Cariban languages

Proto-Cariban
Proto-Cariban
Reconstruction of	Cariban languages

Cariban
Cariban
Geographic; distribution	Mostly within north-central South America, with extensions in the southern Caribbean and in Central America.
Linguistic classification	Je–Tupi–Carib? Cariban;
Language codes
Glottolog	cari1283
	Present location of Cariban languages, c. 2000, and probable extent in the 16th century.

The Cariban languages are a family of languages Indigenous to north-eastern South America. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of the Amazon River to the Colombian Andes, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people. Macushi is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—Hixkaryana—has a default word order of object–verb–subject. Prior to their discovery of this, linguists believed that this order did not exist in any spoken natural language.

In the 16th century,^{[citation needed]} Cariban peoples expanded into the Lesser Antilles. There they killed or displaced, and also mixed with the Arawak peoples who already inhabited the islands. The resulting language—Kalhíphona or Island Carib—was Carib in name but largely Arawak in substance.^{[citation needed]} The Carib male conquerors took Arawak women as wives, and the latter passed on their own language on to the children. For a time, Arawak was spoken by women and children and Carib by adult men, but as each generation of Carib-Arawak boys reached adulthood, they acquired less Carib until only basic vocabulary and a few grammatical elements were left. That form of Island Carib became extinct in the Lesser Antilles in the 1920s, but it survives as Garífuna, or "Black Carib," in Central America. The gender distinction has dwindled to only a handful of words. Dominica is the only island in the eastern Caribbean to retain some of its pre-Columbian population, descendants of the Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

Genetic relations

The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with the Jê and Tupian families. Ribeiro connects them all in a Je–Tupi–Carib family.^{[citation needed]} Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana, Nambikwara, Taruma, Warao, Arawak, Bororo, Jeoromitxi, Karaja, Rikbaktsa, and Tupi language families due to contact.^[1]

Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various Macro-Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the Lower Amazon region (rather than in the Guiana Highlands). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River.^[1]^: 425

Family division

The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)."^[2]

Previous classifications

Good data has been collected around ca. 2000 on most Cariban languages; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on Kaufman 1994) are unreliable.

Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language.^[3]

Cariban
- Galibi [Kaliña] (N)
- Guiana Carib (Taranoan):
  - Trio: Tiriyó–Akuriyó †, Salumá (N), Carijona–Hianákoto (S)
  - Kashuyana: Sikiana (N), Kaxuiâna [Warikyana] † (S)
  - Waiwai: Hixkaryána (S), Waiwai (N)
    Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches
- North Amazonian Carib:
  - Yawaperi: Atruahí [Atrowari, Waimiri] (N)
  - Pemong: Macushi–Pemon [Arekuna], Akawaio–Patamona (= Kapong, Ingariko) (N)
  - Paravilyana: Pawishiana †
    Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches, adding Purukotó † to Pemong; Boanarí † to Atruahí; Paravilyana † and Sapará † to Pawishiana
- Central Carib:
  - Wayana–Apalaí (N)
  - Maquiritari [Dekwana] (S)
  - Mapoyo–Yabarana–Pémono (N)
    Kaufman adds Chaima [Kumaná]; Arakajú † (to Wayana); Yao † and Tiverikoto †; Wajumará † (to Makiritare)
    
    Tamanaku is close to Mapoyo
- South Amazonian Carib:
  - Bakairi: Bakairí, Kuikúro [Kalapálo, Amonap], Matipuhy [Nahukwa] † (S)
  - Arara: Txikão [Ikpeng, Chikaon], Arára [Pará] (N)
    To Arara Kaufman adds extinct Juma †, Apiaká-Apingi †, Yarumá †
- Yukpa:
  - Japrería (N)
  - Yukpa (N)
  - Coyaima (N) †
- Panare (N)
- Opon [Opón-Karare] †
Unclassified:
- Pimenteira †
- Palmela †

The extinct Patagón de Perico language of northern Peru also appears to have been a Cariban language, perhaps close to Carijona. Yao is so poorly attested that Gildea believes it may never be classified.

Loukotka (1968)

Below is a full list of Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.^[4]

Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)

Western languages:

Caraib / Calinago / Karib – language spoken by the insular and continental Caraibes, with many dialects:
- Dialect of the insular Caraibes, once spoken on the Lesser Antilles Islands, now by only a few old individuals in a reserve on the island of Dominica.
- Dialect of Pomeroon / Caribisi / Acarabisi – spoken on the Macarani River and Pomeroon River, Guyana.
- Tabare / Cariña – dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the villages of El Guasey, Cachipo, Cachama, and San Joaquín de Parire (Mapicure) in the state of Anzoátegui and in the village of Tapaquire in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
- Caribe – extinct dialect once spoken by the descendants of Caraibes and by the mixed population on the plains of Barcelona, states of Monagas and Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
- Carif / Moreno – dialect combined with Arawakan, spoken by the Negro Indian mixed population of British Honduras, in Guatemala on the Gulf of Honduras, and on Roatan Island in Honduras, Central America.
- Cariniaco – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Caura River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
- Mayé – extinct dialect once spoken on the Casipore River, Amapá territory, Brazil. (Unattested.)
- Paracoto – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Araguari River, Amapá and at the mouth of the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
- Carane – once spoken at the old mission of São Paulo d'Oiapoque, Amapá territory. (Unattested.)
- Norac / Norag – once spoken on the Approuague River, French Guiana, later on the Anotarí River; now extinct. (Unattested.)
- Itutan – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River and in the Serra Lombard, Amapá. (Unattested.)
- Curucuane – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River, south of the Itutan tribe. (Unattested.)
- Aricarí – once spoken near the Curucuane tribe on the lower course of the Calçoene River. (Unattested.)
- Sapai – once spoken on the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
- Piriou – once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Oyapoque River. (Unattested.)
- Mersiou – once spoken on the Aratye River, Inini River, and Aua River, French Guiana, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
- Acoqua – once spoken at the sources of the Approuague River, and on the Camopi River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
- Wai – spoken on the Tamouri River, French Guiana; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
- Taira – spoken in the same colony as the Wai tribe on the Iracoubo River. (Unattested.)
- Acuria – originally spoken on the Nickerie River and Coppename River, Suriname; now on the Berbice River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
- Chacoi – spoken by a few mixed individuals between the Berbice River and Essequibo River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
- Parabaiana – once spoken on the middle course of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
- Caicuchiana – once spoken in French Guiana, south of the Parabaiana tribe. (Unattested.)

Eastern languages

Waiana / Oayana – spoken on the Palumeu River and Lawa River, Suriname, and on the Jarí River and Paru River, state of Pará, Brazil; once also between the Maroni River and Marouini River, French Guiana.
Amicuan – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Upurui – once spoken on the upper course of the Jarí River, now by a few individuals at the sources of the Parú de Leste River, state of Pará, Brazil.
Apalai / Aparai – spoken on the middle course of the Parú de Leste River and between this river and the upper course of the Maicuru River, Pará.
Carapeuara – extinct language once spoken in the state of Pará south of the Apama tribe on the Maicuru River. (Unattested.)
Palanc – extinct language once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Apima River and Yaroupi River and on the Unani River. (Unattested.)
Rucuyene – extinct language once spoken in the same colony on the Lawa River.
Noyene – once spoken on the Cuc River, state of Pará. (Unattested.)
Yapacoye – once spoken on the left bank of the Itany River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Aracajú / Uaraguazú – extinct language mixed with many Tupi elements, once spoken on the Gurupamba River and Parú de Leste River, Pará.

