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Replica WW2 hand grenades on display

A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade generally consists of an explosive charge ("filler"), a detonator mechanism, an internal striker to trigger the detonator, an arming safety secured by a transport safety. The user removes the transport safety before throwing, and once the grenade leaves the hand the arming safety gets released, allowing the striker to trigger a primer that ignites a fuze (sometimes called the delay element), which burns down to the detonator and explodes the main charge.

Grenades work by dispersing fragments (fragmentation grenades), shockwaves (high-explosive and stun grenades), chemical aerosols (smoke, gas and chemical grenades), fire (incendiary grenades) or a jet of molten metal (anti-tank grenades). Their outer casings, generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, are designed to rupture and fragment on detonation, sending out numerous fragments (shards and splinters) as fast-flying projectiles. In modern grenades, a pre-formed fragmentation matrix inside the grenade is commonly used, which may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most anti-personnel (AP) grenades are designed to detonate either after a time delay or on impact.[1]

Grenades are often spherical, cylindrical, ovoid or truncated ovoid in shape, and of a size that fits the hand of an average-sized adult. Some grenades are mounted at the end of a handle and known as "stick grenades". The stick design provides leverage for throwing longer distances, but at the cost of additional weight and length, and has been considered obsolete by western countries since the Second World War and Cold War periods. A friction igniter inside the handle or on the top of the grenade head was used to initiate the fuse.

Etymology

[edit]

The origin of the word grenade is disputed. Some claim it is derived from the French word spelled exactly the same, meaning pomegranate,[2] while others claim it is taken more directly from the Latin granatus, meaning "filled with grain".[3] The first use of the word for explosives comes from the 1536 siege of Arles,[3] while its first use in English dates from the 1590s.[4]

History

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Hand grenades filled with Greek fire; surrounded by caltrops (10th–12th centuries National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece)

Pre-gunpowder

[edit]
See also: Early thermal weapons
Mongolian grenade attack on Japanese during Yuan dynasty
Seven ceramic hand grenades of the 17th century found in Ingolstadt, Germany

Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the Byzantine Empire, not long after the reign of Leo III (717–741).[5] The Byzantine army learned that Greek fire, a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by flamethrowers at the enemy but also in stone and ceramic jars.[5] Later, glass containers were employed.

Gunpowder

[edit]
See also: History of gunpowder
An illustration of a fragmentation bomb known as the 'divine bone dissolving fire oil bomb' (lan gu huo you shen pao) from the Huolongjing. The black dots represent iron pellets.

In Song China (960–1279), weapons known as 'thunder crash bombs' (震天雷) were created when soldiers packed gunpowder into ceramic or metal containers fitted with fuses. A 1044 military book, Wujing Zongyao (Compilation of Military Classics), described various gunpowder recipes in which one can find, according to Joseph Needham, the prototype of the modern hand grenade.[6]

Earliest known representation of a gun (a fire lance) and a grenade (upper right), Dunhuang, 10th century AD[7][8]

The shells (pào) are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of 'divine fire' (shén huǒ, gunpowder). They are sent flying towards the enemy camp from an eruptor (mu pào), and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the whole place will be set ablaze...[9]

Grenade-like devices were also known in ancient India. In a 12th-century Persian historiography, the Mojmal al-Tawarikh,[10] a terracotta elephant filled with explosives set with a fuse was placed hidden in the van and exploded as the invading army approached.[11]

A type of grenade called the 'flying impact thunder crash bomb' (飛擊震天雷) was developed in the late 16th century and first used in September 1, 1592 by the Joseon Dynasty during the Japanese invasions of Korea.[12] The grenade was 20 cm in diameter, weighed 10 kg, and had a cast iron shell. It contained iron pellets, and an adjustable fuse. The grenade was used with a dedicated grenade launcher called a 'wangu' (碗口). It was used in both the besieging and defense of fortifications, to great effect.[13]

