical instruments in cities such as Herat near Afghanistan-Iran border.[71]

Odissi music

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Main article: Odissi music

Odissi music is a distinct type of Classical music of Eastern India. This music is sung during performance of classical Odissi dance.

The traditional ritual music for the service of Lord Jagannatha, Odissi music has a history spanning over two thousand years, authentic sangita-shastras or treatises, unique Ragas & Talas and a distinctive style of rendition.

The various aspects of Odissi music include odissi prabandha, chaupadi, chhānda, champu, chautisa, janāna, mālasri, bhajana, sarimāna, jhulā, kuduka, koili, poi, boli, and more. Presentation dynamics are roughly classified into four: raganga, bhabanga, natyanga and dhrubapadanga. Some great composer-poets of the Odissi tradition are the 12th-century poet Jayadeva, Balarama Dasa, Atibadi Jagannatha Dasa, Dinakrusna Dasa, Kabi Samrata Upendra Bhanja, Banamali Dasa, Kabisurjya Baladeba Ratha, Abhimanyu Samanta Singhara and Kabikalahansa Gopalakrusna Pattanayaka.

Features

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Indian classical music performances

Classical Indian music is one genre of South Asian music; others include film music, various varieties of pop, regional folk, religious and devotional music.[1]

In Indian classical music, the raga and the tala are two foundational elements. The raga forms the fabric of a melodic structure, and the tala keeps the time cycle.[10] Both raga and tala are open frameworks for creativity and allow a very large number of possibilities, however, the tradition considers a few hundred ragas and talas as basic.[72] Raga is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).[73]

Raga

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Main article: Raga
See also: List of composers who created ragas

A raga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of raga cannot be offered in one or two sentences.[74] Raga may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression.[75] In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The raga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.[75]

A raga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs.[11] A musician playing a raga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes, but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale.[11] The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each raga, in order for the performance to create a rasa (mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling) that is unique to each raga. A raga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of raga are possible given 5 or more notes, but in practical use, the classical Indian tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred.[11] For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ragas.[76] Raga in Indian classical music is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra (beat, and duration between beats).[73]

A raga is not a tune, because the same raga can yield a very large number of tunes.[77] A raga is not a scale, because many ragas can be based on the same scale.[77][78] A raga, states Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener".[77] The goal of a raga and its artist is to create rasa (essence, feeling, atmosphere) with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas.[79]

Tala

[edit]
Main article: Tala (music)

According to David Nelson – an Ethnomusicology scholar specializing in Carnatic music, a tala in Indian music covers "the whole subject of musical meter".[80] Indian music is composed and performed in a metrical framework, a structure of beats that is a tala. A tala measures musical time in Indian music. However, it does not imply a regular repeating accent pattern, instead its hierarchical arrangement depends on how the musical piece is supposed to be performed.[80]

The tala forms the metrical structure that repeats, in a cyclical harmony, from the start to end of any particular song or dance segment, making it conceptually analogous to meters in Western music.[80] However, talas have certain qualitative features that classical European musical meters do not. For example, some talas are much longer than any classical Western meter, such as a framework based on 29 beats whose cycle takes about 45 seconds to complete when performed. Another sophistication in talas is the lack of "strong, weak" beat composition typical of the traditional European meter. In classical Indian traditions, the tala is not restricted to permutations of strong and weak beats, but its flexibility permits the accent of a beat to be decided by the shape of musical phrase.[80]

The most widely used tala in the South Indian system is adi tala.[81] In the North Indian system, the most common tala is teental.[82] In the two major systems of classical Indian music, the first count of any tala is called sam.[82]

Instruments

[edit]
Main articles: Indian musical instruments and Vadya
Veena
Flute
Tabla (drums)
Cymbals
Musical instrument types mentioned in the Natyashastra.[83][26]

Instruments typically used in Hindustani music include the sitar, sarod, surbahar, esraj, veena, tanpura, bansuri, shehnai, sarangi, violin, santoor, pakhavaj and tabla.[84] Instruments typically used in Carnatic music include veena, venu, gottuvadyam, harmonium, mridangam, kanjira, ghatam, nadaswaram and violin.[85]

Players of the tabla, a type of drum, usually keep the rhythm, an indicator of time in Hindustani music. Another common instrument is the stringed tanpura, which is played at a steady tone (a drone) throughout the performance of the raga, and which provides both a point of reference for the musician and a background against which the music stands out. The tuning of the tanpura depends on the raga being performed. The task of playing the tanpura traditionally falls to a student of the soloist. Other instruments for accompaniment include the sarangi and the harmonium.[84]

Note system

[edit]

Indian classical music is both elaborate and expressive. Like Western classical music, it divides the octave into 12 semitones of which the 7 basic notes are, in ascending tonal order, Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Hindustani music and Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni for Carnatic music, similar to Western music's Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti. However, Indian music uses just-intonation tuning, unlike some modern Western classical music, which uses the equal-temperament tuning system. Also, unlike modern Western classical music, Indian classical music places great emphasis on improvisation.[citation needed]

The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called swaras (sometimes spelled as svaras). The swara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śhruti,[86] with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,[87]

तत्र स्वराः –
षड्‍जश्‍च ऋषभश्‍चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्‍चमो धैवतश्‍चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥

— Natya Shastra, 28.21[88][89]

These seven degrees are shared by both major raga systems, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) systems.[90] The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa", and the fifth that is "pa", are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.[90]

Contemporary Indian music schools follow notations and classifications (see melakarta and thaat). Thaat, used in Hindustani, is generally based on a flawed but still useful notation system created by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande.[citation needed]

Reception outside India

[edit]

According to Yukteshwar Kumar, elements of Indian music arrived in China in the 3rd century, such as in the works of Chinese lyricist Li Yannian.[91] In 1958, Ravi Shankar came to the US and started making albums. These started a 1960s penchant for Indian classical music in the States. By 1967 Shankar and other artists were performing at rock music festivals alongside Western rock, blues, and soul acts. This lasted until the mid-1970s. Ravi Shankar performed at Woodstock for an audience of over 500,000 in 1969. In the 1980s, 1990s and particularly the 2000s onwards, Indian Classical Music has seen rapid growth in reception and development around the globe, particularly in North America, where immigrant communities have preserved and passed on classical music traditions to subsequent generations through the establishment of local festivals and music schools.[92] Numerous musicians of American origin, including Ramakrishnan Murthy, Sandeep Narayan, Pandit Vikash Maharaj, Abby V, and Mahesh Kale have taken professionally to Indian Classical Music with great success. In his 2020 released video, Canadian singer Abby V demonstrated 73 different Indian Classical ragas in a live rendering, which went viral on the internet; further establishing the growing prominence of Indian Classical Music around the globe.[93] Since 2023, the UK-based arts organisation KalaSudha has presented the Kala Festival, a touring celebration of Indian classical music across major British cities, featuring leading Hindustani and Carnatic musicians.[94]

Organizations

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Sangeet Natak Akademi, is an Indian national-level academy for performance arts. It awards the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award, the highest Indian recognition given to people in the field of performance arts.

