List of steroids

Steroids are a class of organic compounds characterized by a core molecular structure of four fused rings—three six-membered and one five-membered—derived metabolically from sterols such as cholesterol (in animals), cycloartenol (in plants), or lanosterol (in fungi) and serving as essential lipids in the physiology of animals, plants, fungi, and other eukaryotes.^[1] These compounds include both naturally occurring hormones and synthetic analogs, playing critical roles in regulating metabolism, inflammation, reproduction, and electrolyte balance.^[2] The study of steroids dates back to the isolation of cholesterol in 1775, but significant advances occurred in the early 20th century with the identification of steroid hormones. Key discoveries include testosterone in 1935, estradiol in 1936, and cortisone in 1936, with therapeutic applications emerging in the 1940s. This work culminated in the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine awarded to Edward Kendall, Philip Hench, and Tadeus Reichstein for their research on adrenal cortex hormones.^[3] Steroids are broadly categorized into several functional groups, with corticosteroids encompassing glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol, prednisone) that modulate immune responses and carbohydrate metabolism, and mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone, fludrocortisone) that control sodium and water retention in the kidneys.^[2] Sex steroids, including androgens (e.g., testosterone), estrogens (e.g., estradiol), and progestogens (e.g., progesterone), are vital for sexual differentiation, reproductive functions, and secondary sex characteristics.^[1] A prominent subclass, anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), consists of synthetic testosterone derivatives classified as 17-α-alkyl or 17-β-ester compounds (e.g., nandrolone decanoate, oxandrolone), which promote muscle growth and are medically indicated for hypogonadism, delayed puberty, and cachexia but carry risks of cardiovascular, hepatic, and endocrine adverse effects when misused.^[4] Other notable steroids include sterols like cholesterol, which forms cell membranes and bile acids, underscoring the diverse biological and pharmacological significance of this class.^[1]

Introduction

Definition and Characteristics

Steroids are a class of lipid-derived organic compounds characterized by a core structure consisting of four fused rings, known as the cyclopentaphenanthrene skeleton or cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system.^[5] This tetracyclic framework includes three six-membered rings and one five-membered ring, typically with methyl groups at positions C-10 and C-13, and often an alkyl side chain at C-17.^[5] Derivatives may arise from bond scissions, ring expansions, or contractions, encompassing a wide range of natural and synthetic molecules.^[5] Key characteristics of steroids include their lipophilic nature, which allows them to readily diffuse through cell membranes due to their hydrophobic structure.^[6] Many steroids function as signaling molecules, particularly as hormones that regulate physiological processes by binding to intracellular receptors.^[7] Steroids are ubiquitous in eukaryotic organisms, where they play essential roles in maintaining membrane fluidity, serving as precursors for vitamins and bile acids, and modulating cellular functions.^[8] Representative examples include cholesterol, a primary sterol in animal cells, which features a hydroxyl group at C-3, a double bond between C-5 and C-6, and the molecular formula C₂₇H₄₆O; its structure is crucial for cell membrane integrity and as a precursor for other steroids.^[9] Another example is testosterone, an androgenic steroid hormone with the formula C₁₉H₂₈O₂, characterized by a ketone at C-3, a hydroxyl at C-17, and a double bond between C-4 and C-5, playing key roles in male reproductive development and secondary sexual characteristics.^[10] Sterols represent a specific subset of steroids, defined by the presence of a hydroxyl group at the C-3 position of the ring system, distinguishing them from broader steroid classes such as hormones or bile acids.^[5]