Trio group

Trio / Diáu / Tirió – spoken on the Tapanahoni River, Corentijn River, and Palumeu River, Suriname, and between the sources of the Parú de Leste River and Parú de Oeste River, state of Pará.
Urucuyana / Waiano – spoken on the left bank of the Parú de Leste River, Pará.
Wama – spoken by a wild tribe at the sources of the Oelemari River, Suriname.
Tliometesen / Oyaricule – spoken by a few individuals between the Litani River and Tapanahoni River, Suriname.
Ocomayana / Kumayena / Comayana – spoken at the sources of the Coeroeni River, Suriname, and at the sources of the Oronoque River in Guyana.
Pianocoto – once spoken at the sources of the Trombetas River and the Jamunda River, now at the mouth of the Marapi River in the Parú de Oeste River, Pará.
Aramihoto – spoken by a small tribe in Suriname on the upper course of the Coeroeni River. (Unattested.)
Prohyana – spoken in the same colony in the Eilerts de Haan Gebergte. (Unattested.)
Maipuridjana – spoken in Suriname on the Sipaliwini River. (Unattested.)
Rangú – spoken at the sources of the Parú de Oeste River, Pará.
Acuriyo – spoken at the sources of the Tapanahoni River, Suriname. (Unattested.)
Aramisho – spoken on the upper course of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Aramayana – spoken by the southern neighbors of the Aramisho tribe. (Unattested.)
Aramagoto – spoken between the upper courses of the Parú de Leste River and the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Pianoi – spoken at the sources and on the upper course of the Citaré River, Pará. (Unattested.)

Chiquena group

Chiquena / Shikiana – spoken on the Apiniwau River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Panemá River, Pará. (Farabee 1924, pp. 195–196.)
Zurumata – once spoken in a village of the same name on the upper course of the Trombetas River, Pará, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Ingarüne – spoken at the sources of the Panemá River and its tributaries. (Unattested.)
Salumá / Charúma – spoken between the upper courses of the Trombetas River, Uanabé River, and Tunúru River, Pará.
Prehnoma – spoken by a small tribe west of the Pianocoto tribe. (Unattested.)
Caicusiana – spoken on the Tunúru River south of the Salumá tribe. (Unattested.)
Tunayana – spoken between the middle courses of the Panemá River and Tunúru River. (Unattested.)
Sereu – spoken east of the sources of the Cachorro River. (Unattested.)
Cahuyana – spoken on the middle course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Marachó – spoken by an unknown tribe on the middle course of the Cuminá River. (Unattested.)
Pauxi / Pawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the middle course of the Erepecurú River (Cuminá River); now perhaps extinct.
Waríkyana – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Uayeué – spoken on the Mapuera River and its tributary Urubú de Silves River.
Cachuena / Kaxiuâna / Casiana / Cachoarí – spoken by a few families at the mouth of the Cachorro River.
Mutuan – once spoken on the lower course of the Nhamundá River.
Cariguano – once spoken on the Panemá River. (Unattested.)
Conduri – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.)
Paraugoaru – extinct language once spoken on the Capó River, a tributary of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)

Waiwai group

Waiwai / Woaywai – spoken at the sources of the Essequibo River, Guyana and at the sources of the Mapuera River, state of Pará, Brazil.
Faranakaru – spoken at the sources of the Mapuera River south of the Waiwai tribe. (Unattested.)
Faranauaru – spoken on the left bank of the Mapuera River. (Unattested.)
Parucoto / Katawian – spoken on the middle course of the Mapuera River and between the sources of the Acarí River and Cachorrinho River. (Farabee 1924, pp. 192–193.)
Chiriwiyana – spoken at the sources of the Acarí River. (Unattested.)
Ororicó – spoken on the upper course of the Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.)
Cotonúru – spoken between the Cachorro River and Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.)
Totocumu / Catuena – spoken between the sources of the Acarí River and Ipitinga River. (Unattested.)
Chawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the upper course of the Nhamundá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Uaiboí / Babui / Wabou – spoken on the middle course of the Nhamundá River.
Hishcariana / Ishkariyána / Tucano – spoken on the middle course of the Nhamundá River.
Xauwiyana – spoken by the neighbors of the Hishcariana tribe. (Unattested.)
Uasaí – spoken by an unknown tribe on the Urubu River and Jatapu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Apoto / Apanto – extinct language once spoken south of the Uaiboi tribe on the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.)^[5]
Orocoto – once spoken between the Urubu River and Jatapu River. (Unattested.)
Taguari – extinct language once spoken between the Mapuera River and Ipitinga River. (Unattested.)
Pariquí – once spoken between the mouths of the Uatumã River and Negro River. (Unattested.)
Tapicari – spoken on the Mucajaí River. (Unattested.)
Bonari / Boanari – once spoken on the Uatumã River, Amazonas; now perhaps extinct.

Yauapery group

Yauapery / Atroahi – spoken on the middle course of the Yauapery River, state of Amazonas.
Uaimiri / Wahmirí – spoken at the sources of the Curiuaú River, state of Amazonas.
Crixaná / Quirixana – spoken between the middle course of the Yauapery River and the Curiuaú River, now probably extinct.

Pauishana group

Pauishana – spoken between the Catrimani River and Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.

Macusi group

Macusi / Makushí – spoken on the Rupununi River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Tacutu River and on the middle course of the Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. (The following five names all refer to local subgroups of the Macushi.^[6])
Monoicó – spoken on the Cotingo River, Brazil. (Unattested.)
Keseruma – spoken on the Tacutu River. (A. Meyer 1951.)^[7]
Asepáng – spoken to the south of the Keseruma tribe. (Unattested.)
Eliáng – spoken to the south of the Asepáng tribe. (Unattested.)
Pezacó – spoken to the south of the Eliáng tribe. (Unattested.)
Quenoloco – spoken at the sources of the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
Teweia – spoken on the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
Purucotó / Progoto – spoken on the Uraricapará River, territory of Rio Branco.
Wayumara / Azumara / Guimara – spoken between the Mucajaí River and Uraricoera River and in a part of Maracá Island.
Paraviyana / Paravilhana – extinct language once spoken between the Tacutu River and Caratirimani River, Rio Branco.
Zapara / Sapará – spoken in the middle and eastern parts of Maracá Island.

Pemón group

Taurepän / Taulipáng / Ipuricoto / Pemón – spoken between the Uraricuena River and Mount Roraima to the Caroní River, in the border zone of Brazil and Venezuela.
Arecuná – spoken at the sources of the Caroní River and Paragua River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Ingaricó – spoken to the north of Mount Roraima, border region of Brazil and Venezuela.
Patamona – spoken on the Potaro River and Ireng River, Guyana. (F. Lutz 1912 passim, only a few words.)
Camaracoto – spoken in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, on the Paragua River and Caroní River.
Arinagoto – once spoken on the Paragua River, state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Paraparucota – once spoken between the Caura River and Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar; now extinct. (Unattested.)
Quiriquiripa – extinct language once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
Aguaricoto – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Caura River, the same region. (Unattested.)
Serecong / Sarrakong – once spoken in the same region at the sources of the Mahú River. (Unattested.)
Chiricum – once spoken by the western neighbors of the Taurepán tribe in the Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
Achirigoto – once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River, middle course, in the state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
Paudacoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar at the sources of the Aro River. (Unattested.)
Cachirigoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar south of the Camaracotó tribe. (Unattested.)
Barinagoto – once spoken at the mouth of the Caroní River, Bolívar state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Arebato – once spoken in the village of Cuchara on the Caura River in the state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Armacoto – once spoken in the same region between the Paragua River and Merevari River. (Unattested.)
Mauitsi – once spoken at the sources of the Paragua River in the same region. (Unattested.)
Uaica / Waica – spoken by a few families on the Yuruari River and Cuyuni River, state of Bolívar.
Acawai / Capong – spoken in Guyana on the Moruca River, Cuyuni River, Acarabisi River, and Pomeroon River.