SPIC MACAY, established in 1977, has more than 500 chapters in India and abroad. It claims to hold around 5000 events every year related to Indian classical music and dance.[95] Organizations like Prayag Sangeet Samiti, among others, award certification and courses in Indian classical music.[96]

Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva Mahavidyalaya Mandal (अखिल भारतीय गान्धर्व महाविद्यालय मंडल) is an institution for the promotion and propagation of Indian classical music and dance.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Indian classical music

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Indian classical music is an ancient and sophisticated art form originating from the , characterized by its monophonic structure, emphasis on melodic improvisation, and rhythmic cycles, with roots tracing back to the over 3,000 years ago. It encompasses two primary traditions: Hindustani music, prevalent in northern and influenced by Persian and Mughal elements, and Carnatic music, dominant in southern and deeply rooted in devotional traditions. Both systems revolve around the core concepts of —a melodic framework defining scales, notes, and emotional essence—and tala—a repeating rhythmic pattern—performed without fixed notation but through oral transmission in the guru-shishya parampara (teacher-disciple lineage). The Hindustani tradition emphasizes expansive improvisation, often beginning with an alap (unmetered exploration of the raga) and progressing to metered sections like jhaptal or teental, supported by instruments such as the sitar, sarod, tabla, and flute (bansuri). Gharanas, or stylistic schools like the Gwalior or Kirana, preserve unique interpretive approaches passed down through family lineages. In contrast, Carnatic music focuses on composed kritis (structured songs) by composers like the Trinity—Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri—delivered at brisk tempos with intricate rhythmic variations (korvais) and featuring instruments including the veena, mridangam, violin, and ghatam. While sharing the seven primary swaras (notes) and microtonal shrutis, the traditions diverge in raga nomenclature, with over 200 ragas in Carnatic versus around 100 commonly used in Hindustani, reflecting regional cultural evolutions. Historically, Indian classical music evolved from chants and ancient texts like the (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), which codified performance principles, and flourished under royal patronage in medieval courts before adapting to modern concert formats. Its spiritual dimension links music to and rasa (aesthetic ), influencing global genres through diaspora and fusions. Today, institutions like the uphold its classical status, recognizing its antiquity, technical depth, and cultural continuity, while performers continue to innovate within traditional bounds.

History

Ancient and Vedic origins

The earliest traces of musical and rhythmic traditions in the appear in the Indus Valley Civilization, dating to approximately 2500 BCE. Archaeological findings from sites like include the renowned bronze "Dancing Girl" figurine, which depicts a figure in a poised stance suggestive of , implying the existence of accompanying rhythmic elements in social or ceremonial contexts. Terracotta artifacts modeled after drums and conch shells, along with seal impressions showing stringed instruments such as harps, indicate the use of percussion and aerophones for ritualistic or communal purposes, laying rudimentary groundwork for later musical developments. The Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE) marks the spiritual and ritualistic origins of Indian classical music, with sound (nada) regarded as a primordial force integral to cosmic order. The Samaveda, one of the four Vedas, serves as the foundational text for musical expression, compiling over 1,500 melodies (saman) adapted from Rigveda hymns to be chanted during sacrificial rites. These saman are monophonic, relying on precise vocal intonation without harmonic accompaniment, to invoke divine energies and maintain ritual purity. The Chandogya Upanishad, affiliated with the Samaveda, explores nada as cosmic vibration through hymns on the Udgitha chant, portraying sound as the unifying essence linking human utterance to universal principles like breath, space, and the sun. Theoretical foundations emerged in ancient treatises, conceptualizing music's microtonal structure. Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), a comprehensive work on performing arts, introduces shruti as the smallest audible interval, dividing the octave into 22 shrutis to enable nuanced melodic variations essential for Vedic chanting and dramatic expression. This system underscored music's role in elevating consciousness, with shrutis derived from natural acoustic divisions observed in string vibrations. In Vedic rituals, such as the Soma sacrifice, saman chants were performed by specialized priests like the Udgatr, who "sang up" the offerings to the gods through extended melodic phrases. The monophonic of these chants emphasized textual fidelity and vibrational resonance, believed to harmonize participants with the and facilitate spiritual transcendence. This ritualistic framework established music as a sacred medium rather than mere entertainment.

Medieval developments

The medieval period in Indian classical music, spanning roughly from the 13th to the 18th century, marked a significant evolution in theoretical frameworks and regional practices, building on earlier foundations while adapting to diverse patronage systems. A pivotal text from this era is the composed by Sarngadeva in the early 13th century, which systematically documented 264 ragas and classified talas into marga (classical) and desi (regional) categories, including descriptions of 120 desi talas structured with angas such as druta, laghu, and . This treatise served as a foundational reference, influencing both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions by providing a comprehensive synthesis of , including prabandhas and gitis, and bridging ancient concepts with emerging performative styles. Regional styles began to emerge prominently under the patronage of Islamic sultanates and Hindu empires, fostering distinct musical idioms. In the , such as those of and during the 15th and 16th centuries, rulers provided royal support that encouraged the blending of Persian maqams with indigenous ragas, laying groundwork for proto-Hindustani forms like early and khayal precursors through court musicians and compositions. Concurrently, the (14th–16th centuries) contributed to Carnatic precursors by patronizing devotional music, exemplified by the 15th-century composer , whose thousands of sankeertanas in Telugu emphasized themes and melodic structures that influenced later kritis and varnams. These developments highlighted a shift toward more structured compositions tied to regional languages and spiritual expression. Southern musical theory advanced further with the refinement of systems, transitioning from the ancient grama-raga framework to a more organized melakarta-janya structure. The Chaturdandi Prakasika, authored by Venkatamakhin in the under the patronage of the court, introduced the 72-melakarta scheme, categorizing parent scales (melakartas) from which derivative ragas (janyas) are generated, thereby standardizing the classification of melodic modes in . This text emphasized four dandis (types of prabandhas) and integrated practical elements like alapa and tana, providing a theoretical backbone that remains central to southern traditions. The played a crucial role in standardizing compositional forms, particularly through saint-composers who democratized music beyond courtly confines. (c. 1484–1564), a key figure in the 16th-century tradition at , composed over 475,000 devaranamas—simple, devotional songs in set to s and talas—that served as pedagogical tools, including preliminary exercises (swarajatis) leading to upa-pada varnams. His systematic approach to teaching, starting from basic swaras in raga , is credited with establishing the foundational structure for education and performance, emphasizing accessibility and emotional depth in expression.

