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Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar
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In Norse mythology, Dökkálfar ("Dark Elves")[a] and Ljósálfar ("Light Elves")[b] are two contrasting types of elves; the dark elves dwell within the earth and have a dark complexion, while the light elves live in Álfheimr, and are "fairer than the sun to look at". The Ljósálfar and the Dökkálfar are attested in the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, and in the late Old Norse poem Hrafnagaldr Óðins. Scholars have produced theories about the origin and implications of the dualistic concept.
Attestations
[edit]Prose Edda
[edit]In the Prose Edda, the Dökkálfar and the Ljósálfar are described in chapter 17 of the book Gylfaginning. In the chapter, Gangleri (the king Gylfi in disguise) asks the enthroned figure of High what other "chief centres" there are in the heavens outside of the spring Urðarbrunnr. Gangleri responds that there are many fine places in heaven, including a place called Álfheimr (Old Norse 'Elf Home' or 'Elf World'). High says that the Ljósálfar live in Álfheimr, while the Dökkálfar dwell underground and look—and particularly behave—quite unlike the Ljósálfar. High describes the Ljósálfar as "fairer than the sun to look at", while the Dökkálfar are "blacker than pitch".[1][2]
As chapter 17 continues, Gangleri asks what will protect the beautiful hall of Gimlé, previously described as "the southernmost end of heaven", when the fires of Surtr "burn heaven and earth" (Ragnarök). High responds that there are in fact other heavens. The first called Andlàngr, he says, is "south of and above this heaven of ours" and "we believe" Gimlé is located in the third heaven "still further above that one", Víðbláinn. High adds that "we believe it is only light-elves who inhabit these places for the time being".[2][3]
Hrafnagaldr Óðins
[edit]There occurs an additional mention of the dökkálfar in the late Old Norse poem Hrafnagaldr Óðins ("Odin's Raven-galdr"), stanza 25.[4]
Theories and interpretations
[edit]As the concept is only recorded in Gylfaginning and the late poem Hrafnagaldr Óðins, it is unclear whether the distinction between the two types of elves originated with Snorri, or if he was merely recounting a concept already developed.
Question of Christian influence
[edit]The sub-classification perhaps resulted from Christian influence, by way of importation of the concept of good and evil and angels of light and darkness. Anne Holtsmark aired this view,[c] though with some reservation, since "good vs. evil" dualism is not confined to Christian thinking.[d] Aside from some additional observations to encourage the hypothesis,[e] Holtsmark has been credited with demonstrating that Snorri borrowed from Christian writings, specifically that "Snorri’s description of Víðbláinn [the third heaven populated by light-elves] was almost certainly influenced by (and possibly based on) the account of the angels in the Elucidarius."[8][f]
Dissenters of the view that the dark and light elves were a later invention, such as Rudolf Simek and Gabriel Turville-Petre, feel rather that "dark" and "light" aspects of the same beings not inherently unlikely, death and fertility cults often being closely related.[9][10]
Dwarfs
[edit]Since the Prose Edda describes the dökkálfar as being subterranean dwellers, they may be dwarfs under another name, in the opinion of a number of scholars such as John Lindow.[11][12]
The Prose Edda also uniquely mentions the svartálfar ('black elves'),[12] but there are reasons to believe these also refer to merely dwarfs.[g]
Consequently, Lindow and other commentators have remarked that there may not have been any distinction intended between dark-elves and black-elves by those who coined and used those terms.[h] Lotte Motz's paper on elves commingles, and hence equates "dark-elves" and "black-elves" from the outset.[14]
Grimm's trinity
[edit]Jacob Grimm[15] surmised that the proto-elf (ursprünglich) was probably a "light-colored, white, good spirit" while the dwarfs may have been conceived as "black spirits" by relative comparison. But the "two classes of creatures were getting confounded", and there arose a need to coin the term "light-elf" (ljósálfar, or hvítálfar—"white elves")[16] to refer to the "elves proper". This was counterpart to the "dark-elf" (dökkálfar, or svartálfar—"black elves").[17][i]
Preferring it over duality, Grimm postulated three kinds of elves (ljósálfar, dökkálfar, svartálfar) present in Norse mythology.[18]