Maquiritaré group

Decuána / Deukwana / Maquiritaré – spoken on the Caura River, Ventuari River, Merevari River, and Auari River, state of Bolívar and Amazonas territory, Venezuela, and between the Cotingo River and Majari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
Yecuaná / Mayongcong – spoken on the Caura River southwest of the Arecuna tribe, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Ihuruána – spoken at the sources of the Ventuari River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
Cunuaná / Kunuhana – spoken in the same territory at the sources of the Cunucunuma River. (only four words.)
Morononi – extinct language once spoken in the same territory on the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Puipuitene – extinct language once spoken on the same river in the same territory by the neighbors of the Decuaná tribe. (Unattested.)
Acariana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Morononi tribe on the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)
Ocomesiane – once spoken in the same region on the Padamo River. (Unattested.)
Areviriana – once spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Ihuruána tribe. (Unattested.)
Jure – once spoken on the left bank of the middle course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Pishauco / Pshavaco – once spoken on the Serra Tepequem, Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
Mejepure – once spoken on the left ban1e of the lower course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Aberiana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Acariana tribe on the upper course of the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)

Mapoyo group

Mapoyo / Nepoyo – spoken by a small tribe between the Parguaza River and Suapure River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Carinuaca – extinct language once spoken in the area between the Ihuruána and Yauarána tribes, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Curasicana / Kurushikiána / Orechicano – once spoken at the sources of the Biehita River, now by only a few individuals. (Unattested.)
Wökiare / Uaiquire – unknown language spoken in the same region on the Paru River. (Unattested.)
Yauarána / Yabarána – language spoken in the same territory on the Manapiare River.
Quaqua – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Mapoyo tribe. (Unattested.)
Guaquiri – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Curasicana tribe. (Unattested.)
Pareca – spoken in the region west of the Cuchivero River, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Taparito – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
Cadupinapo – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Achirigoto tribe. (Unattested.)
Tabajari – now probably extinct, once spoken on the left bank of the Erebato River, state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)

Panare group

Panáre – language of a small tribe, spoken at the sources of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Abira – once spoken at the sources of the Manapiare River. (Unattested.)
Eye – once spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Panáre tribe at the sources of the Cuchivero River. (Unattested.)

Tamanaco group

Tamanaco – extinct language once spoken along the Orinoco River from the mouth of the Caroni River to the mouth of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Chayma / Guarapiche / Sayma – extinct language once spoken on the Guarapiche River, state of Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
Cumanagota – extinct language once spoken on the Cabo Codera and near Cumaná, state of Sucre, Venezuela.
Tivericoto – once spoken on the coast of the state of Monagas, Venezuela
Palenque – once spoken between the Unare River and Tamanaco River, Guárico state.
Caraca – once spoken around the modern capital of Caracas, Venezuela. (A. Espinosa (Vazquez de Espinosa) 1948, pp. 36–37, only a few words.)
Ciparigoto – extinct language once spoken on the Yaracuy River and Aroa River, state of Yaracuy. (Unattested.)
Teque – once spoken in the Guaire valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
Tacarigua – once spoken around Lake Valencia, Miranda. (Unattested.)
Toromaina – once spoken on the San Pedro River, federal district of Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Arbaco – once spoken around the modern city of Victoria, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Meregoto – once spoken on the western shore of Lake Valencia in the state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Quiriquire – extinct language once spoken on the Tuy River and Misoa River, state of Miranda. (Oramas 1918a, only a few patronyms.)
Chapacuare – once spoken in the Pascua valley, state of Guárico. (Unattested.)
Tarma – once spoken near the modern city of Maracay, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Mariche – once spoken in the Baruta valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
Guayqueri – extinct language once spoken on the Paoviejo River, state of Cojedes. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 67–68, only one phrase.)^[8]
Tomuza – once spoken between the Chico River and Piritú River, states of Miranda and Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Haerena / Guarena – once spoken between the Guarenas River and Guatire River, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Piritú – once spoken around the modern city of Puerto Píritu, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Tagare – once spoken on the coast of the Gulf of Cariaco, state of Sucre. (Unattested.)
Pariagoto / Guayuno – extinct language once spoken on the Paria Peninsula in the state of Sucre.
Chamaygua – once spoken in the state of Sucre by the neighbors of the Cumanagota tribe. (Unattested.)

Yao group

Yao / Anacaioury – language once spoken by two tribes: one on the western part of the island of Trinidad; the other in French Guiana on the Ivaricopo River and Cau River.

Shebayi group

Shebayi / Supaye – extinct language once spoken in the Guianas; exact location is unknown.

Motilon group

Yupe / Motilon – spoken by many tribes in the Sierra de Perijá, state of Zulia, Venezuela, and in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. Dialects:
- Chague / Apon – spoken on the Apon River, Zulia.
- Iroca – spoken on the Casacará River, Magdalena.
- Macoa – spoken on the Yasa River and Negro River, Zulia.
- Manastara – spoken on the Becerril River, Zulia.
- Maraca – spoken by a tribe at the source of the Machigue River and on the Maraca River, Magdalena.
- Parirí – spoken to the south of the Apon River.
- Shapáru / Chaparro – spoken by the western neighbors of the Parirí tribe, Zulia.
- Uasamo – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Shapáru tribe. (Unattested.)
- Susa – spoken in the central part of the Sierra de Perijá, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
- Manaure – spoken on the left bank of the lower course of the La Paz River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
- Tucushmo – spoken by the northern neighbors of the Iroca tribe, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
- Socorpa – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Maracá tribe. (Unattested.)
- Curumaní – spoken south of the Tucui River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
- Socomba – spoken between the sources of the Maracá River and Tucui River, formerly also on the Buenavista River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
- Tucuco – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Shiquimu – spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Shaparu tribe, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Irapa – spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Shiguimu tribe. (Unattested.)
- Pshicacuo – spoken by the western neighbors of the Tucuco tribe. (Unattested.)
- Mishorca – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River by the neighbors of the Pariri tribe. (Unattested.)
- Yapreria / Sabril – spoken at the sources of the Palmar River, Zulia. (Anonymous Madrid h.)
- Coyaima / Tupe – extinct language once spoken on the César River, Magdalena. (Castro Trespalacios 1946, only a few patronyms.)
- Burede – once spoken at the sources of the Socuy River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Pemeno – once spoken at the mouth of the Escalante River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Bubure / Bobure – once spoken in the state of Zulia around the modern cities of Bobures and Gibraltar. (Unattested.)
- Quenagua – extinct language once spoken in Espiritu Santo Valley in the state of Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Umaquena – once spoken on the Umaquena River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Sunesua – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Quenaga tribe in the Espiritu Santo Valley, Zulia. (Unattested.)
- Lobatera – once spoken around the modern city of Lobatera, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
- Táchira – once spoken on the Táchira River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
- Tapano – once spoken in the state of Mérida between Lake Onia and Lake Motilon. (Unattested.)
- Miyuse – once spoken in the state of Mérida on the Mucujepe River and Tucani River. (Unattested.)

Pijao group

Pijao / Pinao – once spoken on the Luisa River, Otaima River, Tuamo River, Tetuán River, Aipe River, and Magdalena River, now in the villages of Ortega, Coyaima, and Natagaima, department of Tolima, Colombia.
Pantagora / Palenque – once spoken between the Guarinó River and San Bartolomé River, department of Calcias, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Colima – extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the Magdalena River and on the Negro River and Pacho River, Cundinamarca department.
Muzo – once spoken at the sources of the Carare River and in the Paima Valley, department of Cundinamarca. (only a few words.)
Nauta – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Muzo tribe. (Unattested.)
Panche – extinct language once spoken on the Gualí River, Mariquita River, Guarinó River, Coello River, Villeta River, Seco River, Magdalena River, and Fusagasuga River, Cundinamarca.
Agatá – once spoken in the department of Cundinamarca on the Magdalena River, east of the Chibcha tribe. (Unattested.)
Amani – spoken by the western neighbors of the Pantagora tribe in the department of Caldas. (Unattested.)
Neiva – once spoken around the modern city of Neiva in the department of Huila. (Unattested.)
Manipo – once spoken at the mouth of the La Plata River in the same area. (Unattested.)
Ajie – unknown language of an extinct tribe that once lived in the territory of Meta at the sources of the Tagua River and Losada River. (Unattested.)