Historical Context

The discovery of steroids began in the early 19th century with the identification of cholesterol, a key sterol compound. François Poulletier de la Salle first identified a waxy substance in gallstones in 1769, which was rediscovered and isolated by French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1815 from bile and named "cholesterine," marking a key advancement in the study of steroid-like substances in animal tissues.^[11] Significant advances occurred in the 1930s with the isolation and synthesis of sex hormones. In 1931, Adolf Butenandt isolated androsterone from human urine, and in 1935, independently, Leopold Ruzicka synthesized testosterone from cholesterol, enabling the first clear insights into male hormones.^[12] Their pioneering work on sex hormones earned Butenandt and Ruzicka the 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared equally for these contributions.^[12] The 1940s brought breakthroughs in adrenal steroids, crucial for medical applications. Edward C. Kendall at the Mayo Clinic isolated several adrenal cortex compounds, culminating in the synthesis of cortisone (compound E) in 1946, while Tadeus Reichstein developed parallel syntheses from plant sources.^[13] This research, which demonstrated cortisone's anti-inflammatory effects, led to the 1950 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for Kendall, Reichstein, and Philip S. Hench.^[13] Standardized nomenclature for steroids emerged in the mid-20th century to facilitate systematic classification. Discussions at the 1950 CIBA Foundation symposium in London initiated rules, formalized by the IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission, with definitive guidelines published in 1971 building on earlier 1960s revisions.^[14] These standards, based on the gonane core, provided a universal framework for naming steroid derivatives and modifications.

Chemical Structure

Steroid Nucleus

The gonane nucleus constitutes the fundamental carbon skeleton common to all steroids, comprising a tetracyclic structure with 17 carbon atoms arranged in four linearly fused rings designated A, B, C, and D. Rings A, B, and C are six-membered cyclohexane rings, while ring D is a five-membered cyclopentane ring, forming the saturated parent hydrocarbon cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene.^[15][16] The standard numbering system, established by IUPAC recommendations, assigns integers 1 through 17 to the carbon atoms of the gonane skeleton in a specific sequence to facilitate nomenclature and structural comparisons. This begins in ring A with carbons 1–4 and 10, continues through ring B with carbons 5–10, proceeds to ring C with carbons 8–14, and concludes in ring D with carbons 13–17; angular methyl groups (if present in derived steroids) are numbered as C18 (attached to C13) and C19 (attached to C10), while side chains are commonly appended at C17.^[17] The tetracyclic arrangement features ring fusions at specific bonds: A/B at positions 5–10, B/C at 8–9, and C/D at 13–14, resulting in a compact, planar-like conformation in many natural steroids.^[17] Stereochemistry at the ring junctions is critical to the nucleus's three-dimensional configuration, with the B/C and C/D fusions invariably trans in the standard gonane (β-hydrogen at C9 and α at C14). The A/B fusion varies, exhibiting trans orientation in the 5α series (hydrogen at C5 on the α face, opposite the C10 angular methyl) or cis in the 5β series (hydrogen at C5 on the β face), which alters the ring puckering and overall molecular rigidity.^[18][19]

Modifications and Derivatives

Steroids exhibit structural diversity through modifications to their core tetracyclic nucleus, which consists of three six-membered rings (A, B, and C) fused to a five-membered ring (D). These alterations involve the addition of functional groups, introduction of unsaturations, and attachment of side chains, enabling varied physiological roles from hormones to signaling molecules.^[1] Common modifications include the incorporation of hydroxyl (-OH) groups, typically at the C3 position to form 3β-hydroxy steroids, as seen in many natural steroids like cholesterol and cortisol. Ketone (=O) functionalities are prevalent at C3, contributing to the α,β-unsaturated ketone system in ring A, or at C17 in progestogens and androgens. Double bonds, such as the Δ4-ene between C4 and C5 in ring A, are frequently introduced to enhance receptor binding and metabolic stability, as exemplified in progesterone.^[20][20][21] Angular methyl groups are standard at C10 (C19) and C13 (C18), providing steric bulk and influencing ring conformation. Side chains at C17 further diversify the structure; for instance, cholesterol features an isooctyl chain (C20–C27) that imparts amphiphilicity essential for membrane function. These elements collectively modulate lipophilicity and bioavailability.^[22][23] Specialized derivatives arise from more extensive alterations, such as secosteroids where the B ring is cleaved at the 9,10-bond, as in vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), which opens the structure for seco-steroidal activity in calcium regulation. Cardenolides represent another class, characterized by an α,β-unsaturated lactone ring (butenolide) attached at C17, conferring cardiotonic properties through inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase.^[24][25] Modifications also impact physicochemical properties and therapeutic utility; for example, esterification of hydroxyl groups, such as forming succinate or phosphate esters, creates water-soluble prodrugs like prednisolone sodium succinate, which improve aqueous solubility and enable parenteral administration while regenerating the active steroid via esterase hydrolysis.^[26][27]