But Grimm's "tripartite division" (as Shippey calls it) faced "trouble" in Snorri's statement that dark-elves were pitch-black, as this would lead to the "first reduction" that "dark-elves = black-elves". As a solution, Grimm "pronounce[es] Snorri's statement fallacious", and hypothesizes that "dark elves" were not really 'dark' but rather 'dingy' or 'pale'.[15][19] And while conceding that "such a Trilogy still [lacks] decisive proof,"[20] draws parallels from the white, brown and black subterranean in Pomeranian legend,[20] and the white, pale, and black troops of spirits come to claim souls in the tale of Solomon and Marcolf.[20][21]
See also
[edit]- Classifications of fairies
- Sundering of the Elves in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium
- Svartálfar
- Duende
Notes
[edit]Explanatory notes
[edit]- ^ Old Norse: Dǫkkálfar, singular Dǫkkálfr
- ^ Singular Ljósálfr
- ^ "Anne Holtsmark has pointed out that he probably got his idea of light and dark elves from the Christian teaching of 'white' and 'black' angels",[5] "Men ikke alle alver er gode, fra synonymet andi, Lat. spiritus, har begrepet overtatt en tvedeling i «gode og onde ånder», Snorre kalle dem liósálfar og dokkálfar. Samme tvedeling er gjennomført i den kristne lære når det gjelder englene. Guds engler er i himmelen og djevelens i helvete, d.e. den flokken av tilhengere Satael førte med seg da han ble styrtet i avgrunnen, Elucidarius 1869, s. 12 "; translation: But not all elves are good, and from synonyms [Icel.] andi, Lat. spiritus, it has acquired the sense of the dichotomy of "good and evil spirits," Snorri calls them liósálfar and dokkálfar. The same dichotomy is implemented in the Christian doctrine regarding angels: the angels of God in heaven and the angels of the devil in hell, i.e., the flock of followers whom Satanel brought with him when he was plunged into the abyss, Elucidarius, 1869, p.12"[6]
- ^ Thus Grimm and Holtsmark described "angels" as a parallel phenomenon, at least in their preliminary thesis, Grimm allowing that "other mythologies have set up" this dualism also, and Holtsmark suggesting that the dichotomy inherent in similar Icelandic (andi) and Latin terms (spiritus) may have rubbed off onto "elves".
- ^ Such as: "Begge slags vesener blir beskrevet i ordlag som ellers blir brukt om engler og djevler," translation: Both types of beings [liósalfar and døkkalfar] are described in language otherwise used for angels and devils.[7]
- ^ By her own admission Holtsmark regarded the explanation of the third heaven as more challenging than the second heaven Andlangr, crediting Falk for the insight for connecting it to andlegr or "spiritual" heaven of the Elucidarius. "Falk har sikkert rett i at Andlangr er laget av andlegr himinn; det andre navnet er ikke så let å forstå, det tør også være laget for anledningen."[7]
- ^ Since Snorri says twice over that the World of Black Elves (Svartálfaheimr) are inhabited by certain dwarfs.[13] The dwarfs that crafted Gleipnir in Gylfaginning 34 and the dwarf Andvari in Skáldskaparmál 39 (Faulkes 1995, pp. 28, 100) are said by Snorri to live in the World of the Black Elves.
- ^ Lindow: "whether he [Snorri] intended a distinction between the dark-elves and black-elves is unknown."[11] Lassen: "Both these kinds of dwarfs (if they were different)"[12]
- ^ Stallybrass's actual phrasing in his translation was "recourse was had to composition, and the elves proper were named liosâlfar" (2: 444) for Grimm's "half man durch zusammen-setzung und nannte die eigentlichen âlfar liosâlfar." Grimm 1844, 1: 413
Citations
[edit]- ^ Faulkes 1995, pp. 19–20.
- ^ a b Sigurðsson 1848, pp. 78, 80.
- ^ Faulkes 1995, p. 20.
- ^ Lassen 2011, p. 94.
- ^ Talbot 1982, p. 38.
- ^ Holtsmark 1964, p. 38.
- ^ a b Holtsmark 1964, p. 37.
- ^ Hall 2004, pp. 32–33.
- ^ Simek 1984; Simek 2007, p. 56
- ^ Turville-Peter, Gabriel, Myth and Religion of the North (1964), p. 231 apud Wilkin 2006, pp. 66–67
- ^ a b Lindow 2001, p. 110.
- ^ a b c Lassen 2011, pp. 105–6.
- ^ Tolkien, J. R. R. (2012). The Legend of Sigurd and Gudrun. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0547504711.
- ^ Motz 1973.
- ^ a b Shippey 2004, pp. 6–8 presents an extract of Grimm's view on the classes of elves, with German text and Stallybrass's translation in parallel
- ^ Grimm (1883), Vol. 2, p. 445, "Thorlac. spec. 7, p. 160, gives the liosalfar another name hvítálfar (white elves); I have not found the word in the old writings."
- ^ (Stallybrass tr.) Grimm 1883, 2: 444
- ^ (Stallybrass tr.) Grimm 1883, 2: 444, "Some have seen, in this antithesis of light and black elves, the same Dualism that other mythologies have set up between spirits good and bad, friendly and hostile, heavenly and hellish, between angels of light and of darkness. But ought we not rather to assume three kinds of Norse genii, liosâlfar, dockâlfar, svartâlfar?"