Opone group

Opone – extinct language once spoken on the Opone River, department of Santander, Colombia.
Carare – spoken by a few individuals on the Carare River in the department of Santander.
Yariguí – once spoken on the Sogamoso River and in Barranca Bermeja in the same department. (Unattested.)
Hacaritama – once spoken around present-day Hacaritama city in the department of Santander.
Xiriguana – extinct language of a tribe once living in the department of Santander in the Cordillera de Lebaja. (Unattested.)
Carate – once spoken around the modern city of Ocaña, department of Norte de Santander. (Unattested.)
Corbago – once spoken in the department of Magdalena in the Sierra de Mene. (Unattested.)
Guane – once spoken in the department of Santander at the sources of the Tarare River. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 40, only two words.)
Chinato – extinct language once spoken on the upper course of the Zulia River, department of Norte de Santander, around the modern city of Cúcuta. (Unattested.)
Zorca – once spoken in the same department in the San Cristóbal Valley (Unattested.)
Cariquena – once spoken on the Cariquena River in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Capacho – once spoken around the village of Capacho in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)

Carijona group

Guaque / Huaque / Murcielaga – extinct language once spoken on the Inganos River, Caquetá territory, Colombia.
Carijona / Kalihóna – language now spoken by a few individuals on the middle course of the Caquetá River, territory of Caquetá.
Umáua / Hiánocoto / Máua – language spoken at the sources of the Apoporis River in the territory of Caquetá.
Saha / Tsahatsaha – spoken in the territory of Caquetá between the Cuemani River and Yarí River. (Unattested.)
Riama – spoken between the Yari River, Apoporis River, and Vaupés River, territories of Caquetá and Vaupés. (Unattested.)
Mahotoyana – spoken in the territory of Vaupés on the Macaya River. (Unattested.)
Ajajú – unknown language spoken on the Ajaju River, Amazonas territory. (Unattested.)

Patagon group

Patagon – extinct language once spoken in the villages of Paca, Olipanche, and Bagua and around the modern city of Jaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru. (only a few words.)

Arara group

Arára / Ajujure / Cabanaé / Opinadkóm – extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the Pacajá Grande River and on the upper course of the Anapu River, Pará, Brazil.
Apingi / Apeiaca / Apiacá de Tocantins – language spoken between the Tocantins River and Jacunda River, state of Pará. Now spoken by only a few individuals.
Parirí – once spoken at the sources of the Pacajá River, Jacundá River, and Arataú River, Pará, now perhaps extinct.
Timirem / Antimilene – language of an unknown tribe that live in the virgin forests on the Agua de Saúde River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Yuma – extinct language once spoken on the Jacaré River and Ituxi River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)

Palmela group

Palmela – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the São Simão River in the Guaporé River, Rondônia.

Pimenteira group

Pimenteira – Portuguese name of an extinct language the original name of which is unknown, spoken once at the sources of the Sant' Anna River and on Lake Pimenteira and between the Piauí River and Gurgueia River, state of Piauí, Brazil.

Xingú group

Yaruma / Aruma – spoken at the sources of the Paranaíba River, state of Mato Grosso, now perhaps extinct.
Bacairí / Bacaery – originally spoken between the Batoví River and Curisevú River, later on the Paranatinga River, now by only a few families on the Posto Simões Lopes, Mato Grosso.
Nahukwá / Naucuá / Anáukwá – language spoken between the Curisevú River and Culuene River, with many dialects:
- Yanumakapü / Nahukwá proper – northern dialect.
- Etagl – spoken in the village of Etagl.
- Kuikutl / Guicurú / Cuicuro – spoken on the Culuene River in the village of Cuicuro.
- Kalapalo / Apalaquiri – spoken in the village of the same name on the Culuene River.
- Matipú / Matipuhy – spoken in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Curisevú River.
- Yamarikuná – spoken on the Curisevú River.
- Suva / Tsúva – spoken by a few people on the right bank of the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)
- Naravute / Naravóto – spoken on the Curisevú River.
- Aipats – spoken on the Curisevú River; now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
- Auwáwiti – spoken by a few people on the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)

Meira (2006)

Preliminary internal classification of the Cariban languages according to Sérgio Meira (2006):^[9]^: 169

Cariban
- Guianan branch
  - Karinya (Galibi); Wayana; Apalaí (?); Palmella † (?)
  - Taranoan group
    - Karihona
    - Tiriyó; Akuriyó
  - Parukotoan group
    - Katxuyana
    - Waiwai; Hixkaryana
- Venezolano branch
  - Coastal group
  - Tamanaku †
    - Chayma †
    - Cumanagoto †
  - Pemongan group
    - Pemong (Arekuna, etc.)
    - Kapong (Akawaio, etc.)
    - Makuxi
  - Panare
  - Ye’kwana (?)
  - Mapoyo (?); Yawarana (?)
- Waimirian branch
  - Waimiri-Atroari (?)
- Yukpano branch
  - Yukpa (Motilón)
  - Hapreria (Japreria)
- Southern (or Pekodian) branch
  - Bakairi
  - Xinguan group (or Kampot dialect cluster^[10])
- Kuikuroan branch
  - Kuikuro (Kalapalo, etc.)
  - Pimenteira † (?)

Gildea (2012)

As of Gildea (2012), there had not yet been time to fully reclassify the Cariban languages based on the new data. The list here is therefore tentative, though an improvement over the one above; the most secure branches are listed first, and only two of the extinct languages are addressed.^[11]

Cariban
- Parukotoan
  - Katxúyana (Shikuyana, † Warikyana)
  - Waiwai: Waiwai (Wabui, Tunayana), Hixkaryana
- Pekodian
  - Bakairí
  - Arara: Arara (Parirí), Ikpéng (Txikão)
- Venezuelan Carib
  - Pemóng–Panare
    - Pemóng: Kapóng (Akawaio, Patamuna, Ingarikó), Makushi, Pemón (Taurepang, Kamarakóto, Arekuna)
    - Panare
  - Mapoyo–Tamanaku
    - † Kumaná (Chaima, Cumanagota, Tamanaku)
    - Mapoyo-Yawarana (Mapoyo, Wanai, Yawarana, Pémono)
- Nahukwa: Kuikúro, Kalapalo
- Guianan Carib
  - Kari'nja (Carib, Kalinya, Cariña, Galibi)
  - Makiritare (De'kwana, Maiongong, Ye'kwana)
  - Taranoan
    - Tiriyo: Akuriyo, Tiriyo, Trio
    - Karihona
  - Wayana
Unclassified:
- Apalaí
- Waimirí Atroarí
- Yukpa: Yukpa, Japréria

Meira et al. (2015)

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) give the following phylogenetic tree of Cariban, based on a computational phylogenetic analysis of 100-item Swadesh lists.^[12]

Cariban
- Opon-Carare
- Yukpa
- Nuclear Cariban
  - Sapara
  - Pekodian
    - Bakairi
    - Arara, Ikpeng
  - Kuhikugu
  - Pemongan
    - Pemon
    - Taurepang
    - Makushi
    - Patamuna; Akawaio, Arekuna
  - Wayumaran
    - Wayumara
    - Purukoto
  - Parukotoan
    - Katxuyana
    - Hixkaryana, Waiwai
  - Kumanan
    - Chayma
    - Cumanagoto
  - Tamanaku
  - Mapoyan
    - Yawarana
    - Pemono, Mapoyo
  - Panare
  - Dekwana
  - Guianan
    - Wayana, Apalai
    - Taranoan
      - Karihona
      - Tiriyo, Akuriyo
  - Karina
  - Waimiri

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) conclude that the Proto-Cariban homeland was located north of the Amazon River, and that there is no evidence for a northward migration from the south, as previously proposed by Rodrigues (1985).^[13] Rather there were two southern migrations (Pekodian and Nahukwa into the Upper Xingu).