Modern evolution

The advent of British colonial rule in the profoundly disrupted traditional systems for classical music, as the decline of princely courts shifted support from royal sponsorship to emerging public concerts and urban middle-class audiences. This transition fostered a move away from courtly performances toward standardized public events, with scholars and musicians seeking to codify practices amid cultural uncertainties. The five All India Music Conferences, convened by between 1916 and 1926, played a pivotal role in this shift by promoting uniform notation systems and descriptions, thereby facilitating the organization of concerts over exclusive courtly renditions. Key figures like (1860–1936) advanced Hindustani music through his classification of ragas into the 10-thaats system, a framework that organized prevalent scales for easier and performance in the . In , the 17th-century scholar Venkatamakhin's formulation of the 72 melakartas continued to exert influence, providing a foundational structure for elaboration that persists in contemporary compositions and teaching. These efforts built on earlier medieval texts like the while adapting to colonial-era needs for accessibility. Post-independence in 1947, the revival of Indian classical music gained momentum through institutional channels, notably (established in 1936 but expanded significantly thereafter), which broadcast classical performances to cultivate a national audience and auditory citizenship. Film integrations further popularized the tradition, with composers incorporating ragas and talas into soundtracks, blending classical elements with cinematic narratives to reach mass viewership. Ravi Shankar's global tours in the exemplified this outreach, introducing Hindustani music to international stages and enhancing its prestige both domestically and abroad. In recent decades up to 2025, digital archiving initiatives have preserved vast repositories of performances and texts, such as the Music Academy in Chennai's digitization of over 6,000 books and concert recordings since the 2020s, ensuring long-term accessibility despite copyright challenges. Concurrently, pushes for gender inclusivity have intensified, with projects like the -funded Anahad Foundation initiative (2025–2027) mentoring up to 100 gender-minority artists in the music industry. This has led to increased female leadership in gharanas, as seen in women serving as prominent teachers and representatives, alongside all-women ensembles like the 2025 Raagraanis album featuring vocalists from diverse traditions.

Theoretical Foundations

Swara and scale system

In Indian classical music, the foundational note system revolves around the sapta , or seven primary musical notes: shadja (Sa), rishabha (Re), (Ga), madhyama (Ma), panchama (Pa), dhaivata (Dha), and nishada (Ni). These notes constitute the basic building blocks of , spanning one known as a . Each swara represents a distinct pitch level, with Sa serving as the tonic or reference note, and the sequence ascending from Sa to the higher Sa of the next octave. The swaras incorporate variations to create a more nuanced scale: komal (flat or lowered), shuddha (natural or unaltered), and tivra (sharp or raised). Specifically, Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni can be rendered as komal or shuddha, while Ma can be shuddha or tivra; Sa and Pa remain fixed in their shuddha form without alteration. This system yields 12 distinct swara positions within the , allowing for flexible melodic expression while maintaining structural integrity. Underlying the swara system is the shruti framework, which divides the octave into 22 microtonal intervals called shrutis, providing finer gradations of pitch than the 12 swaras. These shrutis are conceptualized as imperceptible tonal steps, with mathematical s derived from ancient tuning experiments, such as stacking intervals of pure fourths and fifths. For instance, the interval from Sa to Pa corresponds to a pure with a of 32\frac{3}{2}, emphasizing rooted in natural acoustics. Unlike the Western system, which divides the into 12 equal semitones for uniform tuning across instruments, the Indian and shruti system adheres to , where intervals are based on simple integer ratios for purer, more resonant tones. This approach accommodates subtle pitch inflections through gamaka—ornamental glides, oscillations, and graces applied to swaras—enhancing emotional depth but requiring performer skill rather than fixed instrumental tempering. Carnatic traditions lean more toward , while Hindustani practices show some influences from instruments like the harmonium. Historically, the system evolved from Vedic chanting practices, where pitch accents such as udatta (high), anudatta (low), and svarita (enclitic high-low) formed a rudimentary three-note framework in the Rig Veda for ritual recitation. The Sama Veda expanded this to seven notes by systematizing melodic chants, marking the transition to a more structured scale. By the medieval period, texts like Sarngadeva's (13th century) standardized the sapta swara nomenclature and variations, integrating them into comprehensive theoretical treatises that influenced both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. These swaras serve as the atomic elements for constructing melodic frameworks like ragas.

Raga

In Indian classical music, a serves as the central melodic framework, defining a unique mode through a specific sequence of swaras (notes) that evoke distinct emotional and aesthetic qualities. Unlike fixed Western scales, a is characterized by its ascending pattern, known as , and descending pattern, avroha, which outline the permissible notes and their order to create a cohesive melodic identity. Each also features a vadi, the dominant or "king" note that emphasizes the 's core essence and is most frequently stressed, paired with a samvadi, the secondary or supporting note that harmonizes with the vadi to reinforce the mood. Additionally, the pakad, or catch phrase, is a short, characteristic sequence of notes that encapsulates the 's distinctive motif and aids in its immediate recognition. Ragas are classified differently across the two major traditions of Indian classical music. In Hindustani music, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande systematized ragas into 10 parent scales called thaats, such as Kalyan, from which derived ragas like Yaman emerge; Yaman, for instance, uses the aroha Ni Re Ga Ma Dha Ni Sa and emphasizes the vadi Ga with a pakad of Ni Re Ga Re Ma. In contrast, Carnatic music employs the melakarta system, comprising 72 fundamental parent ragas that generate thousands of janya (derived) ragas; Shankarabharanam, the 29th melakarta, parallels the Hindustani Bilaval thaat and features all shuddha swaras in both aroha and avroha. These classification systems provide a structured yet flexible foundation for raga creation and performance. Central to raga theory is its connection to rasa, the aesthetic flavor or emotional essence drawn from the nine classical rasas in : shringara (), hasya (humor), karuna (), raudra (anger), veera (heroism), bhayanaka (fear), bibhatsa (disgust), adbhuta (wonder), and shanta ( or devotion). Each is associated with one or more rasas to elicit a specific mood; for example, Bhairav evokes (devotional peace) through its grave and introspective tones. Ragas also follow time-of-day prescriptions, or prahars, to align with natural and emotional cycles: morning ragas like Bhairav are performed at dawn to invoke serenity and spiritual awakening, while evening ragas such as Yaman promote romantic contemplation. Numerous ragas, with estimates ranging from hundreds to thousands documented across historical treatises and oral traditions, though only a few hundred are commonly performed today. The concept of evolved from ancient jatis—melodic types described in texts like the Natyashastra (c. 200 BCE–200 CE)—which were more rigid classifications based on note combinations and regional influences, gradually developing into the fluid, hybrid forms seen in modern practice through medieval syntheses of indigenous and Persian elements.