- ^ (Stallybrass tr.) Grimm 1883, 2: 445
- ^ a b c (Stallybrass tr.) Grimm 1883, 2: 446
- ^ Hagen, Friedrich Heinrich von der; Büsching, Johann Gustav, eds. (1808), "Salomon un Morolf", Deutsche Gedichte des Mittelalters, vol. 1, Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung, p. 28
References
[edit]- Edda: Snorri Sturluson. Translated by Faulkes, Anthony. Everyman. 1995. ISBN 0-460-87616-3.
- Grimm, Jacob (1844). "XVII. Wichte und Elbe". Teutonic mythology. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Göttingen: Dieterich. pp. 408–440.
- —— (1883). "XVII. Wights and Elves". Teutonic mythology. Vol. 2. Translated by Stallybrass, James Steven. W. Swan Sonnenschein & Allen. pp. 439–517.
- Hall, Alaric (2004), The Meanings of Elf and Elves in Medieval England (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis, University of Glasgow)
- Holtsmark, Anne (1964). "Studier i Snorres mytologi". Skrifter Utgift av Det Norske Videnskaps-akademi I Oslo. Hist.-filos. klasse, ny serie, 4 (in Norwegian). II. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
- Lassen, Annette (2011). Hrafnagaldur Óðinns (PDF). Translated by Faulkes, Anthony. Viking Society for Northern Research. p. 94. ISBN 978-0903521819.
- Lindow, John (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0.
- Motz, Lotte (1973). "Of Elves and Dwarves". Arv: Tidskrift för Nordisk Folkminnesforskning. 29–30.
- Sigurðsson, Jón, ed. (1848). Edda Snorra Sturlusonar. sumptibus Legati Arnamagnæani. pp. 78, 80. (edition cited for chapter numbering by Faulkes)
- Shippey, TA (2004). "Light-elves, Dark-elves, and Others: Tolkien's Elvish Problem". Tolkien Studies. 1: 1–15. doi:10.1353/tks.2004.0015.
- Simek, Rudolf (1984). Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie. Stuttgart: A. Kröner. ISBN 3520368013.
- —— (2007). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Angela Hall (trans.). D.S. Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85991-513-7.
- Talbot, Annelise (1982). "The withdrawal of the fertility god". Folklore. 93 (1): 31–46. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1982.9716218.
- Wilkin, Peter (2006), "Norse Influences on Tolkien's Elves and Dwarves", in Di Lauro, Frances (ed.), Through a Glass Darkly: Collected Research, Sydney University Press, pp. 61–, ISBN 1920898549
- —— (2008). "Norse Influences on Tolkien's Elves and Dwarves". Sydney Studies in Religion.[permanent dead link]
Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar
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Etymology
Ljósálfar
The term ljósálfar in Old Norse is a compound consisting of ljós, denoting "light" or "brightness," and álfar, referring to elves or a class of supernatural beings. The element ljós derives from Proto-Germanic *leuhtaz, which carries meanings of illumination, clarity, or shining light.[2] The word álfar (plural of álfr) has its earliest known attestations in 9th-10th century Old Norse poetry and runic inscriptions containing personal names derived from álfr. By the 13th century, the specific compound ljósálfar emerges in written texts like Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, distinguishing these light-associated elves from other varieties; the term appears only once in the Prose Edda's Gylfaginning.[3][4] Scholarly etymologies trace álfar back to Proto-Germanic *albiz, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *albʰ-, meaning "white" or "bright," which evokes ideas of luminosity, fairness, and purity especially attributed to the ljósálfar. This root underscores their conceptual role as radiant, otherworldly figures within the broader category of álfar as supernatural beings. In medieval Old Norse manuscripts, phonetic and lexical variations include hvítálfar or hvíta álfar ("white elves"), used interchangeably with ljósálfar to emphasize themes of brightness and ethereal purity. These alternatives highlight how the terminology reinforced associations with light and moral or aesthetic superiority in mythological contexts.[4][5]Dökkálfar
The term dökkálfar in Old Norse is a compound noun formed from dǫkkr ("dark, obscure") and álfar ("elves"), denoting the "dark elves" in Norse cosmology. The element dǫkkr derives from Proto-Germanic *dankwaz, which conveys notions of gloom, shadow, or obscurity, distinct from the English "dark" in origin.[6][7] This etymological structure emphasizes a contrast with the ljósálfar ("light elves"), highlighting themes of concealment and dimness inherent to the dark elves' identity.[8] Manuscripts from 13th-century Icelandic texts, such as those preserving Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, exhibit variations like dǫkk álfar or døkka álfar, reflecting orthographic fluidity in representing the nasal vowel ǫ as ö. The term dökkálfar appears only once in the Prose Edda's Gylfaginning. These forms connect to broader Germanic linguistic traditions, where cognates denote twilight or chthonic entities, such as in Old High German tunkal ("dark"), underscoring a shared conceptual framework for obscured or subterranean beings across early medieval Germanic languages.