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

Biosynthetic Pathways

Steroid biosynthesis begins with the production of cholesterol, the universal precursor for all steroids, through the mevalonate pathway in the endoplasmic reticulum of most cells, particularly in the liver.^[28] This pathway starts with acetyl-CoA, which is condensed to form acetoacetyl-CoA and then 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) by HMG-CoA synthase; the rate-limiting step is the reduction of HMG-CoA to mevalonate by HMG-CoA reductase, followed by phosphorylation steps leading to isopentenyl pyrophosphate, squalene synthesis via squalene synthase, and cyclization to lanosterol, ultimately yielding cholesterol through 19 additional enzymatic reactions.^[28] The core steroidogenic process initiates in steroid-producing tissues such as the adrenal glands, gonads, and placenta, where cholesterol is transported to the inner mitochondrial membrane and cleaved by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP11A1 (also known as P450scc) in a three-step oxidation to produce pregnenolone and isocaproic acid; this rate-limiting reaction requires electron transfer from adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin.^[29] Pregnenolone then diffuses to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum for further transformations, primarily involving 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/Δ5-Δ4 isomerase (3β-HSD) to form progesterone, and cytochrome P450 enzymes like CYP17A1 (17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase) for hydroxylation and side-chain cleavage.^[29] Organ-specific pathways diverge from these intermediates to produce distinct steroids. In the adrenal cortex, pregnenolone is converted via 3β-HSD to progesterone, then hydroxylated by CYP21A2 (21-hydroxylase) and CYP11B1 (11β-hydroxylase) to yield cortisol in the zona fasciculata, or further processed by CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) in the zona glomerulosa for aldosterone production.^[29] Gonadal tissues, including testes and ovaries, utilize CYP17A1 to direct Δ5 or Δ4 pathways from pregnenolone or progesterone toward androgens like testosterone (via 17β-HSD) in Leydig cells, or estrogens such as estradiol through aromatization by CYP19A1 (P450arom) in granulosa cells.^[29] In the liver, cholesterol is converted to primary bile acids via two pathways: the classic (neutral) pathway, initiated by the rate-limiting 7α-hydroxylation of cholesterol by CYP7A1 to form 7α-hydroxycholesterol, followed by modifications including 12α-hydroxylation by CYP8B1 for cholic acid or 3β-HSD for chenodeoxycholic acid; and the alternative (acidic) pathway, starting with 27-hydroxylation by CYP27A1 in mitochondria or peroxisomes, converging with the classic route. These pathways involve 14-17 enzymes total, with bile acids conjugated to glycine or taurine for secretion into bile. The steroidogenic pathway can be outlined as follows, highlighting key enzymes:

Metabolic Processes

Steroid metabolism encompasses the catabolic processes that inactivate bioactive steroids and facilitate their elimination from the body, primarily occurring in the liver and other peripheral tissues. These processes contrast with biosynthesis by breaking down hormones derived from cholesterol precursors, rendering them less active or polar for excretion. Key catabolic mechanisms include oxidation and reduction reactions that modify the steroid nucleus, followed by conjugation to enhance solubility. Phase I metabolism involves functionalization through hydroxylation, primarily catalyzed by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, which introduce hydroxyl groups to increase polarity and prepare steroids for further modification. For instance, CYP3A4 mediates the 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone, a major inactivation pathway in the liver that contributes to its clearance. Other CYPs, such as CYP1B1, can produce additional hydroxylated metabolites like 6β-hydroxytestosterone, further diminishing androgenic activity. These oxidative steps often occur before conjugation and are essential for detoxifying steroids. Phase II metabolism entails conjugation reactions, such as glucuronidation by UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) and sulfation by sulfotransferases (SULTs), which attach polar groups to hydroxylated steroids, boosting water solubility for excretion. A prominent example is the formation of estradiol-17β-glucuronide via UGT2B7, a major urinary metabolite of estradiol that inactivates the estrogen. Specific catabolic transformations include the reduction of testosterone to inactive forms; for example, sequential action of 5α-reductase and 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone and then to androsterone, a weak androgen excreted primarily as conjugates. Excretion pathways differ by steroid class: conjugated metabolites of sex hormones, such as glucuronides and sulfates of androgens and estrogens, are predominantly eliminated via the kidneys into urine, while bile acids undergo biliary excretion into the intestine for fecal elimination, with some enterohepatic recirculation. This dual route ensures efficient clearance, preventing accumulation of potentially bioactive intermediates.

Classification

By Origin

Steroids are classified by their origin into natural (endogenous), synthetic, and semi-synthetic categories, reflecting their sources and production methods. Natural steroids are endogenous compounds produced by living organisms across various kingdoms, including plants, animals, and fungi, through isoprenoid biosynthetic pathways that convert simple precursors like acetate into complex lipid structures.^[30][31] In animals, cholesterol serves as the primary sterol and precursor for hormones, while plants synthesize phytosterols such as β-sitosterol for membrane stability, and fungi produce ergosterol as their dominant sterol.^[32][33] The evolutionary origins of steroids trace back to early eukaryotic life, with sterol biosynthesis emerging as a defining feature of eukaryotes and absent in prokaryotes. Cholesterol, a C27 sterol, is uniquely prevalent in animals (metazoans) and some red algae, suggesting an ancient common ancestry for this specific sterol type, while other sterols diversified across kingdoms to support membrane function and signaling.^[34][33] This distribution indicates that steroid production evolved independently in different lineages but shares a conserved isoprenoid foundation.^[30] Synthetic steroids are entirely human-made through chemical synthesis in laboratories, designed to mimic or enhance the biological activities of natural steroids for therapeutic applications such as hormone replacement and anti-inflammatory treatments. The development of synthetic progestogens began shortly after the isolation of progesterone in 1934, with the first analogs synthesized in the late 1930s to improve bioavailability and specificity.^[35][36] Semi-synthetic steroids are derived from natural precursors but chemically modified to optimize pharmacological properties. For instance, hydrocortisone and other corticosteroids like prednisone are produced semisynthetically from plant-derived diosgenin, a steroidal sapogenin extracted from species of Dioscorea, through microbial fermentation and chemical steps to yield clinically viable compounds.^[37][38] This approach bridges natural abundance with targeted synthesis, enabling large-scale production of drugs that would otherwise be scarce from direct extraction.^[39]