Tala

In Indian classical music, tala refers to the cyclic rhythmic framework that organizes musical time through a repeating of beats known as matras. Each tala cycle, called an avartana, is divided into sections or vibhags, which are demarcated by hand gestures such as claps (tali) for emphasized beats and waves (khali) for unemphasized ones, creating a structured that guides both performers and listeners. The sam, the first beat of the cycle, serves as the crucial starting and resolution point, often emphasized with a clap, ensuring rhythmic alignment across performances. A prominent example is , a widely used tala in Hindustani music consisting of 16 matras divided evenly into four vibhags of 4+4+4+4, with claps on the first beat of each vibhag except the third, which features a wave to denote khali. This division allows for intricate improvisations while maintaining cyclic repetition, where the performer returns to sam after completing the 16 beats. In contrast, in Hindustani music features 7 matras structured as 3+2+2, with a clap on the first beat and waves on the subsequent divisions, providing an asymmetrical rhythm suited to lighter or semi-classical forms. In , the suladi sapta tala system organizes rhythms into seven fundamental talas, each combinable with five jatis (variations in beat subdivision), yielding 35 core talas that form the basis of modern practice. Adi tala, one of the most common, comprises 8 matras in a 4+2+2 division using laghu (counted beats), drutam (two beats), and anudrutam (one beat) angas, with claps and waves marking the structure for compositions like kritis. These suladi talas evolved alongside tempo variations, distinguishing them from simpler or more complex historical forms, and emphasize precision in rhythmic execution. The , or laya, further refines tala's expression, categorized as vilambit (slow, evoking elaboration), madhya (medium, for balanced development), and drut (fast, for energetic climax), often accelerating within a performance through mathematical ratios like doubling the speed from madhya to drut in a 1:2 proportion. This progression allows musicians to build intensity while adhering to the tala cycle, with vilambit typically half the pace of madhya to facilitate nuanced phrasing. Historically, tala's foundations trace to medieval texts like the Natyashastra (circa 200 BCE–200 CE), which outlined early rhythmic principles, expanding by the 14th century to over 120 talas in treatises such as those by Sarngadeva in . By the 16th century, reformers like streamlined these into the suladi sapta tala framework for , reducing the repertoire to 35 practical forms that prioritized accessibility and integration with melodic elements, while Hindustani traditions retained a more fluid set of about 10–12 common talas. This evolution reflects a shift from elaborate Vedic chanting rhythms to structured cycles suited for solo and ensemble improvisation.
TraditionTala NameMatras (Beats)Vibhag DivisionCommon Usage
Hindustani164+4+4+4 and instrumental solos
HindustaniRupak73+2+2 and lighter forms
CarnaticAdi84+2+2Kritis and varnams

Major Traditions

Hindustani music

Hindustani music, the classical tradition of northern India, originated during the medieval period, where the assimilation of Persian and indigenous musical elements began under rulers like Sultan Alauddin Khilji, who convened musicians to blend styles that would evolve into this form. This syncretic process was furthered by figures such as Amir Khusro in the 13th-14th centuries, who influenced early developments in vocal and rhythmic structures during the Sultanate's cultural exchanges between Hindu and Muslim traditions. Building on shared foundations of (melodic frameworks) and tala (rhythmic cycles), Hindustani music emphasizes and emotional depth, distinguishing it through its system—lineages of stylistic transmission. Central to Hindustani music are its gharanas, which preserve unique interpretive approaches; the , one of the oldest and considered the cradle of khayal singing, prioritizes vocal clarity, simplicity, and pure note rendition with a focus on balanced elaboration of ragas. In contrast, the , established in the , is renowned for its slow, meditative tempo, emphasizing elongated notes, resonance, and gradual unfolding of the through aalaap (unmetered ) to evoke profound emotional nuance. These schools, among others, highlight the tradition's regional variations, particularly the profound influence of Mughal courts from the onward, where patronized musicians like , who composed devotional pieces and helped standardize forms while bridging Hindu and Persian elements. Key forms define Hindustani performance: , the ancient devotional style tracing to Vedic chanting, features structured, hymn-like compositions that invoke spiritual contemplation through precise rhythmic cycles and minimal ornamentation. Khayal, meaning "imagination," emerged as the dominant vocal genre in the , allowing expansive on short poetic texts, often romantic or seasonal, with cycles of melodic exploration and rhythmic play. , a semi-classical form originating in eastern , conveys emotional intimacy through lighter, text-driven songs on themes of love and longing, incorporating bol-banaav (rhythmic wordplay) and subtle gamakas (note oscillations) for expressive flexibility. Prominent artists have shaped Hindustani music's legacy; Pandit (1922–2011), a exponent, revolutionized khayal rendition with his powerful voice and innovative interpretations, including creations like Kalashri, while also popularizing devotional bhajans. Ustad (1968–2024), from the Rampur-Sahaswan gharana, was celebrated for his pure, emotive vocal delivery in khayal and , forging global connections through intricate taans and accessible fusions that transcended classical boundaries. In the , contemporary figures continue this evolution, with artists like those in the rising fusion scene blending Hindustani elements with global influences to innovate while honoring tradition.