[9][8] Etymologically, dǫkkr ties to concepts of hiddenness and potential malevolence, evoking shadowy realms beyond ordinary perception; rare extensions in 14th-century Icelandic folklore associate dökk with moral ambiguity, portraying such entities as elusive and possibly adversarial forces in human affairs. This semantic layer reinforces the dark elves' role as obscured counterparts to brighter supernatural beings. A brief overlap exists with svartálfar ("black elves"), another term for similarly shadowed figures, though dǫkkr specifically stresses obscurity over color.[6] Scholars debate whether dökkálfar represents a Snorri-specific innovation in the Prose Edda or stems from earlier oral traditions, with evidence from the Poetic Edda suggesting pre-existing associations between elves, dark beings, and underground dwellers (such as dwarves) that Snorri may have formalized. Linguistic parallels, like the Old High German tunkal, support roots in proto-Germanic oral lore predating written Norse texts.[10][9]Attestations
Prose Edda
In the Prose Edda, compiled by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, the Ljósálfar and Dökkálfar are first systematically introduced in the Gylfaginning section, chapter 17, as distinct categories within the Norse cosmological order. Snorri presents this through a frame narrative where the Swedish king Gylfi is beguiled by disguised gods in the guise of High, Just-as-High, and Third, who explain the structure of the universe. High describes the Ljósálfar as residing in Álfheimr, a realm "in that heaven" where they are "fairer to look upon than the Sun," emphasizing their luminous and ethereal nature.[11] In contrast, the Dökkálfar are said to dwell "down in the earth" and to be "blacker than pitch," highlighting a stark opposition in appearance and habitat that integrates them into the layered worldview alongside the Æsir, Vanir, and other beings.[11] Álfheimr itself is noted as the domain granted to Freyr, son of Njörðr, as a tooth-gift at his birth, underscoring the Ljósálfar's association with fertility and prosperity under his rule.[11] This depiction occurs within Snorri's broader euhemeristic framework, which rationalizes pre-Christian Norse mythology by portraying the gods and supernatural entities as historical Trojan descendants who migrated to Scandinavia and were deified over time. By embedding the Ljósálfar and Dökkálfar in this cosmological dialogue, Snorri synthesizes older poetic traditions into a coherent prose narrative, positioning the elves as integral to the nine worlds connected by Yggdrasil, though he adapts potentially pagan elements to align with Christian-era sensibilities without overt theological conflict. The descriptions serve to clarify distinctions for skaldic poets and audiences, ensuring that the elves' roles in myth are preserved amid the shift from oral to written lore. In the Skáldskaparmál section of the Prose Edda, Snorri further references álfar in discussions of poetic kennings, linking them to ritual and creative practices in skaldic verse. For instance, periphrases incorporating elf-names are deemed "held to be favorable" when applied to humans, suggesting a positive, almost sacral connotation akin to invoking the Æsir, and elves appear in kennings for poetry itself, implying magical or inspirational attributes.[12] Such usages draw from earlier skaldic traditions where álfar were invoked in sacrificial contexts, as evidenced by kennings like those equating poetic mead with offerings to divine or elven powers, though Snorri streamlines these to exemplify proper diction without explicit ritual details.[12] The primary manuscripts of the Prose Edda—Codex Upsaliensis (c. 1300), Codex Wormianus (AM 242 fol, c. 1320–1360), and Codex Trajectinus (AM 748 I 4to, c. 1600)—preserve the Gylfaginning chapter 17 description with minimal variation, maintaining the core contrast between Ljósálfar and Dökkálfar across redactions. These textual consistencies reflect Snorri's intent to standardize mythological knowledge, potentially rationalizing ambiguous pre-Christian beliefs about elves as either benevolent heavenly spirits or chthonic entities into binary categories for instructional purposes.Hrafnagaldr Óðins
The Hrafnagaldr Óðins, also known as Forspjallsljóð ("prelude poem"), is a postmedieval Old Norse poem preserved in 17th-century manuscripts, though its composition date remains debated among scholars, with some proposing a medieval origin around the 13th century based on linguistic archaisms and thematic echoes of earlier Eddic works.[13] Composed in fornyrðislag meter across 26 eight-line stanzas, the poem explores themes of cosmic travel, ravens as emissaries, and an ultimately unsuccessful quest for wisdom amid foreboding Ragnarök-like events, reflecting a non-Christian magical framework that bridges Eddic traditions and later folkloric elements.[13] Its obscurity arises from artificial syntax, rare kennings, and corrupt textual transmission, rendering it an enigmatic imitation of authentic medieval poetry rather than an orally transmitted piece.[13] The poem's sole reference to the Dökkálfar occurs in stanza 25, where they are invoked during Odin's visionary journey through otherworldly realms, portraying them as shadowy forces aligned with supernatural beings in a magical pursuit of hidden knowledge.