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):^[1]

(† = extinct)

Karib
- Karib, Western †
  - Karare †
  - Opon †
- Karib, Central
  - Apalai
  - Hianakoto
    - Guake †
    - Hianakoto-Umawa †
    - Karihona
  - Kariña
  - Palmella †
  - Tarano
    - Akurio
    - Tiriyo
  - Wayana
- Karib, Southern
  - Kuikuro
    - Kalapalo
    - Kuikuro
    - Matipu
    - Nahukwa
  - Pekodi
    - Arara-Ikpeng
      - Arara
      - Ikpeng
    - Bakairi
  - Pimenteira †
- Karib, Northern
  - Parukoto
    - Kashuyana
    - Parukoto, Nuclear
      - Hishkaryana
      - Sikiana
      - Waiwai
  - Purukoto
    - Kapong: Akawayo; Patamona
    - Makushi
    - Pemon: Arekuna; Ingariko; Kamarakoto; Taurepang
    - Purukoto
  - Venezuela
    - De'kwana-Wayumara
      - De'kwana
      - Wayumara
    - Eñepa
    - Kumana
      - Chayma
      - Kumanagoto †
    - Mapoyo-Yabarana
      - Mapoyo
      - Pemono
      - Yabarana
    - Tamanaku †
    - Yao †
      - Tiverikoto †
      - Yao †
  - Yawaperi-Paravilhana
    - Sapara-Paravilhana
      - Paravilhana
      - Sapara
    - Yawaperi
      - Bonari †
      - Waimiri-Atroari
  - Yukpa-Japreria
    - Japreria
    - Yukpa

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cariban (Karaib) languages.^[4]

Language	Branch	head	eye	tooth	man	one	two	three
Yaruma	Xingú	u-vite	ye-nguru	u-én	yó
Bakairí	Xingú	x-ináraxu	x-ánu	x-yéri	aguróto	tokolele	asage	ahágetokólo
Nahukwá	Xingú	u-víterö	u-vínuru	u-vire	utoto	álechi	atake	etila
Kuikutl	Xingú	u-ritöl	u-ínuru	u-íl	utóto
Kalapalo	Xingú	u-íköre	u-ínoru
Yamarikuná	Xingú		u-ínoru	u-igl	utóto
Arára	Arára	muchína	oñuruma	yéri	ukone	náne	atag	ataganané
Parirí	Arára	mũchí	unguru	heéngo	l'ügóro	nané	atág	atáganane
Apingi	Arára	i-montxi	angrungo	yeri	ukone	toiné	asakoro	aséruao
Palmela	Palmela	na-ápo	óno	yeré	óka	aropé	aha	ohehua
Pimenteira	Pimenteira	baburi	önthuburü	yari	chä
Pijao	Pijao		luːn	tínki	oréma
Opone	Opone	yu-úh	yéu	xór	okír	seneároko	sá	sáura
Carare	Opone	sü-oko	yeo
Guaque	Carijona	xutuye		yeri	gire
Carijona	Carijona	utuhé	yénuru	yéri	kire	téui	sekeneré	seaueré
Umáua	Carijona	bútuhe	yenuːru	yeːli	gelé	téui	sakénele	dyelauele
Patagon	Patagon
Yupe	Motilon	o-hárza	áno	kiíko	kürpa	tukumarkó	kosárko	koserárko
Chaque	Motilon	o-harza	anó	kiíko	kürpa	kumarko	kasarko	kosera
Macoa	Motilon	yu-wasá	anu	kiyiːko	mashá	kumárko	kósak	koséra
Maraca	Motilon	yu-wasa	yo-nu
Parirí	Motilon	yu-wása	yá-nu	kiʔiko	kipantu	kumárku	kósaʔ
Shapáru	Motilon	yu-wása	yá-nu	yi		kumárko	kósa
Iroca	Motilon					tʔkúmaː
Itoto Maimy	Tamanaco	Pùpoo	Enury	Jery	Itoto	Tewin	Aisake	Aisoroaw
Tivericoto	Tamanaco	o-putpa	o-neana			ovin	oko	orwa
Palenque	Tamanaco
Yao	Yao	boppe	vokre	hioseli		tewin	tage	terewaw
Shebayi	Shebayi	wa-kewüri	wa-daköli	nu-yeri
Decuána	Maquiritaré	u-huhé	énu	yéde	tokomo	toːni	hake	aduáne
Yecuaná	Maquiritaré	hóuf	u-yenuru	yeːri	areifhe	tauíni	ake	hedáue
Cunuaná	Maquiritaré	hú-ha
Ihuruána	Maquiritaré	hú-he		yeːde
Mapoyo	Mapoyo	uastari	xene-yonuru	xe-ñeiri	tokomo	tóskena	sakane	tominiakeré
Yauarána	Mapoyo	exne-oaixtéli	exne-nuru	exne-yéli	tokúnu	enix-péte	asáke	petomeyákele
Panáre	Panáre		oʔó	yoʔón
Taurepán	Taurepán	upai	yénu	u-yé	kurai	teukinán	sákeʔené	seulúana
Arecuna	Taurepán	pu-pai	yenú	u-yé	uarati	täukináng	sakeine	isélehaúvane
Camaracoto	Taurepán	pupai-to	enu-to		warato	taʔakin	tsagane	etserau
Ingarico	Taurepán	u-paí	u-yenú	u-yé	orauó	teukíng	atsalongkong	etseuluaong-kóng
Uaica	Taurepán		ienuru
Acawai	Taurepán	yu-popo	yenuru	yu	wínow	tidzyine	asakró	asorwo
Macusi	Macusi	po-pai	tenu	u-yeká	uaratáe	tiwing	sagaré	siruane
Keseruma	Macusi		yenu		pemóngó	tivín
Purucoto	Macusi	hau-pupe	hau-yenú	hau-yée	walaitó	aleini	iniperkuru	inialé
Wayumara	Macusi	i-hubé	yenurú	i-yelé	totó	tueviné	asále	eseuluó
Paraviyana	Macusi	i-pupá	e-rénialö	e-lelö	meimun	teuén	aköunien	olaulé
Zapará	Macusi	une-kapú	u-yonú		topúpesó	itxemené	tulekalenó	oláno
Yauapery	Yauapery	ki-yó	kembá	ki-äri		marabá	asiki	usono
Uaimiri	Yauapery	ki-fó	kopanamareː	ki-eri	kumutareː	unionoː	tukunumá	uruanoː
Orixaná	Yauapery	u-pai	u-ini	u-yeté	itiamon	tuimo	sananeburé	sarsiua
Pauishana	Pauishana	puːpo	yoːno	ye	yungwei	níkenaːna	ataːre	ãná-mokaːre
Waiwai	Waiwai	a-tipiri	e-oru	ko-yóri	tata	chewñé	asakí	chorohoko
Parucoto	Waiwai		o-yúla	ko-yali		tukinkaré	asakené	serkuané
Uaiboi	Waiwai		ku-nurú		kamuhí
Hishcariana	Waiwai	kui-kuturu		ku-yo	tamushi	tonishá	sakó	sorowão
Bonari	Waiwai	iri-opó	nuru-bá	yoré	ukeré	abané	pademaká	uruá
Chiquena	Chiquena		ya-nũru	yoli	soto	winali	asaga	sorawau
Saluma	Chiquena	yiwu-tupuli	ye-nu
Pauxi	Chiquena				toto
Uayeué	Chiquena	vu-turú		u-yari	totó
Cachuena	Chiquena	yo-soru	yo-núru	yoré	totó	tuinarí	asáki	osoruaul
Mutuan	Chiquena		ko-nofati	yurú
Trio	Trio	í-pútupo	ye-nuru	i-yeri	kirí	tinki	ökönö	voyerau
Urucuyena	Trio	putpí	i-eú	yi-eːda	okirí	wanána	shakené	heruáu
Wama	Trio	wi-pupo	ye-nuru	ye-ri
Tliometesen	Trio	oba-tuwiri	en-nuru	oliː	enkili	tonikini	sokororo	ebemüni
Ocomayana	Trio		u-nu	ye
Pianocoto	Trio		ye-nei	yu-tali	okirí
Rangú	Trio
Waiana	Eastern	e-putiü	ye-nuru	yére	okiri	uaptö	hakené	eheruaé
Upurui	Eastern	e-putpiʔi	ye-nuru	yére	okiri
Rucuyene	Eastern	ité-puru	e-nuru	yeré	okiri	tavené	sakené	héléuʔau
Apalai	Eastern	u-pupu	anu	deri	eritua	seni	asakoro	eseuʔau
Aracajú	Eastern		seresa		apükaua
Caraib	Western	búpu	é-hulu	yeri	uakuri	ábama	bíama	eleva
Galibi	Western	u-pupu	e-nuru	yeré	okiri	awín	okuo	tereva
Caribisi	Western	ye-pupo	ye-nuru		wokiri	ówé	oko	orwá
Caribe	Western	ada-puxo		dhere	buköre	óbin	óko	órwa
Cariniaco	Western		é-nuru	yeri	okiri	owi	uariri	orowa
Carif	Western	nábulu	tágu	bári	ugíri	ábana	biáma	íruwa