Carnatic music

Carnatic music, one of the two primary traditions of Indian classical music, is predominantly practiced in the southern regions of India, including , , , and . Its roots trace back to ancient Tamil Sangam literature, which dates to the early centuries CE and contains references to musical performances and instruments integral to cultural and devotional contexts. Further development occurred during the Vijayanagara era (14th–17th centuries), when royal patronage fostered the evolution of sophisticated musical forms and compositions, blending local traditions with broader South Indian influences. A pivotal era in Carnatic music's history is marked by the 18th- and 19th-century composers known as the or : (1767–1847), (1775–1835), and (1762–1827). These contemporaries, all from Telugu-speaking Brahmin families in , composed primarily in Telugu and , infusing their works with deep (devotional) themes centered on deities like , , and the goddess. Their enduring legacy lies in the kritis, structured devotional songs that form the backbone of Carnatic repertoire, emphasizing rhythmic precision, melodic elaboration, and lyrical spirituality. 's over 700 kritis, such as those in raga Mohanam, explore personal devotion; 's 500-plus works, like the , incorporate tantric and Vedic elements; and 's 300 compositions highlight vocal agility and emotional depth. Central to Carnatic performances are key compositional forms that balance structure and creativity. The serves as a warm-up piece, featuring intricate (note) patterns in two speeds to establish the and tala while honing technical skills like gamaka (oscillations). The krithi, the most prevalent form popularized by the , consists of pallavi (), anupallavi (sub-), and charanam (verse), allowing for melodic expansion within fixed lyrics and s. The ragam-tanam-pallavi (RTP) represents the peak, beginning with ragam (unmetered exploration), followed by tanam (rhythmic melodic ), and culminating in pallavi (thematic elaboration with variations in speed and ). Carnatic music places significant emphasis on manodharma, the art of improvisation guided by the performer's intuition yet constrained by the raga's aesthetic rules and tala's cyclic framework. This creative freedom manifests in alapana (raga exposition), neraval (lyrical improvisation), and swarakalpana (note patterns), enabling artists to infuse personal expression into compositions. The theoretical foundation includes the 72 melakarta ragas, a systematic classification of parent scales devised by Venkatamakhin in the 17th century, each encompassing all seven swaras in ascending and descending orders to generate janya (derived) ragas. A major venue for is the , an annual festival in (formerly Madras) that began in December 1927 under the auspices of the newly founded during an All-India Music Conference. This event, now spanning December to January, features thousands of concerts across sabhas (cultural organizations), showcasing the tradition's compositional rigor and drawing performers and audiences from around the world.

Other regional traditions

Odissi music, originating from the state of Odisha, represents a distinct classical tradition deeply intertwined with the Odissi dance form, where vocal compositions accompany expressive movements and narratives drawn from Odia literature and the Gita Govinda. This tradition employs specific ragas such as Shree (also known as Sri), which evokes devotional moods, and talas like Tribhanga, a rhythmic cycle of 14 beats that structures the dance sequences and musical phrasing. Key elements include padas, poetic verses set to melody for narrative expression, and abhinaya songs that integrate facial and gestural interpretation to convey emotional and spiritual themes. Beyond , several regional variants draw from classical frameworks while incorporating local cultural elements. In , maintains strong variants through the , emphasizing austere, meditative renditions with intricate alaps and bol-based compositions rooted in ancient vocal techniques. sankirtan from features devotional choral singing accompanied by drums and , focusing on Vaishnava themes in a ritualistic format that blends melody and rhythm for communal worship. Similarly, Marathi Natya Sangeet, a theatrical song style from , incorporates influences with its emotive, semi-classical delivery of lyrics from stage dramas, blending raga-based elaboration with dramatic expression. These traditions distinguish themselves from through adherence to structured and tala systems, ancient textual foundations, and guru-shishya parampara, as recognized by the , which evaluates classical status based on such formalized melodic and rhythmic frameworks preserved over centuries. While influenced by broader Hindustani and Carnatic elements, they retain unique regional identities tied to local languages and rituals. Since the 1950s, these regional traditions have gained national prominence through the Awards, instituted in 1951 for music categories, with specific honors for awarded to exponents like Kashinath Pujapanda in 2005 in recognition of their contributions to preserving and performing these forms; as of 2025, the Akademi continues to bestow awards annually to support ongoing preservation efforts.

Instruments

Stringed instruments

Stringed instruments form a cornerstone of Indian classical music, providing the primary means for melodic expression through the rendition of ragas. These instruments, classified under the ancient category of tantu vadya (stringed instruments) in the Natyashastra, evolved from rudimentary ancient forms like the ambuja and pariwadini to sophisticated modern designs. The historical progression traces back to the Natyashastra (circa 200 BCE–200 CE), which describes early veenas as fretted lutes with gourds for resonance, influencing later developments such as the 13th-century innovations attributed to , who is credited with creating the by modifying the Persian and Indian . By the 18th century, structural refinements in these instruments emphasized for resonance, enabling intricate glides (meend) and rapid passages (taans) essential to elaboration. The , a long-necked plucked central to Hindustani music, features approximately 20 strings: six to seven main strings for melody, two drone strings, and eleven to thirteen that vibrate in resonance beneath a curved . Its construction includes a resonant body, often from a dried , with a wooden inlaid with frets made of metal wire or camel bone, allowing precise intonation for microtonal bends. Players use a wire (mizrab) on the right hand's to pluck the strings, while the left hand presses and slides along the frets to produce meend—smooth glides mimicking vocal inflections—and rapid taans for rhythmic elaboration, as exemplified in Ravi Shankar's performances that popularized the instrument globally. enhance harmonic overtones, creating a shimmering sustain that supports development. The , particularly the used in , is a fretted with four main melody strings and three drone strings, constructed from jackwood with two gourds acting as resonators for amplified tone. Its 24 fixed frets, made of or , facilitate precise placement, and the instrument is held horizontally across the lap. Playing involves plucking with the fingers of the right hand—index and middle for melody, ring and little for drones—while the left hand's fingers stop the strings and execute slides and pulls for gamakas (oscillations), producing a resonant, vocal-like suited to intricate expositions. In contrast, the sarode, a fretless prominent in Hindustani traditions, has a shorter neck and skin-covered (often skin over a wooden body) with four to five melody strings, one drone, two chikari side strings for , nine to eleven tarb strings that are also struck for and , and fifteen to twenty , totaling 17 to 25 strings tuned to the 's scale. Its construction, influenced by the ancient and medieval , uses a polished metal plate on the neck for smooth sliding without frets, enabling continuous pitch variation. The right hand employs a shell plectrum to pluck or stroke the strings, while the left hand's fingernails press hard against the tensioned gut or steel strings to produce meend and swift taans, yielding a deep, guttural tone ideal for bold interpretations. The , adapted from its European form for Indian classical use, particularly in , retains four strings tuned in perfect fifths but adjusted modally to match the concert's pitch (sruti), often with a lower overall tuning to facilitate gamakas. Introduced in the early , it was pioneered by figures like Balaswamy (1786–1858), who modified bowing techniques to emulate vocal ornamentation. Unlike Western posture, Carnatic violinists sit cross-legged on the floor, resting the instrument's scroll on the right ankle without a chin rest or shoulder pad, using continuous bowing with the right arm for seamless meend and finger pressure with the left hand for pitch bends and oscillations, achieving a quality in renditions.