[13] The Old Norse text reads: "Gýgjur ok þursar, náir, dvergar ok dökkálfar / gengu til rekkju nyrðra í jöðru jörmungrundar / und yzstu rót aðalþollar," translated as "Troll-wives and giants, the dead, dwarves and dark-elves / went to their beds northward in the vast earth / beneath the outermost root of the noble tree [Yggdrasill]."[13] This stanza echoes the poem's opening imagery of cosmic boundaries, depicting the Dökkálfar retiring to rest under Yggdrasill's root alongside giants (þursar), troll-wives (gýgjur), the deceased (náir), and dwarves, suggesting their role as enigmatic allies or denizens of liminal, subterranean spaces invoked in Odin's shamanistic travels.[13] Linguistically, the stanza's phrasing employs compact, alliterative compounds like jörmungrundar ("vast earth") and adalþollar ("noble tree"), typical of the poem's archaizing style, while "dökkálfar" appears without elaboration, drawing directly from Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda as beings "blacker than pitch" to evoke their shadowy essence in this non-prosaic, incantatory context.[13] Scholars note the term's invocation here as a poetic device to heighten the mystical aura of Odin's quest, positioning the Dökkálfar as otherworldly participants in a framework of pre-Christian sorcery unbound by explicit moral dichotomies.[13] The poem's overall impenetrability, acknowledged since its 17th-century copies, underscores its potential as a transitional text linking high medieval Eddic verse to post-Reformation antiquarian revivals, though its authenticity as a genuine mythological source continues to provoke debate.[13] This reference subtly connects to Odin's broader mythological pursuits of esoteric wisdom through ecstatic journeys.[13]Other Old Norse Sources
In the Poetic Edda, the poem Völuspá provides implicit references to the álfar within the broader cosmological framework of creation and Ragnarök, suggesting their role in the world-ordering process without explicit distinction between light and dark variants. Stanza 12 describes the gods deliberating on the creation of dwarf-lords from the blood of Brimir and the limbs of Bláinn, positioning the álfar as part of the emergent cosmic hierarchy alongside these chthonic beings during the formative ages.[14] Similarly, stanza 37 evokes the darkening of the sun and the sinking of the earth into the sea as precursors to apocalyptic collapse, implying the álfar's involvement in the unraveling of the ordered realms they helped establish.[14] Sagas such as Eyrbyggja saga offer supplementary attestations of álfar as benevolent land spirits akin to ljósálfar, particularly in contexts of ritual veneration. In chapter 4, the settler Þórólfr Mostrarskegg sacrifices a great ox, reddening the outer side of his house with its blood to claim the surrounding land, while designating the inner side as a temple hallowed specifically to the álfar, indicating their perceived protective and territorial influence over human settlements.[15] These entities function as landvættir, or guardian spirits of the landscape, underscoring a practical integration of álfar into Icelandic land-taking customs without delineating light or dark subtypes. The 12th-century Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus includes Latinized allusions to elf-like beings, portraying them variably as subterranean dwellers or luminous figures that parallel Norse álfar concepts and may have reinforced related terminology in medieval Scandinavian traditions. In accounts of divine exiles and wizardry, such as Othin's temporary abdication, subterranean entities emerge as crafty underground inhabitants, echoing dökkálfar associations, while luminous beings appear in heroic encounters suggestive of radiant, otherworldly guides akin to ljósálfar.[16] These depictions, drawn from oral sources, blend mythological motifs without direct Old Norse terminology but contribute to the evolving image of dual elf natures in northern lore. Later Icelandic family sagas (Íslendingasögur) from 14th-century manuscripts contain rare allusions to dark elf-like figures as precursors to the huldufólk tradition, depicting hidden, subterranean beings with ambiguous or malevolent traits. In texts like Grettis saga, shadowy underground dwellers harass protagonists, hinting at dökkálfar influences through motifs of isolation and peril in remote caves, which later folklore elaborated into the concealed, elf-derived huldufólk.[17] These sparse references overlap briefly with svartálfar in forging and underworld myths but emphasize elusive, non-benevolent presences distinct from surface ljósálfar.Descriptions and Habitats
Ljósálfar and Álfheimr