By Functional Class

Steroids are classified by functional class based on their primary biological or pharmacological roles, which reflect how their chemical structures enable specific physiological activities. This classification emphasizes the diverse applications of steroids beyond their origins, grouping them into categories such as hormonal regulators, structural components, and specialized effectors. Hormonal steroids, produced mainly by endocrine glands, mediate signaling and metabolic processes; structural steroids maintain cellular architecture and aid in digestion; while other classes exhibit unique therapeutic or regulatory functions. Pharmacological derivatives extend these roles, often amplifying natural effects for medical use.^[40] Hormonal steroids encompass sex steroids, including androgens that promote male secondary characteristics and protein synthesis, estrogens that regulate female reproductive cycles and bone density, and progestogens that support pregnancy by preparing the uterine lining. Adrenal hormonal steroids are divided into glucocorticoids, which influence carbohydrate metabolism, immune suppression, and stress responses, and mineralocorticoids, which control electrolyte balance and blood pressure through sodium retention. These classes operate via nuclear receptors to modulate gene expression, ensuring coordinated physiological adaptations. Progestogens exemplify overlaps, exerting hormonal effects on reproduction while contributing to structural maintenance of the endometrium during gestation.^[40][41][42] Structural steroids include sterols, such as cholesterol, which integrate into cell membranes to provide fluidity, stability, and signaling platforms essential for membrane protein function and trafficking. Bile acids, derived from cholesterol, function as detergents to emulsify dietary fats in the intestine, facilitate cholesterol excretion, and exhibit antimicrobial properties to protect against gut pathogens. These roles highlight steroids' contributions to cellular integrity and nutrient processing without direct hormonal signaling.^[43][44] Other functional classes include cardioactive steroids, which inhibit Na+/K+-ATPase to enhance cardiac contractility and treat heart failure, often derived from plant sources like digitalis. Vitamin D steroids, or calciferols, act as hormones to regulate calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, supporting bone mineralization and immune modulation via vitamin D receptors. Pharmacological extensions derive from natural hormones: anti-inflammatory agents from glucocorticoids suppress cytokine production and edema in autoimmune conditions, while anabolic classes from androgens promote muscle growth and recovery in therapeutic settings like cachexia. Hybrids and overlaps, such as progestogens' dual hormonal-structural influences, underscore the versatility of steroid functions across biological contexts.^[45][46][2]

Lists of Steroids

Androgens

Androgens constitute a subclass of steroid hormones that primarily promote the development and maintenance of male reproductive tissues and secondary sexual characteristics, while also exerting anabolic effects on muscle and bone. These hormones are derived from cholesterol through enzymatic pathways in endocrine glands and peripheral tissues. The most potent endogenous androgens include testosterone and its metabolite dihydrotestosterone (DHT), alongside weaker precursors such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione.^[47][48] In reproduction, androgens are essential for spermatogenesis, where high local concentrations of testosterone in the testes support sperm production via activation of the androgen receptor in Sertoli cells. They also drive the maturation of secondary sex characteristics, including growth of facial and body hair, deepening of the voice, and enlargement of the prostate and seminal vesicles. Beyond reproductive roles, androgens exhibit anabolic effects by enhancing protein synthesis, thereby promoting muscle growth, strength, and bone density in a dose-dependent manner.^[47][48][47] Dehydroepiandrosterone serves as a key precursor in androgen biosynthesis, produced mainly in the adrenal glands and convertible to more active forms like testosterone. The following table lists selected key endogenous androgens, their structural notations based on standard steroid nomenclature, primary natural sources, and brief notes on potency relative to testosterone (assigned a potency of 1 for reference).

Estrogens

Estrogens are a class of steroid hormones primarily responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system, including secondary sex characteristics and reproductive functions.^[50] These hormones are characterized by a phenolic A ring in their steroid structure, resulting from the aromatization of androgens such as testosterone and androstenedione.^[51] The most potent natural estrogen is 17β-estradiol, which exhibits strong binding affinity to estrogen receptors and drives key physiological processes.^[52] Biosynthesis of estrogens occurs mainly through the action of the enzyme aromatase (CYP19A1), which catalyzes the conversion of C19 androgens to C18 estrogens by removing the angular methyl group at C19 and forming the aromatic A ring.^[53] In premenopausal women, the ovaries, particularly granulosa cells in the follicles, serve as the primary site of estrogen production, with smaller amounts synthesized in adipose tissue and the adrenal glands.^[50] During pregnancy, the placenta takes over as the dominant source, utilizing precursors from both maternal and fetal origins to produce high levels of estrogens, especially estriol.^[54] Estrogens play critical roles in uterine development by promoting endometrial proliferation and vascularization, which are essential for implantation and gestation.^[55] They regulate the menstrual cycle by stimulating follicular growth in the first half (follicular phase) and contributing to ovulation.^[56] Additionally, estrogens maintain bone density by inhibiting osteoclast activity and enhancing osteoblast function, thereby preventing bone resorption and supporting skeletal health, particularly in females.^[57] The following table lists key natural estrogens, including brief structural descriptions, primary sources, and notable roles:

Progestogens

Progestogens are a class of steroid hormones primarily involved in reproductive physiology, with progesterone serving as the archetypal member. These compounds, derived from the pregnane skeleton, play essential roles in preparing the endometrium for implantation, maintaining gestation, and supporting mammary gland development for lactation. Progesterone, the principal progestogen, is synthesized from cholesterol via pregnenolone and acts through nuclear progesterone receptors to regulate gene expression, while its metabolites contribute to neuroactivity.^[49][61] Progesterone (P4), chemically known as pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, features a C21 pregnane core with a Δ4 double bond, a ketone at C3, and another at C20. It is predominantly produced by the ovarian corpus luteum following ovulation and by the placenta during pregnancy, with minor contributions from the adrenal glands and brain. In the context of pregnancy, progesterone promotes endometrial secretory transformation and vascularization to facilitate blastocyst implantation, suppresses uterine contractility to sustain gestation, and induces alveolar proliferation in mammary tissue for subsequent lactation. Levels of progesterone rise dramatically in late pregnancy, reaching 100–200 ng/mL, underscoring its critical role in immune modulation and fetal development.^[49][61][62] Several natural progestogens derive from progesterone through enzymatic modifications, including hydroxylation and reduction, yielding compounds with progestational and neurosteroid properties. These include intermediates like 17α-hydroxyprogesterone and reduced metabolites such as dihydroprogesterones and pregnanolones, primarily sourced from gonadal, placental, and neural tissues. The 5α- and 5β-reduced variants, particularly those with 3α-hydroxylation, exhibit enhanced neuroactivity by positively modulating GABA_A receptors, contributing to anxiolytic and sedative effects during pregnancy. Below is a representative list of key natural progestogens, highlighting their structures, primary sources, and functions. These progestogens collectively ensure reproductive success, with their reduced forms (e.g., via 5α-reductase or 5β-reductase pathways) amplifying neurosteroid actions essential for maternal adaptation.^[61][63][64]

Corticosteroids

Corticosteroids are a class of steroid hormones produced in the adrenal cortex that play essential roles in the body's response to stress, regulation of metabolism, and maintenance of electrolyte balance. They are primarily synthesized from cholesterol through a series of enzymatic reactions in the adrenal gland's zona fasciculata and zona glomerulosa, with pregnenolone serving as a key initial precursor. These hormones are categorized into two main subclasses: glucocorticoids, which influence carbohydrate metabolism and immune function, and mineralocorticoids, which control salt and water homeostasis. Deficiencies in corticosteroid production, as seen in Addison's disease, lead to adrenal insufficiency characterized by fatigue, hypotension, and electrolyte imbalances due to inadequate cortisol and aldosterone levels.^[65]

Glucocorticoids

Glucocorticoids, primarily produced in the zona fasciculata under the regulation of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), promote gluconeogenesis to increase blood glucose levels during stress and exert immunosuppressive effects to modulate inflammation. Their biosynthesis begins with cholesterol conversion to pregnenolone by CYP11A1, followed by 17α-hydroxylation (CYP17A1), 21-hydroxylation (CYP21A2), and 11β-hydroxylation (CYP11B1) to yield active forms. Key examples include:

• Cortisol (hydrocortisone): The principal glucocorticoid in humans, featuring a structure with 11β-hydroxy, 17α-hydroxy, and 21-hydroxy groups on the pregnane backbone (11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione). It binds to the glucocorticoid receptor to enhance gluconeogenesis and suppress immune responses; clinically, low levels contribute to hypoglycemia in Addison's disease.^[66][65]
• Corticosterone: A glucocorticoid with 11β-hydroxy and 21-hydroxy groups (11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione), predominant in rodents but minor in humans; it supports metabolic regulation and is an intermediate in mineralocorticoid synthesis. Elevated in conditions like 17α-hydroxylase deficiency.^[66]
• Cortisone (11-dehydrocorticosterone): The inactive form of cortisol, characterized by a ketone at C-11 and hydroxyl at C-21 (17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione); it is interconverted to cortisol via 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and aids in stress response modulation.^[41]
• 11-Deoxycortisol: An intermediate with 17α,21-dihydroxy groups (17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione), produced before 11β-hydroxylation; it has weak glucocorticoid activity and accumulates in 11β-hydroxylase deficiency, leading to hypertension.^[66]