Wind instruments

Wind instruments in Indian classical music play a vital role in evoking tonal purity and emotional depth through precise breath control, allowing performers to sustain notes and execute intricate melodic variations within the framework. These aerophones, primarily transverse flutes and double-reed oboe-like instruments, emphasize continuous airflow to produce mellow or piercing timbres suited to both intimate recitals and ceremonial settings. Their use highlights the tradition's focus on microtonal inflections and ornamentation, distinguishing them by their reliance on and lung capacity rather than mechanical aids. The origins of wind instruments trace back to Vedic literature, where the mukha-veena is referenced as an early mouth-blown device, functioning as a precursor to modern double-reed instruments and symbolizing the integration of breath as a creative force in ancient musical practices. Central to Hindustani music is the bansuri, a transverse crafted from a single hollow shaft, typically 12 to 20 inches long, with six finger holes and an hole for blowing across to produce sound. Its simple construction enables a soft, reedy ideal for rendering ragas, and players employ techniques such as murki—rapid, decorative note clusters—and gamakas (oscillations) to mimic vocal nuances, requiring advanced breath modulation for sustained phrases. In contrast, the Carnatic tradition favors the venu, a shorter made from thicker-walled bamboo, typically with seven finger holes and an hole but tuned to southern scales, allowing for extended and integration with tala rhythms in ensemble performances. The shehnai, a double-reed wind instrument prevalent in Hindustani contexts, features a wooden body about 12 inches long with eight finger holes, a brass or copper bell for amplification, and a double reed that demands forceful blowing to achieve its nasal, auspicious tone. Renowned for weddings and temple rituals, it relies on circular breathing—storing air in the cheeks while inhaling nasally—to maintain uninterrupted melodies, enabling prolonged improvisations that align with celebratory rhythms. In Carnatic music, the nadaswaram serves as a powerful outdoor horn, constructed from a long wooden tube (about 2 feet) widening into a metal bell, with seven finger holes and a that produces a loud, vibrant sound capable of carrying over distances. Typically performed in pairs with the tavil drum for rhythmic support, it excels in processions and festivals, where players use adjustments and rapid fingering to navigate complex ragas and talas, emphasizing its role in communal devotional music.

Percussion instruments

Percussion instruments form the rhythmic foundation of Indian classical music, providing the cyclical framework of tala that structures performances in both Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. These instruments emphasize idiophonic and membranophonic sounds to mark beats, subdivisions, and accents, enabling accompaniment to melodic lines while allowing for intricate solos that explore rhythmic variations. Key examples include the in the north and the in the south, alongside ancillary instruments like the and pakhawaj, each contributing distinct timbres and techniques to ensemble and solo contexts. The , a paired central to Hindustani music, consists of two cylindrical wooden shells: the smaller, tuned daya (right ) covered with a goatskin head featuring a black syahi paste for sharp, resonant tones, and the larger bayan (left ) with a broader head that allows pressure-modulated bass sounds. Tabla strokes are articulated through bols, mnemonic syllables such as ta (for a basic open stroke on the daya), te (a rim-finger slap), na (bass on bayan), and ke (closed bass), with approximately 10-12 fundamental strokes forming the basis for complex rhythms. In , the tabla delineates tala cycles like (16 beats) through theka patterns, syncing with vocal or instrumental , while in solos, it showcases advanced compositions that highlight speed and precision. In Carnatic music, the mridangam serves as the primary percussion, a barrel-shaped double-headed drum carved from jackfruit wood, with layered goatskin heads producing dual tones: the higher-pitched iddarangam on the right side for treble strokes and the deeper valdarangam on the left for bass resonance. Pitch is adjusted by tightening or loosening a circumferential or gut strap that encircles the drum, allowing fine-tuning to match the ensemble's shruti (pitch reference). The mridangam supports tala structures such as adi tala (8 beats) via korvais (rhythmic cadences) in , and its solo form, often called mridangam , explores layered textures through finger and palm strikes that blend with subtle melodic echoes. The , a resonant clay pot in Carnatic ensembles, features a narrow widening to a broad base, tuned by varying clay thickness and mouth size to yield metallic, pitch-variable tones when struck. Players rest the ghatam against their abdomen, using fingertips, palms, and nails to produce bols like thom (deep bass) and tang (high ring), often layering rhythms atop the to enrich tala elaboration without dominating the melody. Its solo potential emerges in duets, where rapid fills demonstrate dynamic control over volume and . The pakhawaj, an ancient barrel drum predating the tabla in Hindustani traditions, is crafted from a hollowed body with double goatskin heads tuned via straps and a central paste application for tonal clarity, producing a robust, earthy sound suited to vocal forms. Closely tied to dhrupad's meditative pace, it employs open-hand thapi strokes and bols such as dha and ge to outline slow talas like chautal (12 beats), offering solo recitals that emphasize kayda-like themes rooted in Vedic rhythmic recitation. Tabla solos frequently feature kayda and compositions, which are theme-and-variation forms building technical fluency and rhythmic improvisation. A kayda presents a core theka-derived phrase repeated with variations across tala divisions, fostering precision in bols execution, while a extends this at faster tempos with fluid, continuous phrases that accelerate to showcase , often concluding in tihai (triplicated cadences) for dramatic closure. These techniques underscore the percussionist's role in both supporting and elevating the rhythmic discourse of Indian classical performances.

Performance Practices

Vocal traditions

Vocal traditions form the cornerstone of Indian classical music, where the human voice serves as the primary medium for conveying the intricate emotional and spiritual depths of ragas. Originating from the sacred chants of the Sama Veda around 1500 BCE, these traditions emphasize the voice's ability to explore melodic structures without instrumental mediation, evolving through centuries of oral transmission and guru-shishya parampara (teacher-disciple lineage). In both Hindustani and Carnatic systems, vocal performance prioritizes expressiveness over mere technical display, allowing singers to imbue compositions with personal interpretation while adhering to and tala frameworks. This evolution from ritualistic Vedic intonations to structured concert forms in the 20th century reflects broader cultural shifts, including the influence of and Sufi devotional practices that enriched lyrical content. The primacy of the voice in Indian classical music stems from its unparalleled capacity to articulate the subtle microtonal nuances (shrutis) and emotional rasas inherent in s, making it the ideal instrument for raga elaboration. Training begins with , a rigorous solfege system involving repetitive syllable exercises like "sa re ga ma" to build precision in (notes) and voice modulation, ensuring purity of intonation before advancing to . This vocal-centric approach underscores the that the voice, as the most natural human sound, best captures the raga's aesthetic and meditative essence, influencing even instrumental renditions. Accompaniment by instruments like the and supports but never overshadows the vocalist. Key vocal techniques include the , an unmetered, slow exploration of the that unfolds its mood through gradual note introduction without rhythm, allowing for profound emotional immersion. Taan follows, comprising rapid, intricate note passages that demonstrate while maintaining raga fidelity, often executed in ascending or descending scales. Breath control, enhanced through exercises derived from yogic practices, enables sustained phrasing and seamless transitions, vital for long improvisational stretches in performances. These techniques, honed over years, facilitate the singer's ability to evoke diverse sentiments, from to devotion. In Hindustani music, the khayal form dominates vocal expression, characterized by its emphasis on improvisation around a poetic bandish (composition) in slow (vilambit) and fast (drut) tempos, allowing expansive raga development. Pioneered in the 18th century and refined by gharanas like Kirana, khayal prioritizes lyrical imagination and emotional depth, as exemplified by Ustad Abdul Karim Khan (1872–1937), whose renditions featured plaintive swaras and intricate taans that blended Gwalior and Carnatic styles. In contrast, Carnatic music centers on the kriti, a structured devotional composition typically by composers like Tyagaraja or Muthuswami Dikshitar, comprising pallavi (refrain), anupallavi, and charanam sections that integrate sahitya (lyrics) with raga elaboration, focusing on rhythmic complexity and bhakti themes. While khayal offers greater improvisational freedom, kriti maintains a balanced architecture, both forms evolving from earlier dhrupad and kirtana traditions into staples of modern recitals.