The first cast-iron bombshells and grenades appeared in Europe in 1467, where their initial role was with the besieging and defense of castles and fortifications.[14] A hoard of several hundred ceramic hand grenades was discovered during construction in front of a bastion of the Bavarian city of Ingolstadt, Germany, dated to the 17th century. Many of the grenades retained their original black powder loads and igniters. The grenades were most likely intentionally dumped in the moat of the bastion prior to 1723.[15]

By the mid-17th century, infantry known as "grenadiers" began to emerge in the armies of Europe, who specialized in shock and close quarters combat, mostly with the usage of grenades and fierce melee combat. In 1643, it is possible that grenados were thrown amongst the Welsh at Holt Bridge during the English Civil War. The word grenade was also used during the events surrounding the Glorious Revolution in 1688, where cricket ball-sized (8.81 to 9 in (224 to 229 mm) in circumference) iron spheres packed with gunpowder and fitted with slow-burning wicks were first used against the Jacobites in the battles of Killiecrankie and Glen Shiel.[16] These grenades were not very effective owing both to the unreliability of their fuse and the inconsistent times to detonation as a result, saw little use. Grenades were also used during the Golden Age of Piracy, especially during boarding actions; pirate Captain Thompson used "vast numbers of powder flasks, grenade shells, and stinkpots" to defeat two pirate-hunters sent by the Governor of Jamaica in 1721. By the 18th century, the popularity of hand grenades was declining [17]

Mexican forces used grenades in the Battle of the Alamo.[18]

Improvised grenades were increasingly used from the mid-19th century, the confines of trenches enhancing the effect of small explosive devices. In a letter to his sister, Colonel Hugh Robert Hibbert described an improvised grenade that was employed by British troops during the Crimean War (1854–1856):[19] Hand grenades were used by French and Russian forces during the Siege of Sebastopol.[20]

A cross-section of a Ketchum grenade, used during the American Civil War

We have a new invention to annoy our friends in their pits. It consists in filling empty soda water bottles full of powder, old twisted nails and any other sharp or cutting thing we can find at the time, sticking a bit of tow in for a fuse then lighting it and throwing it quickly into our neighbors' pit where it bursts, to their great annoyance. You may imagine their rage at seeing a soda water bottle come tumbling into a hole full of men with a little fuse burning away as proud as a real shell exploding and burying itself into soft parts of the flesh.

During the Battle of Fort Sumter, grenades were kept at critical points of the fort such as the room over the gateway.[21] About 93,200 Ketchum grenades were procured by the Union Army throughout the American Civil war; those weapons were used in the sieges of Vicksburg, Port Hudson and Petersburg. Grenades were issued to United States Ram Fleet and Union Navy vessels to repel boarders[21].The Augusta Arsenal manufactured around 13,000 hand grenades between 1863 and 1865, Confederate troops also used improvised grenades made from artillery shells to defend their positions.[22][21]

In March 1868, during the Paraguayan War, the Paraguayan troops used hand grenades in their attempt to board Brazilian ironclad warships with canoes.[23]

Hand grenades were used on naval engagements during the War of the Pacific.[24][25]

British troops used hand grenades in Sudan between 1884 and 1885.[20] By 1890, the British Army had totally removed grenades from its inventory[26]

During the Siege of Mafeking, in the Second Boer War, the defenders used fishing rods and a mechanical spring device to throw improvised grenades.[27]

Improvised hand grenades were used to great effect by the Russian defenders of Port Arthur (now Lüshun Port) during the Russo-Japanese War. At first, they were improvised from old iron cases or mountain gun shells. Later, they were replaced with cut down hell casings from quick-firing artillery; filled with dynamite or gun-cotton, and fitted with safety fuses. The workshops in Port Arthur could turn out 2,500 grenades in 24 hours. In the month of August alone 18,000 grenades were prepared.[28][20]

Japanese forces also used grenades during the Russo-Japanese War. The first Japanese grenades were made from tin cans or bamboo tubes filled with gun-cotton, and fitted with fuses; they were lit with matches but later on a percussion arrangement was improvised by means of a rifle cartridge (which acted as a primer) and steel wire.[20]Japanese cavalry was also armed with grenades and threw them under the horses of the enemy when pursued.[20]

Development of modern grenades

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One of the earliest modern hand grenades. Fielded in the British Army from 1908, it was unsuccessful in the trenches of World War I, and was replaced by the Mills bomb.