The Ljósálfar, or light elves, are depicted in Norse mythology as luminous and exceptionally beautiful beings, described as "fairer than the sun to look at."[18] Their radiant appearance symbolizes purity, light, and benevolence, setting them apart as ethereal entities associated with positive forces in the cosmos.[19] These attributes align with broader elven traits of grace, emphasizing harmony and vitality.[19] Álfheimr serves as the exclusive habitat of the Ljósálfar, portrayed as a bright, noble realm in the heavens that embodies prosperity and fertility.[18] This upper-world domain was granted to the Vanir god Freyr as a tannhjáltsgjǫf (tooth-gift), a traditional present given to a child upon the emergence of their first tooth, underscoring Freyr's ties to the Vanir and their emphasis on abundance.[18] Through this connection, Álfheimr reflects the Vanir's agricultural and regenerative themes, positioning the Ljósálfar as stewards of growth and renewal in their luminous home.[20] In Norse cosmology, Álfheimr occupies a position in the heavens near Asgard, situated above Midgard and forming part of the upper realms connected by Yggdrasil, the world tree.[20] This placement contrasts sharply with subterranean domains, highlighting Álfheimr's role as a bright, elevated space of light and creativity.[20] Ruled by Freyr, the realm integrates with the divine hierarchy, where the Ljósálfar coexist with gods and inspire artistic endeavors such as music and poetry.[20] The Ljósálfar function as guardians of light and participants in rituals like the álfablót, autumnal sacrifices offered to elves for protection and prosperity, as attested in skaldic poetry.[21] Their benevolence extends to associations with fertility, aiding land and livestock through ties to Freyr's domain of rain, sunshine, and harvests, and to poetic inspiration, facilitated by Freyr's boar Gullinbursti, whose golden bristles illuminate paths and symbolize enlightenment amid prosperity.[19][18]Dökkálfar and Underground Realms
The Dökkálfar, or Dark Elves, are characterized in Norse mythological texts as beings with an intensely dark appearance, explicitly described as "blacker than pitch." This shadowy complexion sets them apart from the radiant Ljósálfar, emphasizing a visual and thematic opposition between light and darkness in the cosmos. Their physical traits suggest an inherent connection to obscurity and the hidden aspects of existence, dwelling not in open realms but in concealed subterranean spaces.[22] These beings inhabit the depths of the earth, a habitat that reinforces their isolation from the surface world of Midgard. Primary sources place them "down in the earth," in contrast to the aerial or elevated domains of their light counterparts, highlighting a chthonic existence tied to the planet's underbelly. Such underground locales are often linked to networks of caves and forges, evoking environments rich in mineral resources and craftsmanship, though the Dökkálfar themselves are distinguished by their elusive, non-surface nature. Their natures are noted as profoundly unlike those of the Ljósálfar, implying a more reserved or dimly lit benevolence, with limited attestations of overt positive interactions in the mythological corpus.[22] In Norse cosmology, the Dökkálfar occupy realms below Midgard, such as the implied Svartálfaheimr—referred to as the "Land of the Black Elves"—where mythological figures venture to encounter these denizens amid earth's hidden treasures. This positioning within the world's layers accentuates their role in the shadowy understructure of creation, apart from the brighter, more accessible planes.[23]Relations to Other Beings
Svartálfar
The term svartálfar derives from Old Norse svart ("black" or "swarthy," often denoting dark coloration or soot-like appearance from forge work) combined with álfar ("elves"), literally translating to "black elves." This etymology appears in Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, where the beings are introduced as a distinct group associated with craftsmanship.[24][25] In the Poetic Edda's Völuspá, the enumeration of dwarves as creators in stanzas 9–14 who forge divine treasures such as Thor's hammer Mjölnir, later linked to svartálfar by Snorri, and the mention of Svartálfaheimr ("home of the black elves") in stanza 37 as a dark realm tied to these artisans. Snorri elaborates on this in the Prose Edda's Skáldskaparmál, portraying svartálfar as masterful smiths who produce godly artifacts, distinguishing them from broader dark elf categories by their specialized role in metallurgy.[26] Key myths in Skáldskaparmál (chapters 33–35) depict the Sons of Ivaldi (dwarves), forging three items at Loki's behest: golden hair for Sif to replace what Loki cut, Odin's infallible spear Gungnir, and Freyr's foldable ship Skíðblaðnir. In a subsequent episode, the brothers Brokkr and Eitri—dwellers of Svartálfaheimr—wager with Loki and craft Mjölnir (Thor's hammer), Odin's multiplying ring Draupnir, and Freyr's golden boar Gullinborsti, with a fly (Loki in disguise) attempting to sabotage the work by biting Brokkr during the forging. These narratives emphasize the svartálfar's ingenuity and the high stakes of their creations for the gods' power.[27] Svartálfar are described as black-skinned underground dwellers in Svartálfaheimr, a subterranean domain rich in ores and forges, where they hone their metallurgical skills; this habitat overlaps briefly with that of the dökkálfar. Their expertise lies in crafting enchanted weapons and treasures that enhance divine authority and cosmic order.[25][28] Scholarly consensus holds that svartálfar represent a subset or functional synonym of dark beings in Norse lore, emphasizing craft over malevolence, though their elven label sets them apart from pure dwarves while sharing traits like subterranean life and smithing prowess. This view stems from analyses of Snorri's syntheses, which may blend pre-Christian traditions with later interpretations.[28][25]Dwarves