Instrumental styles

In Indian classical music, instrumental styles primarily adapt the melodic and improvisational frameworks of vocal traditions to the timbres and techniques of various instruments, emphasizing raga elaboration and emotional expression while navigating the physical limitations of non-vocal sound production. In the Hindustani tradition, stringed instruments like the emulate vocal meends—gliding transitions between notes—through techniques such as gamak (oscillations) and murki (quick note clusters), creating a vocal-like fluidity in performance. A typical rendition unfolds through the , jor, and jhala sections: the is an unaccompanied, non-metric exploration of the 's notes to establish mood; it transitions to jor, introducing a pulsating without percussion; the jhala accelerates with fast, repeating motifs still unaccompanied; this culminates in the gat or chiz, a faster metered section with accompaniment that intensifies rhythmic interplay while maintaining melodic ornamentation inspired by vocal phrasing. Carnatic instrumental styles, particularly on the and , integrate into the Ragam-Tanam-Pallavi (RTP) format, where the violin mirrors vocal ragam ( improvisation) through bowed glides and double stops to evoke the voice's sustain, while the provides rhythmic support in tanam (rhythmic vocalization adapted to percussion syllables) and pallavi (thematic refrain). Neraval, an expansion of a melodic phrase through variation and elaboration, allows violinists to showcase depth akin to vocal kalpanaswaram, often in dialogue with the mridangam's tani avartanam (percussive solo response). Instrumental performances range from solo expositions, where a single artist like a or player builds extended improvisations, to duets that foster collaborative exchange; for instance, and pairings highlight intricate rhythmic dialogues, with the sarod's continuous plucking contrasting the tabla's sharp strokes to mirror vocal-percussion interactions. Since the , modern adaptations have incorporated electronic amplification to enhance projection in larger venues, allowing instruments like the and to retain acoustic nuances while reaching broader audiences without altering core stylistic elements.

Improvisation techniques

Improvisation forms the creative core of Indian classical music, enabling performers to expand upon the raga's melodic framework while adhering to tala's rhythmic cycles where applicable. In Hindustani tradition, it unfolds gradually through unmetered and metered phases, emphasizing emotional immersion over fixed patterns. The alap initiates this process as a slow, non-percussive exposition, methodically revealing the raga's notes, phrases, and mood to evoke its inherent rasa or emotional essence. Following the alap, the jor introduces a steady pulse without defined tala, accelerating the rhythmic energy while sustaining the raga's exploratory depth. Within the metered composition phase, taan emerge as rapid, intricate melodic runs that weave variations around the raga's core motifs, executed in ascending, descending, or zigzag patterns to heighten intensity. Vocalists employ bol-taan, syllable-based improvisations drawn from the bandish's text, blending linguistic rhythm with melodic agility for expressive layering. In Carnatic music, improvisation—termed manodharma sangita—integrates seamlessly with compositions, prioritizing virtuosic expansions that showcase the artist's ingenuity. Raga alapana parallels the Hindustani as an unmetered, pulsating elaboration of the , often building to tanam, a rhythmic vocal drone. Neraval involves selecting and lyrically extending a single line from the kriti, varying its melody and rhythm to deepen thematic resonance. Swara kalpana delivers fast, patterned note sequences using solfege syllables like sa ri ga ma, confined to tala cycles and culminating in synchronized exchanges with percussion. Unlike Hindustani bol-taan, which relies on textual syllables for narrative flow, kalpana emphasizes pure tonal precision and combinatorial logic. Tradition-specific approaches diverge notably: Hindustani improvisation favors prolonged, introspective unmetered segments for rasa cultivation, whereas Carnatic techniques embed within structured forms for dynamic interplay. Across both, artists transcend rigid arohana-avrohana scalar paths, incorporating gamakas, meends, and microtonal nuances to prioritize affective depth over mechanical ascent-descent.

Influences and Evolution

Historical foreign influences

The invasion of in 326 BCE marked an early point of contact between Greek and Indian musical traditions, with scholars suggesting possible influences of Greek harmonic concepts and scales on the development of early Indian modes, though the exchange was likely bidirectional as Greek sources like attributed much of their musical knowledge to Indian origins. This interaction, occurring during the in northwest , may have contributed to the evolution of modal structures in ancient Indian treatises such as the , where tetratonic and pentatonic scales show parallels to Greek systems. During the medieval Islamic era, particularly through the and , Persian and Arab influences profoundly shaped , introducing syllabic vocal forms like the , derived from Persian rhythmic poetry and characterized by meaningless syllables for rapid melodic elaboration. The , emerging around the , blended Persian rhythmic patterns with Indian ragas, facilitating a more percussive and improvisational style that contrasted with earlier devotional forms. Similarly, the , a resembling the Persian , was introduced in the and became integral to Mughal court ensembles for its vocal-like timbre, often accompanying singers in and khayal performances. In the , under Akbar's , the form was refined through the contributions of musician , who integrated Islamic poetic meters and modal subtleties into its structure, elevating it as a sophisticated courtly genre that synthesized Hindu and Muslim elements. 's innovations, supported by Akbar's (nine jewels) assembly, emphasized rhythmic complexity and thematic depth in , drawing from Persian treatises on . European colonial encounters in the 18th and 19th centuries introduced Western notation systems to Indian music, primarily through who adapted staff notation to transcribe local melodies for evangelistic and ethnographic purposes. Figures like German Lutheran Christian Friedrich Schwartz in employed European and notation to teach instruments such as the , influencing Carnatic musicians and leading to hybrid systems that fixed improvisational elements for preservation and pedagogy. This notation, initially used in missionary schools and later by Indian reformers like , provided a visual framework that complemented oral traditions, though it sometimes simplified microtonal nuances of ragas.