Around the turn of the 20th century, the ineffectiveness of the available types of hand grenades, coupled with their levels of danger to the user and difficulty of operation, meant that they were regarded as increasingly obsolete pieces of military equipment. In 1902, the British War Office announced that hand grenades were obsolete and had no place in modern warfare. But, within two years, following the success of improvised grenades in the trench warfare conditions of the Russo-Japanese War, and reports from General Sir Aylmer Haldane, a British observer of the conflict, a reassessment was quickly made and the Board of Ordnance was instructed to develop a practical hand grenade.[29] Various models using a percussion fuze were built, but this type of fuze suffered from various practical problems, and they were not commissioned in large numbers.[28]

In 1904, Serbia adopted a grenade designed by Major Miodrag Vasić; it was partially inspired by copies of Bulgarian grenades manufactured by the Serbian Chetnik Organization.[30]

Marten Hale, known for patenting the Hales rifle grenade, developed a modern hand grenade in 1906 but was unsuccessful in persuading the British Army to adopt the weapon until 1913. Hale's chief competitor was Nils Waltersen Aasen, who invented his design in 1906 in Norway, receiving a patent for it in England. Aasen began his experiments with developing a grenade while serving as a sergeant in the Oscarsborg Fortress. Aasen formed the Aasenske Granatkompani in Denmark, which before the First World War produced and exported hand grenades in large numbers across Europe. He had success in marketing his weapon to the French and was appointed as a Knight of the French Legion of Honour in 1916 for the invention.[28]

The Royal Laboratory developed the No. 1 grenade in 1908. It contained explosive material with an iron fragmentation band, with an impact fuze, detonating when the top of the grenade hit the ground. A long cane handle (approximately 16 inches or 40 cm) allowed the user to throw the grenade farther than the blast of the explosion.[29] It suffered from the handicap that the percussion fuse was armed before throwing, which meant that if the user was in a trench or other confined space, he was apt to detonate it and kill himself when he drew back his arm to throw it.[31]

An improved version of Vasić's design was adopted by the Serbian Army in 1912; the grenade provide very useful during the First Balkan War, specially during the Siege of Adrianopole.[30]

Before the beginning of the Second Balkan War, Serbian General Stepa Stepanović ordered that bomb equipped squads (consisting of one non-commissioned officer and 16 soldiers each) should be formed in all companies of the 4th, 13th, 14th, 15th and 20th Infantry Regiments of the Timočka Division.[30]

The German Army adopted the Kugelhandgranate in 1913; it was meant to be used by pioneers to assault enemy positions.[32][33]

Early in World War I, combatant nations only had small grenades, similar to Hales' and Aasen's design. The Italian Besozzi grenade had a five-second fuze with a match-tip that was ignited by striking on a ring on the soldier's hand.[34]

The Mills bomb – the first modern fragmentation grenade – was used in the trenches from 1915.

William Mills, a hand grenade designer from Sunderland, patented, developed and manufactured the "Mills bomb" at the Mills Munition Factory in Birmingham, England in 1915, designating it the No.5. It was described as the first "safe grenade". They were explosive-filled steel canisters with a triggering pin and a distinctive deeply notched surface. This segmentation is often erroneously thought to aid fragmentation, though Mills' own notes show the external grooves were purely to aid the soldier to grip the weapon. Improved fragmentation designs were later made with the notches on the inside, but at that time they would have been too expensive to produce. The external segmentation of the original Mills bomb was retained, as it provided a positive grip surface. This basic "pin-and-pineapple" design is still used in some modern grenades.[28]