These compounds are biosynthesized in the adrenal cortex via ACTH-stimulated pathways, ensuring rapid response to physiological stress.^[65]

Mineralocorticoids

Mineralocorticoids, synthesized mainly in the zona glomerulosa and regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), facilitate sodium retention and potassium excretion in the kidneys to maintain blood volume and pressure. Their production follows a pathway from pregnenolone to progesterone (via 3β-HSD), then to 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC) by 21-hydroxylation, and further modifications including 11β-hydroxylation (CYP11B2) for aldosterone. Prominent examples are:

• Aldosterone: The primary mineralocorticoid, distinguished by an 18-aldehyde group and high affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor (11β,21-dihydroxy-3,20-dioxopregn-4-en-18-al); it promotes sodium reabsorption in distal tubules, critical for electrolyte balance; deficiency in Addison's disease causes hyponatremia and hyperkalemia.^[66][65]
• 11-Deoxycorticosterone (DOC): A potent mineralocorticoid precursor with a 21-hydroxy group (21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione); it exhibits sodium-retaining effects and is elevated in 17α-hydroxylase or 11β-hydroxylase deficiencies, contributing to hypertension.^[66]
• 18-Hydroxycorticosterone: An intermediate with 11β,18,21-trihydroxy groups (11β,18,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione); it has mild mineralocorticoid activity and serves as a direct precursor to aldosterone in the final biosynthetic step.^[66]
• Corticosterone: Also functions as a weak mineralocorticoid with sodium-retaining properties, sharing its structure and biosynthetic role with glucocorticoids.^[41]

Biosynthesis of mineralocorticoids occurs independently of 17α-hydroxylation, emphasizing their role in fluid homeostasis rather than carbohydrate metabolism. In clinical contexts, such as Addison's disease, mineralocorticoid replacement is essential to prevent life-threatening electrolyte disturbances.^[65]

Bile Acids and Sterols

Bile acids and sterols represent a class of cholesterol-derived lipids crucial for lipid digestion and cellular membrane architecture in animals. Sterols, primarily cholesterol in mammals, integrate into phospholipid bilayers to modulate membrane fluidity, permeability, and phase behavior, thereby supporting cellular integrity and function.^[67] Bile acids, derived from sterols, function as amphipathic detergents that emulsify dietary fats and facilitate the absorption of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins in the intestine.^[68] These compounds are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol, which acts as the initial substrate in biosynthetic pathways, and they circulate through the enterohepatic system to maintain physiological efficiency.^[69] Hepatic synthesis of bile acids occurs via two main pathways: the classic pathway, accounting for about 95% of production and initiated by the enzyme cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in hepatocytes, and the alternative pathway starting with CYP27A1.^[44] Primary bile acids are formed directly in the liver, while secondary bile acids result from bacterial modification in the gut.^[70] Prior to secretion into bile, bile acids are conjugated at the carboxyl group with glycine or taurine, enhancing their solubility and detergent properties.^[68] The enterohepatic circulation recycles approximately 95% of bile acids daily: they are secreted into the duodenum, reabsorbed primarily in the terminal ileum via active transport (e.g., ASBT transporter), returned to the liver through the portal vein, and re-secreted, minimizing fecal loss to about 0.5 grams per day.^[71] Key examples of sterols and bile acids are outlined below, highlighting their structural features based on the steroidal nucleus with variations in hydroxyl positions, double bonds, and side chains. Structures are described relative to the cholane skeleton for bile acids (four fused rings with a 5β configuration and 24-carbon chain ending in -COOH) and cholestane for sterols.