In Norse mythology, dwarves (dvergar) share several key attributes with the dökkálfar and svartálfar, particularly their subterranean habitats and exceptional craftsmanship, suggesting a close or overlapping identity in medieval sources. Both groups are consistently depicted as residing underground, in the earth, rocks, or mould, far from the light of the surface world. For instance, the Prose Edda describes dwarves as originating from maggots in the flesh of the primordial giant Ymir, who were granted human form and intelligence by the gods, and notes their preference for dwelling within stones and soil. Similarly, svartálfar are said to live "down in the earth" and possess a swarthy complexion "blacker than pitch," aligning with the dark, enclosed realms associated with dwarves.[11] This connection is further evidenced through textual overlaps that equate or interchange the terms, especially in relation to skilled smithing. In the Prose Edda, the brothers Brokkr and Eitri—explicitly identified as dwarves—are renowned for forging divine artifacts such as Thor's hammer Mjöllnir, Freyr's golden boar Gullinborsti, and Odin's ring Draupnir, tasks performed in the underground forges of Svartálfaheimr, the realm of the black elves. The same text implies a synonymy by referring to these smiths interchangeably as dwarves and svartálfar, blurring distinctions between the beings. In the Poetic Edda, the poem Alvíssmál features the dwarf Alvíss, who hails from "below" and demonstrates vast knowledge.[11][29] Physical descriptions of dwarves emphasize a short, sturdy, and often bearded form, contrasting with any notion of elongated or ethereal dark elves, though medieval sources show variability and little uniformity. Eddic and skaldic poetry portray dwarves as anthropomorphic but diminutive and robust, with names like Bumburr implying stoutness and others suggesting pale or dark skin tones adapted to underground life; for example, Alvíss is depicted as ogre-like and vulnerable to sunlight, which petrifies him into stone. Scholarly analysis of these texts highlights Snorri Sturluson's potential conflation of svartálfar with dwarves in the Prose Edda, where he innovatively categorizes dark elves as synonymous with the short, earth-dwelling dvergar, possibly to systematize pre-Christian lore under a Christian-influenced framework, though earlier sources like runic inscriptions treat them more as amorphous spirits without fixed morphology.[30][31] Mythologically, dwarves often embody roles as greedy hoarders of treasure, a trait that may underscore a more negative or neutral aspect compared to any purportedly ambiguous dark elf characterizations in limited attestations. The Völsunga Saga recounts the dwarf Andvari as a covetous guardian of a cursed hoard of gold and a ring, whose reluctance to part with his wealth leads to calamity when Loki seizes it, illustrating dwarves' deep-seated avarice and attachment to subterranean riches. This hoarding motif recurs in tales where dwarves amass gems and metals from the earth's depths, contrasting with their otherwise invaluable contributions to the gods through craftsmanship, and reinforcing their identity as pragmatic, self-interested beings tied to the dökkálfar's shadowy domains.Theories and Interpretations
Christian Influence
The dichotomy between ljósálfar (light elves) and dökkálfar (dark elves) in Norse mythology has been interpreted by some scholars as reflecting medieval Christian dualism, particularly through the influence of Latin theological texts adapted in Scandinavia. Anne Holtsmark, in her 1964 study of Snorri Sturluson's mythology, proposed that the distinction may derive from the Old Norse translation of the Elucidarius, a 12th-century Christian encyclopedic dialogue by Honorius Augustodunensis, which describes white (good, angelic) and black (evil, demonic) spirits in heaven and hell, mirroring the God-Satan opposition.[32] This framework, Holtsmark argued, shaped Snorri's portrayal in the Prose Edda, where ljósálfar are depicted as radiant and benevolent, dwelling in Álfheimr, while dökkálfar are shadowy and subterranean, evoking infernal beings.[33] Counterarguments emphasize pre-Christian origins for the light-dark binary, with Christian elements as a later overlay following Iceland's conversion around 1000 CE. Similarly, E.O.G. Turville-Petre in his analysis of Scandinavian religion highlights that while Christian scribes recorded these myths, the underlying dualism likely predates Christianity, rooted in animistic beliefs about nature spirits, with any demonization occurring gradually during the transition period.[34] Evidence of this synthesis appears in 12th- and 13th-century Icelandic Christian society, where pre-Christian practices like áblóts (sacrifices to álfar) persisted but were increasingly reframed as superstitious or diabolical by the Church. Historical accounts, such as those in Landnámabók, record elf offerings continuing into the Christian era, often condemned in ecclesiastical writings as remnants of paganism equated with demonic temptation, reflecting efforts to integrate or suppress indigenous beliefs.[35] Specific textual indicators in Snorri's Prose Edda suggest Augustinian influences, as the moral opposition between the elves parallels St. Augustine's City of God, which posits a cosmic struggle between divine light and earthly corruption; Snorri's euhemeristic framing of gods as historical kings further aligns Norse lore with Christian orthodoxy.[36]Connections to Dwarves and Svartálfar