Hand grenade pin-and-lever fuze system

After the Second World War, the general design of hand grenades has been fundamentally unchanged, with pin-and-lever being the predominant igniter system with the major powers, though incremental and evolutionary improvements continuously were made. In 2012, Spränghandgranat 07 (shgr 07, "Blast hand-grenade 07") was announced as the first major innovation in the area of handgrenades since the Great War.[35][36][37]
Developed by Ian Kinley at Försvarets Materielverk (FMV), shgr 07 is a self-righting, jumping hand grenade containing some 1,900 balls that covers a cone 10 metres in diameter with the centre about 2 metres in height. This minimize the dangers outside the lethal zone as there is little to no random scattering of fragments from the blast.[35][36][37]

Explosive grenades

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Fragmentation

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Modern DM51 [de] fragmentation grenade with cross section

Fragmentation grenades are common in armies. They are weapons that are designed to disperse fragments on detonation, aimed to damage targets within the lethal and injury radii. The body is generally made of a hard synthetic material or steel, which will provide some fragmentation as shards and splinters, though in modern grenades a pre-formed fragmentation matrix is often used. The pre-formed fragmentation may be spherical, cuboid, wire or notched wire. Most explosive grenades are designed to detonate either after a time delay or on impact.[1]

Modern fragmentation grenades, such as the United States M67 grenade, have a wounding radius of 15 m (50 ft) – half that of older style grenades, which can still be encountered – and can be thrown about 40 m (130 ft). Fragments may travel more than 200 m (660 ft).[38]

High explosive

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Diagram of the Mk3A2 concussion grenade

These grenades are usually classed as offensive weapons because the effective casualty radius is much less than the distance it can be thrown, and its explosive power works better within more confined spaces, such as fortifications or buildings, where entrenched defenders often occupy. The concussion effect, rather than any expelled fragments, is the effective killer. In the case of the US Mk3A2, the casualty radius is published as 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in open areas, but fragments and bits of fuze may be projected as far as 200 m (660 ft) from the detonation point.[39]

Concussion grenades have also been used as depth charges (underwater explosives) around boats and underwater targets; some like the US Mk 40 concussion grenade are designed for use against enemy divers and frogmen. Underwater explosions kill or otherwise incapacitate the target by creating a lethal shock wave underwater.[40]

The US Army Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) announced in 2016 that they were developing a grenade which could operate in either fragmentation or blast mode (selected at any time before throwing), the electronically fuzed enhanced tactical multi-purpose (ET-MP) hand grenade.[41]

Anti-tank

[edit]
Main article: Anti-tank grenade
Soviet RPG-43 HEAT grenade

During World War I, hand grenades were frequently used by troops, lacking other means to defend against enemy tanks threatening to over-run the position, to various success. The interwar period saw some limited development of grenades specifically intended to defeat armor, but it was not until the outbreak of WWII that serious efforts were made. While there were infantry anti-tank weapons available, they were either not ubiquitous enough, ineffective or both. Anti-tank grenades were a suitable stopgap to ensure a rudimentary capability for every squad to be used for self-defence. Once rocket-propelled shaped charges became available in greater numbers, anti-tank hand grenades became almost obsolete. However, they were still used with limited success in the Iraqi insurgency in the early 2000s against lightly armored mine-resistant ambush protected (MRAP) vehicles.[42] During the Russo-Ukrainian war, modified anti-tank grenades are being dropped from drones.[43]

Incendiary

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During World War II, the United Kingdom used incendiary grenades based on white phosphorus. One model, the No. 76 special incendiary grenade, was mainly issued to the Home Guard as an anti-tank weapon. It was produced in vast numbers; by August 1941, well over 6,000,000 had been manufactured.[44]

Sting

[edit]
Main article: Blast ball

Sting grenades, also known as stingball or sting ball grenades,[45] are stun grenades based on the design of the fragmentation grenade. Instead of using a metal casing to produce fragmentation, they are made from hard rubber and are filled with around 100 rubber or plastic balls. On detonation, these balls, and fragments from the rubber casing explode outward in all directions as reduced lethality projectiles, which may ricochet.[46] It is intended that people struck by the projectiles will receive a series of fast, painful stings, without serious injury. Some types have an additional payload of CS gas.[47]