Language	Branch	water	fire	sun	moon	maize	jaguar	arrow
Yaruma	Xingú	páru	kampón	tsizi	nunó
Bakairí	Xingú	páru	páto	chíshi	núna	anádzyi	aká	püráu
Nahukwá	Xingú	tuna	itó	riti	nune	aná	ikere	hüré
Kuikutl	Xingú	tuna	ñorotéke	liti	núne		tonuríñe
Kalapalo	Xingú		itoː				turúgitiñe
Yamarikuná	Xingú			liti	núne
Arára	Arára	parú	kampot	titi	núna	konat	okoró	puiram
Parirí	Arára	parú	kampó	titi	tunó	honát	hogró	puyrém
Apingi	Arára	paru	kampot	chichi	nuno	anat	okori	pirem
Palmela	Palmela	tuná	vava	yéyu	ñúña	éña	okóro	puera
Pimenteira	Pimenteira	tuna	vafundi	titi	nulu	thauato	prümachö	pürarü
Pijao	Pijao	tána	nuhúgi	huíl	núna		xaguáde
Opone	Opone	tuná	fotó	bueno	kanó	mues	ixáke	yahá
Carare	Opone	kʔara		bwenuñe		menye	pak'anye
Guaque	Carijona	tuna	maxoto	vehi	nuna		kaikuchi
Carijona	Carijona	tuna	apoto	bei	nunua		kaikusi	xarakue
Umáua	Carijona	tuːna	mahóto	wéi	nuːne	anaːdzyi	kaikudzyi	huːya
Patagon	Patagon	tuná				anás
Yupe	Motilon	kuna	guesta	güichó	kuna	mé	isóʔo	samás
Chaque	Motilon	kuna	hueto	gichio	kuno	me	isó
Macoa	Motilon	kúna	huéto	huichol	kuník	me	ísho	puréyi
Maraca	Motilon	kuːna	whishta	huicho	kunu		eːsho	puraye
Parirí	Motilon	kána	wueta	wíchu	kúnu
Shapáru	Motilon	kúna	wuéta
Iroca	Motilon	kuːna					esho
Tamanaco	Tamanaco	duná	uapto	veyu	nuna	xexe	akére	preu
Chayma	Tamanaco	tuna	apoto	vieyu	nonin	amapo	kocheiku	pure
Cumanagota	Tamanaco	tuna		veyu	nonum	añaze	kozeiko	preu
Tivericoto	Tamanaco	tuna	apoto	vé	niano
Palenque	Tamanaco	tuna					ekere
Yao	Yao	tuná	uapoto	veyo	nona		arua	mapuru
Shebayi	Shebayi			wekulüe	kirtrire			heweri
Decuána	Maquiritaré	tona	wáto	céi	nona	nakchi	máedo	haxkúdi
Yecuaná	Maquiritaré	tuná	wato	zyi	nuːna		maro	shimaːra
Cunuaná	Maquiritaré		uáʔto	shi	núna			shimáda
Ihuruána	Maquiritaré	tuná	wáto	zyiː	nuːne
Mapoyo	Mapoyo	tuna		kátun	nuna	oxonai	ékire	úbuʔare
Yauarána	Mapoyo	túna	wáto	yãtonu	núne	náchi	hékele	pákuli
Panáre	Panáre			echár-kun	güegua		kenak	xadpoʔót
Taurepán	Taurepán	tuná	apóg	wéi	kapéi	anain	kaikusé	peléu
Arecuna	Taurepán	tuna	apo	väi	kapeá	aʔanaig	kaikusi	pureu
Camaracoto	Taurepán		apoiʔ	be	kapui	anaiʔ	kakutse	purau
Ingarico	Taurepán	tuná	ápo	wéi	kapéi	anaí	kaikushí	pelé
Uaica	Taurepán	tuna	apok	uey	nuna
Acawai	Taurepán	tuno	wato	vieyu	nuno		kaikushi	pulewa
Macusi	Macusi	tuna	uató	wei	kapoi	anain	kaikushí	eriu
Keseruma	Macusi
Purucoto	Macusi	tuna	apotó	wéi	nánõ		kaikudzé	poyá
Wayumara	Macusi	túna	wató	weyú	nuná	mazyiná	kaikushi	heló
Paraviyana	Macusi	dóna	vuatú	tamana	noné	ainiain	ekölé	arámöu
Zapará	Macusi	tuná	wató	wé	kapéi	anáe	ekelé	urapóno
Yauapery	Yauapery	tuná	uató	eyú		déʔeli	kokoshí	ibikuari
Uaimiri	Yauapery	tunã	uatoː	eioː	nunueba	uhi	kúkúboi	maprú
Orixaná	Yauapery	tuná	uató	ueihu	teparé	euá	ekeré	upreu
Pauishana	Pauishana	tuná	uató	uai	núna	uátaka		uraːpa
Waiwai	Waiwai	tuná	wehtó	kamo	nuné		yaypí	waywí
Parucoto	Waiwai	tuna	witu	uchi	kapube		akeré
Uaiboi	Waiwai	tuna	zyitó		núna
Hishcariana	Waiwai	toná	wuhritó	kamaːna	noːná			waiwí
Bonari	Waiwai	tuná	uatú	weyu	keri			pureːná
Chiquena	Chiquena	tuna	wihala	sesi	imho			klaho
Saluma	Chiquena	tuna
Pauxi	Chiquena	tuna		isire	nune		uau	préu
Uayeué	Chiquena	tuná	piéto	kamo	nuná		maipuri	kurumuri
Cachuena	Chiquena	tuná	mirótó	isóso	imnó	honese	kaikesú	praué
Mutuan	Chiquena	tuna	ritó	soːro			zyairú	purí
Trio	Trio	túna	mata	veyu	nunö	anai	maipuri	pléu
Urucuyena	Trio	tuná	mato	uwi	nuna		maipurí	puréu
Wama	Trio	tuna	mato	wei				paora
Tliometesen	Trio	tono	mato	wei	nunu	potireru	mashibuli	pureri
Ocomayana	Trio	tuna	mato	uwi	nuna
Pianocoto	Trio	tuna	matto	weh	nuna	eñaye	maipuri	purau
Rangú	Trio	tuma	mato		nuna
Waiana	Eastern	tuna	uapot	shishi	nunuö	enai	yauéri	pleu
Upurui	Eastern	tuna	uapot	shishi	nunu	enai	yaueri	piréu
Rucuyene	Eastern	tuna	uapot	chichi	nunu	enai	maipuri	piréu
Apalai	Eastern	tuna	apotó	chichi	nunó	ashinase	machipuri	piróu
Aracajú	Eastern	tuna	uapto	chichi	yasüe			uárapára
Caraib	Western	tóne	uátu	hueyu	núnú	aoashi	kahikushi	buleúa
Galibi	Western	tuna	uato	veyu	nuno	auoasi	kaikusi	plia
Caribisi	Western	tuna	watú	wiyeyu	nuno			purewa
Caribe	Western	túna		bedu	núno			peröwa
Cariniaco	Western	túna	wato	wedo	nuno			puriui
Carif	Western	dúna	wátu	uéyu	hát	auás	gáigusi	láru