Scholar John Lindow posits that the Dökkálfar may function as a euphemistic designation for the svartálfar or dwarves (dvergar), owing to their common associations with subterranean dwellings and exceptional craftsmanship as depicted in the Eddas. This interpretation arises from textual overlaps where these beings inhabit underground realms and produce divine artifacts, blurring categorical boundaries in the mythological corpus.[37] Motif analysis further underscores these connections, with recurring themes of underground forges and dark or black-hued skin marking the Dökkálfar and svartálfar as chthonic entities akin to dwarves. In the Poetic Edda, such elements appear in Þrymskviða, where the dwarves' forging of Thor's hammer Mjölnir exemplifies their role as shadowy artisans laboring in hidden depths to create tools of cosmic significance. These shared attributes—emerging from the earth's bowels and embodying primordial, earth-bound forces—suggest a conceptual unity among these groups in pre-Christian cosmology.[37] Counterarguments, however, emphasize distinctions preserved in 19th-century folkloric compilations, which often depict elves (álfar) as taller, more graceful, and ethereal figures in contrast to the squat, rugged dwarves. Jacob Grimm, in his seminal Teutonic Mythology, delineates elves as luminous nature spirits while reserving dwarves for the diminutive, forge-dwelling under-earth folk, reflecting a broader Germanic tradition that separates their physical and spiritual essences. Scholarship continues to grapple with this ambiguity, challenging rigid categorizations.Grimm's Trinity and Comparative Mythology
In his seminal work Deutsche Mythologie (1835), later expanded in the English translation Teutonic Mythology (1888), Jacob Grimm proposed a tripartite classification of elves rooted in Proto-Germanic albiz, meaning "white" or "shining," which he viewed as the ancestral term for these beings across Germanic traditions, with Norse álfar representing a specialized subset. Grimm identified three distinct types: the white or light elves (corresponding to Ljósálfar), benevolent and radiant inhabitants of the upper realms; the dark elves (Dökkálfar), dimmer and subterranean dwellers; and the black elves (Svartálfar), often equated with dwarves due to their craftsmanship and shadowy nature. This trinity, Grimm argued, reflected a cosmic hierarchy of supernatural beings, drawing on Snorri Sturluson's descriptions in the Prose Edda while integrating continental Germanic folklore, such as the shadowy Nibelungs from medieval epics.[25] Grimm's model faced immediate critique for its interpretive liberties, particularly in distinguishing Dökkálfar from Svartálfar, as Snorri describes the former as "blacker than pitch," effectively blurring the line between "dark" and "black" categories and suggesting overlap rather than strict separation.[38] Scholars like Tom Shippey have highlighted five key problems with Grimm's approach, including the ambiguity of non-color-based differences among the types and the anachronistic projection of continental motifs onto Norse sources, where evidence for such a rigid trinity is sparse.[25] Grimm's reliance on broader folklore, such as German tales of underground smiths, further complicated the framework, as it prioritized etymological reconstruction over textual fidelity. In comparative mythology, Grimm extended his trinity to posit Indo-European parallels, linking light elves to shining deities in Celtic traditions like the sidhe—fair, otherworldly beings of Irish lore—and dark or black variants to more ambiguous Slavic household spirits such as the domovoi, which embody protective yet shadowy domestic influences.[38] This cross-cultural lens suggested a shared archetype of divided fairy-like entities across Europe, evolving from ancient fertility and nature cults. The legacy of Grimm's trinity profoundly shaped 20th-century fantasy literature, notably influencing J.R.R. Tolkien's categorization of elves into noble, light-associated Eldar and darker, more reclusive groups in The Silmarillion, adapting the model to a mythic narrative infused with Northern European spirit.[25] However, modern scholarship, including Rudolf Simek's Dictionary of Northern Mythology (1993), has challenged it for over-romanticizing distinctions not evident in primary sources, arguing that the classifications romanticize medieval texts and obscure the fluid, context-dependent nature of álfar in Norse cosmology.[38]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/leuhtaz
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%B8kkr
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dankwaz
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tunkal
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Prose_Edda_(1916_translation_by_Arthur_Gilchrist_Brodeur)/Gylfaginning
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Prose_Edda_(1916_translation_by_Arthur_Gilchrist_Brodeur)/Sk%C3%A1ldskaparm%C3%A1l
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/svartalfar