Sting grenades do not reliably incapacitate people, so they can be dangerous to use against armed subjects.[48] They sometimes cause serious physical injury, especially the rubber fragments from the casing.[46]: 88  People have lost eyes and hands to sting grenades.[49]

Sting grenades are sometimes called "stinger grenades", which is a genericized trademark as "Stinger" is trademarked by Defense Technology for its line of sting grenades.[46]: 83–84 

Chemical and gas

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Chemical and gas grenades burn or release a gas, and do not explode.[1]

M18 US signal smoke grenade (yellow)
M7A2 CS gas grenade

Practice

[edit]
Inert training grenade made from hard rubber

Practice or simulation grenades are similar in handling and function to other hand grenades, except that they only produce a loud popping noise and a puff of smoke on detonation. The grenade body can be reused.[50][51] Another type is the throwing practice grenade which is completely inert and often cast in one piece. It is used to give soldiers a feel for the mass and shape of real grenades and for practicing precision throwing. Examples of practice grenades include the K417 Biodegradable Practice Hand Grenade by CNOTech Korea.[52][53]

Igniters

[edit]
An M67 grenade has a theoretical effective kill zone radius of 5 m (16 ft), while the casualty-inducing radius is approximately 15 m (49 ft).[54]

When using a hand grenade, the objective is to have the grenade explode so that the target is within its effective radius while keeping the thrower out of the same. For this reason, several systems have been used to trigger the explosion.

Impact was the first used, with fragile containers of Greek fire that ruptured when landing. Later impact fuzes contained some kind of sensitive explosive to either initiate the main charge directly, or set off a primer charge that in turn detonates the main charge. This turned out to present significant drawbacks; either the primer is so sensitive that unintended and premature ignition happens, while a more stable substance often fails to set off the grenade when landing in softer ground, not seldom even allowing the targeted troops to hurl the grenade back. Thus, the only significant use of impact fuzes since WWI has been in anti-tank grenades.

Fuze-delayed grenades is the predominant system today, developed from the match-fuzes that were hand-lit in the early grenades. From there, two sub-groups were developed: friction-igniters where a cord is pulled or a cap is twisted to ignite the delay-fuze like on the German Stielhandgranate; the other being strike- or percussion-igniters where the user either hits the cap before the throw like on the Japanese Type 10 grenade, or have a spring-loaded striker hit the cap after the grenade is released like the Mills bomb, with the latter being predominant since WWII. There is also an alternative technique of throwing, where the grenade is not thrown immediately after the fuze is ignited, which allows the fuze to burn partially and decrease the time to detonation after throwing; this is referred to as "cooking". A shorter delay is useful to reduce the ability of the enemy to take cover, throw or kick the grenade away and can also be used to allow a fragmentation grenade to explode into the air over defensive positions.[55]

Concerned with serious incidents and accidents involving hand grenades, Ian Kinley at the Swedish Försvarets materielverk identified the two main issues as the time-fuze's burntime variation with temperature (slowing down in cold and speeding up in heat) and the springs, the striker spring in particular, coming pre-tensioned from the factory by mechanism designs that had not changed much since the 1930s. In 2019, a new mechanism, fully interchangeable with the old ones, was adopted into service. The main difference, apart from a fully environmentally stable delay, is that the springs now are twist-tensioned by the thrower after the transport safety (pin and ring) has been removed, thus eliminating the possibility of unintentional arming of the hand grenade.[56]

Cultural impact

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Main article: Grenade (insignia)

Manufacturing

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Modern manufacturers of hand grenades include:

See also

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Grenade

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A grenade is a small, throwable , chemical, or non-lethal device designed to be hurled by hand or launched from a , typically containing a filler material such as high explosives, incendiary compounds, smoke-producing agents, or riot-control chemicals to produce lethal, incapacitating, or signaling effects at short range. The term derives from the word grenade, meaning "," due to the early grenade's bulbous shape and its fragmentation pattern, which scatters shrapnel like the fruit's seeds upon . Grenades have a long military history dating back to the 8th century in the , where early versions used —a —in or stone jars to repel sieges of . By 1044, Chinese military texts described the "Zhen Tian Lei" (Thunderclap Bomb), a gunpowder-filled grenade encased in or metal shells, marking an early advancement in explosive technology. In 15th-century Europe, cast-iron grenades emerged for fortress defense and siege warfare, leading to the formation of specialized units in the 17th century; these elite soldiers, initially tasked with lobbing grenades, evolved into by the 18th century. Grenades saw a resurgence in the early 20th century amid , with over 75 million produced during , including innovations like the British (1915) and Hales rifle grenade (patented 1906). further refined designs, introducing improved fragmentation and anti-tank variants, while modern grenades incorporate enhanced safety features and non-lethal options for diverse tactical roles. Contemporary grenades are categorized by function and effect, with U.S. military examples including fragmentation types like the M67, which uses 6.5 ounces of explosive in a body to project lethal fragments; offensive blast grenades such as the MK3A2, relying on in confined spaces (though restricted due to content); nonlethal stun variants like the for diversion; incendiary models like the AN-M14 TH3 with filler to ignite fires; riot-control grenades deploying (e.g., M7A3); and smoke grenades (e.g., M18 colored smoke) for signaling or obscuration. Key components typically comprise a body (e.g., serrated for fragmentation), filler, and system with a 1- to 5-second delay, , and lever to prevent accidental activation—features refined post-2009 for models like the M67 with added confidence clips. These devices remain essential in close-quarters combat, urban operations, and training, balancing destructive power with precision and safety protocols.

Origins and Terminology

Etymology

The word "grenade" derives from the French "grenade," literally meaning "," a reference to the segmented, fruit-like appearance of early devices that resembled the seed-filled . This French term evolved from "pomme grenade" (), which itself stems from Latin "granatus" (seeded or grainy), an adjective derived from "granum" (seed or grain), describing the numerous seeds within the . The English adoption of "grenade" occurred in the late , initially referring to small shells or bombs. Related terminology includes "hand grenade," a compound first documented in English during the 1660s to specify manually thrown explosives, as opposed to "," which denotes projectiles launched from a and appeared in military contexts in the early . These terms underscore distinctions in deployment methods within English military texts from the 1670s onward. The linguistic influence extends to other , such as Spanish "," which also means both and grenade, drawing from the shared Latin root "granatum" and reflecting parallel associations with the fruit's form.

Early definitions and classifications

In the 16th and 17th centuries, military manuals defined grenades as small, portable devices designed for manual throwing, setting them apart from larger, less mobile bombs or fixed-position mines through their emphasis on hand delivery in close combat or sieges. English writer Peter Whitehorne, in his 1560 treatise Certain Ways for the Ordreinge of Souldiers, described early grenade-like "balles" filled with incendiary or materials, warning that they "must be quickly throwen, lest they hurte such as hurtle them," highlighting their inherent risk and throwable nature. By the , European ordnance texts portrayed grenades as cast-iron or glass spheres roughly the size of a , packed with black powder and fitted with a timed fuse for ignition upon throwing, primarily for defensive roles in assaults on fortifications. Initial classifications of grenades focused on delivery method, separating purely hand-thrown variants from those projected via rudimentary launchers like muskets or cups, though the latter retained the core trait of individual portability over artillery-fired projectiles. The distinction between offensive and defensive types emerged more formally in the early , particularly during , with offensive grenades emphasizing concussive blast effects and minimal shrapnel to allow safe use by advancing troops in open terrain, while defensive grenades maximized fragmentation for area suppression from covered positions. This evolution of terminology reflected tactical needs, as offensive designs reduced the lethal radius to protect the user in close-quarters assaults, contrasting with fragmenting models suited for denying enemy advances. 18th-century ordnance guides further refined definitions by payload, categorizing grenades as explosive (gunpowder-filled for shock and rupture) or incendiary (using materials like derivatives to ignite targets), with sizes standardized for throwing ranges of 20 to 30 yards in defensive scenarios. British artillery manuals of the era, for instance, specified two common sizes—3-pound and 6-pound variants—for fortification defense, underscoring their role as anti-assault tools rather than offensive weapons.