Proto-language

Proto-Cariban phonology according to Gildea (2012):^[11]^: 448

Proto-Cariban consonants
	Labial	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar
Plosive	p	t		k
Nasal	m	n
Approximant	w	r	j

Proto-Cariban vowels
	Front	Central	Back
Close	i	ɨ	u
Mid	e	ô	o
Open		a

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012):^[14]^[15]

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012)

gloss	Proto-Carib
'sun'	*titi
'moon'	*nunô
'water (n)'	*tuna
'sunlight'	*awatinɨ
'star'	*tirikô
'DESIDERATIVE'	*(CV)te
'sand'	*saka(w)
'sand'	*samutu
'body'	*jamun
'flesh, meat, body'	*punu
'meat food'	*ôtɨ
'water'	*paru
'rain'	*konopo
'person'	*karipona
'man'	*wôkɨrɨ
'husband'	nɨjo, mɨjo
'eye'	*ônu-ru
'ear'	*para-rɨ
'nose'	*ôwna-rɨ
'mouth'	*mɨta-rɨ
'lip'	*ôtipi-rɨ
'saliva'	*ôtaku
'tooth'	*(j)ô-rɨ
'tongue'	*nuru
'one'	*tôwinô
'two'	*atjôkô(nô/ne)
'head'	*pu-tupô
'forehead'	*pe-rɨ
'leg'	*pôre(-pɨ/pa)
'foot'	*pupu-ru
'heel'	*pu(pu)-tôpu
'sole of foot'	*pɨta
'knee'	*ôtjôkumu-ru
'neck'	*pɨmɨ-rɨ
'breast'	*manatɨ-rɨ
'chest'	*puropi-rɨ
'buttocks'	*pupɨtɨkɨ
'cheek'	*peta
'forest'	*jutu
'inside'	*tawô
'to bite'	*ôteka
'to give; to put'	*utu
'hand'	ômija-rɨ, amo-rɨ
'to do; to make; to put'	(tɨ)rɨ, (t)ɨrɨ
'to gift O (with something)'	*ekarama
'to put away'	*arama
'belly'	*wetVpu
'belly'	*(e)wenɨ
'heart (guts); chest'	*ôwanô
'liver'	*ôre
'to close (tr. v)'	*apuru
'to descend'	*wɨpɨtô
'to see'	*ône
'to hear'	*ôta
'to know (tr. v)'	*putu
'to know (postp)'	*warô
'to sleep'	*wônɨkɨ
'to sleep'	*wetu(mɨ)
'to shoot; to kill'	(tɨ)wô, (t)wô(nô)
'to drink'	*woku-ru
'to drink'	*ônɨrɨ
'to eat (intr. v)'	*ôt-ôku
'to eat fruit'	*ônapɨ
'to eat meat'	*(t)ônô
'to eat flour/bread'	*(t)ôku
'to eat nuts'	*aku
'to grate (manioc)'	*(tɨ)kɨ
'to bathe (O)'	*(tɨ)pɨ
'to weave'	*(tɨ)kapɨ
'to cook; to boil'	*(tɨ)jô
'to take; to pull out/away'	*(t)ôwɨ
'to throw out'	*(tɨ)papo
'to gather fruit'	*(tɨ)pôtɨ
'fire'	*wepeto
'fire'	*mapoto
'ash'	*wôreiCV
'to light fire'	*(t)urô
'to burn (intr. v)'	*jatu
'to burn (tr. v)'	*uk(w)a
'to fell tree/farm'	*(tɨ)ma
'to go'	*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'	*(w)ôtepɨ
'to come'	*(w)ômôkɨ
'to say'	*(wɨ)ka(ti)
'to be; to say'	*a(p)
'to dwell; to be'	*(w)eti
'to enter'	*(w)ômô(mi)
'REFLEXIVE'	*(w)e-
'RECIPROCAL'	*(w)ôte-
'beak'	*potɨ-rɨ
'earth'	*nono
'cloud'	*kapurutu
'rope'	*ôwa(-rɨ)
'hot'	*atu(NV)
'cold'	*atono
'cold'	*t-ɨnotɨ-me
'good'	*kure
'hard'	*akɨpɨ
'snake'	*ôkôju
'path'	*ôtema(-rɨ)
'mountain'	*(w)ɨpɨ
'older brother'	*pipi
'grandchild'	*pa-rɨ
'faeces'	wetɨ, watô
'to defecate'	*weka
'child'	*mure
'shoulder'	*mota-rɨ
'thigh'	*petɨ
'hair'	*(e)tipotɨ(-rɨ)
'to cut'	*akôtô
'to take; to carry'	*arô
'to seize'	*apôti
'1SG'	*ôwɨ-rô
'2SG'	*ômô-rô
'2COL'	*ôm-jamo
'1INCL'	*kɨnmô-rô
'1INCL'	*kɨwɨ-rô
'1INCL.COL'	*kɨC-jamo
'1EXCL'	*apina
'this (INAN)'	*(t)ônɨ
'this (INAN)'	*(t)ôrô
'this (ANIM)'	*môtjô
'this (ANIM COL)'	*môtj-jamo
'that (INAN)'	*mônɨ
'that (INAN)'	*môrô
'that (ANIM)'	*môkɨ-rô
'that (ANIM COL)'	*môk-jamo
'who?'	*onôkɨ
'all'	*ômerô
'grease; fat'	*katɨ
'to grow'	atɨta, anɨta
'thick'	*tɨpɨtɨ-ma
'AUGMENTATIVE'	*imô
'small'	*pitikô
'woman'	*wôriti
'woman'	*pɨtɨ
'fish'	*kana
'dog'	*akôrô
'dog'	*kaikuti
'louse'	*(w)ajamô
'tree'	wewe, jeje
'branch'	*ekata
'arm'	*apô-rɨ
'seed'	*ôpɨ(-tɨpô)
'seed'	*a-tɨpô
'seed; contents'	*a-rɨ(-rɨ)
'seed'	*ôna-tɨpô
'leaf'	*jare
'root'	*mitɨ
'bark, skin'	*pitupô
'blood'	*munu-ru
'red'	*t-a(k)pi-re
'white'	*t-a-(re)mutu-ne
'black'	*t-puru-me/ke
'night'	*koko
'nightfall (intr. v)'	*koko-mamɨ
'bone'	*j-ôtîpî-rî
'egg'	*pumo
'horn'	*retɨ-rɨ
'tail; penis'	*arokɨ
'scrotum; testicle'	*ômu(-ru)
'feather'	*apôri-rɨ
'name'	*ôtetɨ
'ant'	*iraka
'ant'	*kɨjawôko
'ant'	*juku
'ant'	*mɨkakô
'ant'	*(n)mapu(nu)
'bow'	*wɨrapa-rɨ
'deer'	*(wɨ)kapawu
'deer'	*karijakô
'grandfather'	*tamo(ko)
'heavy'	*amôti-ma/-ne
'to sit'	*erew-ta/-ma
'lightning'	*manan manan
'howler monkey'	*arimi
'monkey'	*itjo
'rib'	*awo-tɨ
'to roast'	puru, purô
'to run'	*ekatu(mɨ)
'shadow'	*amore-rɨ
'shadow'	*ôkatu
'short'	*tɨntɨ-tʲô
'to talk; to converse'	*ôt-uru
'spider'	*mojoti
'spider'	*tjawaraka(ru)
'to tie'	*(m)ômô
'today; now'	*amenarô
'tomorrow'	*koropo
'vagina'	*ôrɨ
'to wait'	*mômôku
'high'	*kawô
'sun'	*weju
'1SG'	*u-
'3SG'	*i-
'stone'	*tôpu
'flesh, meat, body'	*punu
'person'	*wɨtoto
'jaguar'	*kajkuti
'to bite'	*eseka
'to find'	*eporɨ
'to give; to put'	*utu
'to close (tr. v)'	*apuru
'to descend'	*ôpinô
'to pierce'	*atpo
'to shoot; to kill'	(tɨ)wô, (t)wô(nô)
'to eat meat'	*(t)ônô
'to grate (manioc)'	*(tɨ)kɨ
'to go'	*(wɨ-)tô(mô)
'to come'	*(w)ôtepɨ
'to enter'	*(w)ômô(mi)