Contemporary fusions

In the mid-20th century, Indian classical music began blending with Western genres, particularly through Ravi Shankar's pioneering collaborations that introduced ragas and talas to global audiences. Shankar's partnership with violinist in the 1960s produced the album West Meets East (1967), which fused Indian with Western violin, earning a Grammy Award for its innovative cross-cultural dialogue. This era also saw Shankar's indirect influence on popular music, as incorporated into "Norwegian Wood" on their 1965 album , marking one of the first mainstream Western pop tracks to feature the instrument and sparking widespread interest in Indian sounds. The 1970s marked the rise of Indo-jazz fusions, exemplified by guitarist John McLaughlin's band , formed in 1973, which combined acoustic with Indian classical elements like rhythmic cycles and melodic modes. maestro Zakir Hussain, a core member of , contributed intricate rhythmic patterns that bridged jazz's swing with Indian tala structures, influencing subsequent projects and earning acclaim for elevating percussion in cross-genre works. In recent years, fusions have continued to evolve, with events like the Indian Jazz Journey series—featuring vocalist and saxophonist George Brooks—showcasing live integrations of raga-based improvisation and at venues such as Stanford's Jazz Festival in June 2024 and 2025. advanced this trend through the 2025 Bharat Maestro Awards, launched via his to honor classical traditions while encouraging innovative blends among young musicians, including categories for emerging talents and lifetime achievements in preservation and adaptation. These developments have not been without challenges, as purists often critique fusions for diluting classical purity, while innovators argue they revitalize for modern contexts. Rahman's orchestral integrations, such as layering symphonic elements with Carnatic ragas in film scores, exemplify this tension, balancing commercial appeal with cultural depth amid debates over authenticity and .

Global Reception and Preservation

Spread and reception outside India

The dissemination of Indian classical music beyond India's borders gained momentum in the mid-20th century, particularly during the movement, where sitarist Ravi Shankar's performances introduced Western audiences to its intricate ragas and improvisational depth. Shankar's appearance at the Woodstock Festival in 1969, amid a rain-soaked crowd of over 400,000, marked a pivotal moment, bridging Eastern traditions with the era's spiritual seekers and sparking widespread interest in Hindustani music as a meditative practice. This exposure influenced the burgeoning and scenes in the West, where Shankar's compositions were embraced for their calming, introspective qualities, often integrated into sessions and wellness retreats. Diaspora communities have played a crucial role in sustaining and adapting Indian classical music abroad, establishing dedicated institutions that foster teaching and performance. In the United States, organizations like the Chhandayan Center for Indian Music, founded to promote all facets of the tradition including vocal and instrumental training, have become hubs for learners from diverse backgrounds. Similarly, in the , the has hosted ongoing programs in Hindustani and since the mid-20th century, drawing on the Indian immigrant population to organize concerts and workshops that preserve oral transmission methods. These efforts continue through contemporary events, such as the Indian Classical Music & Dance Festival in in 2025, which features international artists performing ragas and talas, and the Sydney Music Festival in , showcasing renowned Indian performers to multicultural audiences. Academic integration has further embedded Indian classical music in global education systems, with universities offering specialized courses that emphasize its theoretical and performative aspects. At , the program, active since the 1970s, has included ensembles and recordings focused on Hindustani traditions, enabling students to engage with microtonal scales and under expert guidance. This institutionalization aligns with broader international recognition, such as the adoption of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the in 2003 and ratified by India in 2005, under which related traditions like Kutiyattam—incorporating classical music elements—were earlier proclaimed masterpieces in 2001, highlighting the global value of such performative arts. Despite its growing appeal, Indian classical music has faced reception challenges in the West, particularly due to misunderstandings of its microtonal structure, known as shrutis, which differ from the equal-tempered semitones of Western scales and can sound unfamiliar or dissonant to untrained ears. Digital tools have historically struggled with accurately processing these subtle pitch variations, complicating recordings and playback. However, accessibility has surged through modern platforms; for instance, consumption of Indian classical ragas on has increased by nearly 500% in and globally as of 2023, driven by curated playlists and younger listeners discovering its therapeutic and rhythmic qualities. Recent fusions, such as collaborations between Indian classical artists and Western musicians in 2024–2025, have further enhanced global reception through networks.

Institutions and modern initiatives

The , established in 1952 as India's national academy for music, dance, and drama, serves as the apex body for preserving and promoting the country's , including traditions. It awards prestigious fellowships and Akademi Awards to outstanding artists, while also playing a key role in officially recognizing forms like Hindustani and as classical. Through initiatives such as scholarships and cultural festivals, the Akademi supports training and documentation, ensuring the oral traditions of endure. Complementing national efforts, specialized institutions uphold the guru-shishya parampara in regional styles. The ITC Sangeet Research Academy, founded in 1977 in as a public charitable trust, provides advanced residential training in , nurturing scholars through intensive mentorship by maestros. Similarly, , a in established in 1930 and elevated to university status in 2006, offers comprehensive programs in alongside dance forms, emphasizing South Indian classical repertoires like kritis and ragas. These gharana-based and university-affiliated centers, often linked to traditional lineages, train emerging artists in and ethics. Modern initiatives have expanded access through youth-focused and digital platforms. The Society for the Promotion of Indian Classical Music and Culture Amongst Youth (), founded in 1977, organizes concerts, lecture-demonstrations, and workshops in educational institutions across , fostering appreciation among students via live exposures to Hindustani and Carnatic performers. In 2025, A.R. Rahman's launched the Bharat Maestro Awards, honoring lifetime achievements for gurus and stellar young musicians in Indian classical music, with categories promoting both legacy and innovation. Digital efforts, such as Spotify's program, launched in 2023 and expanded in 2025, curate playlists and showcases for classical and folk genres, bridging traditional ragas with global streaming audiences. Despite these advancements, Indian classical music faces challenges from declining patronage in the 2020s, exacerbated by the pandemic's disruption of live performances and reduced corporate sponsorships, leading to financial strains for artists. Government responses include the Kala Sanskriti Vikas , an umbrella scheme by the offering scholarships of Rs. 5,000 per month for two years to young artistes aged 18-25 pursuing advanced training in classical music fields. These measures, alongside digital , also aid in the global dissemination of classical traditions by enabling virtual collaborations and international workshops.

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