Phytosterols and Other Natural Steroids

Phytosterols are a diverse class of steroidal alcohols naturally occurring in plants, structurally analogous to cholesterol but distinguished by alkyl substitutions, such as an ethyl group at the C-24 position in many cases, which modulate their incorporation into plant cell membranes.^[73] These compounds constitute about 0.1-0.5% of plant lipids and are essential for maintaining membrane fluidity, permeability, and integrity, thereby supporting cellular signaling and structural stability in plant cells.^[74] Unlike animal steroids, phytosterols exhibit variations in side-chain configurations that influence their bioavailability and ecological roles, with over 250 identified across plant species.^[75] In plants, phytosterols contribute to growth regulation and stress responses by interacting with membrane proteins and enzymes, while in human nutrition, they exert hypocholesterolemic effects by competitively inhibiting intestinal cholesterol absorption, potentially reducing LDL-cholesterol by 8-10% with daily intakes of 2 grams.^[73] Beyond phytosterols, other natural steroids in plants and microbes include brassinosteroids, which function as growth-promoting hormones, and ergosterol, a fungal sterol serving as a provitamin D2 precursor.^[76][77] Brassinosteroids, such as brassinolide, regulate cell elongation, vascular differentiation, and reproductive development in plants, with sources including pollen and seeds.^[78] Ergosterol predominates in fungal membranes, ensuring fluidity and acting as a target for antifungal agents due to its role in cell wall biosynthesis.^[79] The following table lists selected phytosterols and other natural steroids, highlighting representative examples with their structural features relative to cholesterol, primary plant or microbial sources, and key functions.

Synthetic Anabolic Steroids

Synthetic anabolic steroids are laboratory-synthesized derivatives of testosterone engineered to maximize anabolic (muscle-building) effects while minimizing androgenic (masculinizing) properties, primarily through structural modifications to the steroid nucleus. These compounds emerged in the mid-20th century following the isolation and synthesis of testosterone in 1935, with initial developments aimed at treating conditions like anemia and muscle wasting. By the 1950s, they gained notoriety for performance enhancement, notably when Soviet athletes reportedly used them to dominate weightlifting at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, sparking widespread adoption in sports before the International Olympic Committee banned them in 1976.^[83][84] Common modifications include 17α-alkylation, which adds an alkyl group at the 17α position to enable oral bioavailability by resisting first-pass liver metabolism, though this increases hepatotoxicity risk. Another key alteration is the 19-nor modification, removing the methyl group at carbon 19 to enhance anabolic potency relative to androgenic effects, as seen in nandrolone. Esterification at the 17β position, such as with enanthate or cypionate, prolongs action for injectable forms, reducing dosing frequency. The 1-dehydro modification introduces a double bond between carbons 1 and 2, boosting anabolic activity, exemplified by boldenone. These changes allow for targeted therapeutic applications but also facilitate illicit use in doping.^[85][84] Medically, synthetic anabolic steroids treat hypogonadism, delayed puberty, anemia due to bone marrow failure, and cachexia from HIV or cancer, promoting erythropoiesis and protein synthesis. Illicitly, they are abused for muscle hypertrophy and strength gains in bodybuilding and athletics, often in cycles combining multiple compounds. Side effects encompass hepatotoxicity (e.g., cholestasis, peliosis hepatis, adenomas), cardiovascular risks (e.g., left ventricular hypertrophy, dyslipidemia), endocrine disruptions (e.g., hypogonadism, gynecomastia), and psychiatric issues (e.g., aggression). Hepatotoxicity is particularly pronounced in 17α-alkylated orals, with onset of liver injury ranging from weeks to years.^[4][85][86] The following table lists representative synthetic anabolic steroids, focusing on key examples with their primary structural modifications, approximate development eras (many in the 1950s amid post-WWII pharmaceutical advances), medical uses, and notable side effects. Structures are described relative to testosterone.