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.
^ Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the World’s Languages (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.
^ Desmond Derbyshire, 1999. "Carib". In Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., The Amazonian Languages. CUP.
^ ^a ^b Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.
^ "Glottolog 5.1 - Apoto". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2025-04-16.
^ Migliazza, Ernest C. (1985-12-31), Klein, Harriet E. Manelis; Stark, Louisa R. (eds.), "1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status", South American Indian Languages, University of Texas Press, pp. 15–139, doi:10.7560/775923-002, ISBN 978-1-4773-0025-1, retrieved 2025-09-30
^ Mayer, Alcuin (1951). "Lendas Macuxís". Journal de la société des américanistes. 40 (1): 67–87. doi:10.3406/jsa.1951.2540.
^ Gumilla, Joseph. 1745. El Orinoco ilustrado, y defendido: Historia natural, civil, y geographica de este gran Rio, y de sus caudalosas vertientes. 2nd ed., in 2 pts. Madrid. (New ed., Barcelona, 1791.)
^ Meira, Sérgio. 2006. A família lingüística Caribe (Karíb). Revista de Estudos e Pesquisas v.3, n.1/2, p.157-174. Brasília: FUNAI. (PDF)
^ Carvalho, Fernando O. de (2020). Tocantins Apiaká, Parirí and Yarumá as Members of the Pekodian Branch (Cariban). Revista Brasileira de Línguas Indígenas – RBLI. Macapá, v. 3, n. 1, p. 85-93, 2020.
^ ^a ^b Gildea, Spike. 2012. "Linguistic studies in the Cariban family", in Campbell & Grondona, eds, The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
^ Meira S, Birchall J, Chousou-Polydouri S. 2015. A character-based internal classification of the Cariban family. Talk presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguisticae Europaea, Leiden, Netherlands, Sept. 4.
^ Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.
^ Gildea, S. & Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's "Macro-Carib" viable? In Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, Belém, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 19–72. Accessed from DiACL, 9 February 2020.
^ Gildea, S. (2012). Linguistic studies in the Cariban family. In Campbell, L. & Grondona, V. (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. 441–494, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Accessed from DiACL Archived 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine, 9 February 2020.

External links

Etnolinguistica.Org: online resources on native South American languages
Ka'lina (Carib) Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)

[Jolkesky-2016-1] Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.

[Kaufman-2007-2] Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.), Atlas of the World’s Languages (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.

[3] Desmond Derbyshire, 1999. "Carib". In Dixon & Aikhenvald, eds., The Amazonian Languages. CUP.

[Loukotka-4] Loukotka, Čestmír (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center.

[5] "Glottolog 5.1 - Apoto". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2025-04-16.

[6] Migliazza, Ernest C. (1985-12-31), Klein, Harriet E. Manelis; Stark, Louisa R. (eds.), "1. Languages of the Orinoco-Amazon Region: Current Status", South American Indian Languages, University of Texas Press, pp. 15–139, doi:10.7560/775923-002, ISBN 978-1-4773-0025-1, retrieved 2025-09-30

[7] Mayer, Alcuin (1951). "Lendas Macuxís". Journal de la société des américanistes. 40 (1): 67–87. doi:10.3406/jsa.1951.2540.

[8] Gumilla, Joseph. 1745. El Orinoco ilustrado, y defendido: Historia natural, civil, y geographica de este gran Rio, y de sus caudalosas vertientes. 2nd ed., in 2 pts. Madrid. (New ed., Barcelona, 1791.)

[Meira-2006-9] Meira, Sérgio. 2006. A família lingüística Caribe (Karíb). Revista de Estudos e Pesquisas v.3, n.1/2, p.157-174. Brasília: FUNAI. (PDF)

[10] Carvalho, Fernando O. de (2020). Tocantins Apiaká, Parirí and Yarumá as Members of the Pekodian Branch (Cariban). Revista Brasileira de Línguas Indígenas – RBLI. Macapá, v. 3, n. 1, p. 85-93, 2020.

[Gildea-2012-11] Gildea, Spike. 2012. "Linguistic studies in the Cariban family", in Campbell & Grondona, eds, The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.

[Meira-2015-12] Meira S, Birchall J, Chousou-Polydouri S. 2015. A character-based internal classification of the Cariban family. Talk presented at the 48th Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguisticae Europaea, Leiden, Netherlands, Sept. 4.

[13] Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.

[14] Gildea, S. & Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's "Macro-Carib" viable? In Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, Belém, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 19–72. Accessed from DiACL, 9 February 2020.

[15] Gildea, S. (2012). Linguistic studies in the Cariban family. In Campbell, L. & Grondona, V. (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. 441–494, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Accessed from DiACL Archived 2020-06-26 at the Wayback Machine, 9 February 2020.

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Cariban
Geographic distribution	Mostly within north-central South America, with extensions in the southern Caribbean and in Central America.
Linguistic classification	Je–Tupi–Carib? Cariban
Language codes
Glottolog	`cari1283`
Present location of Cariban languages, c. 2000, and probable extent in the 16th century.

History

Media collections

History

Media collections

Cariban languages

Cariban languages

Cariban languages

Genetic relations

Language contact

Family division

Previous classifications

Loukotka (1968)

Meira (2006)

Gildea (2012)

Meira et al. (2015)

Jolkesky (2016)

Vocabulary

Proto-language

See also

Further reading

References

External links

Cariban languages

Overview

Geographic distribution

Demographic profile

Linguistic Features

Phonology

Morphology and syntax

Classification

Historical classifications

Modern classifications

Subgroupings and internal diversity

Proto-Cariban

Reconstruction methodology

Reconstructed phonology and lexicon

Language Contact

Areal influences

Borrowings and substrate effects

Vitality and Documentation

Endangerment status

Documentation and revitalization efforts

References