Historical Development

Pre-gunpowder era

The earliest known incendiary devices resembling grenades date back to the ancient Near East, where Assyrian reliefs from the 9th century BCE depict soldiers hurling firepots filled with , a flammable derivative, during sieges to ignite enemy positions. These earthenware containers were thrown by hand or launched from catapults, shattering on impact to spread burning liquid that adhered to surfaces and personnel. In , similar incendiary pots emerged by the 5th century BCE, often containing pitch and mixtures designed to produce intense flames and choking smoke when deployed against wooden structures or troops. Roman forces later adapted these concepts, employing "wildfire" grenades—pottery vessels packed with pitch, , and —in defensive actions during the 3rd century CE. Chinese military texts from the (475–221 BCE) describe terracotta fire pots filled with oil-soaked combustibles or quicklime, thrown by hand during sieges to disrupt attackers and set ablaze siege ladders or gates. By the Byzantine era, these evolved into more sophisticated hand-thrown grenades around the 7th century CE, using terracotta or ceramic casings containing mixed with quicklime for self-ignition upon exposure to moisture, as seen in naval and land defenses against Arab incursions. Arab forces in the 9th century CE reciprocated with analogous incendiary pots during campaigns against Byzantine territories, filling with and sulfur to hurl at fortifications, though lacking the advanced projection methods of their adversaries. These devices were typically constructed from readily available or occasionally casings to contain volatile flammable fillers like , pitch, , or quicklime, sealed to prevent premature leakage and equipped with simple wicks or friction-based fuses for ignition before throwing, or relying on impact to rupture and expose the contents to air or water for . The limited effect stemmed from the rapid expansion of volatile substances upon heating, rather than true , prioritizing sustained burning over fragmentation. Tactically, pre-gunpowder grenades served primarily as incendiary tools in warfare, hurled by to ignite wooden fortifications, battering , or towers, thereby denying attackers cover and forcing retreats while minimizing risk to stone walls. Their deployment emphasized area denial through fire, as seen in Assyrian assaults on city gates and Byzantine defenses of , where such pots complemented arrows and substances to exploit the flammability of timber defenses prevalent in ancient and .

Gunpowder introduction and early use

The introduction of revolutionized explosive weaponry, beginning in during the 9th century when Taoist alchemists accidentally discovered the mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal while seeking an elixir of immortality. By the early 10th century, under the (960–1279 CE), this compound evolved into military applications, with engineers developing the first explosive bombs—cast-iron shells filled with gunpowder and augmented by shrapnel such as iron fragments or poisonous substances—to hurl via catapults during sieges. These proto-grenades, documented in the military treatise (1044 CE), marked a shift from incendiary devices to true chemical explosives, enhancing destructive power in warfare against invaders like the Jurchens. Gunpowder technology spread westward via Mongol invasions and trade routes, reaching by the 13th century, but its adaptation into hand grenades occurred around the amid the wars and Ottoman conflicts. Early European designs mimicked Chinese influences, featuring spherical or ovoid iron casings packed with black powder (a refined variant) and fragments for shrapnel effects, ignited by slow-burning fuses made from twisted rope or gunpowder-soaked cord. These weapons were initially employed in naval and siege contexts, such as by the Knights of Malta defending against Ottoman assaults in the Mediterranean. By the 16th century, Dutch and French forces refined them into "grenadoes"—compact, throwable iron spheres with timed fuses allowing 5–7 seconds of burn time before detonation—proving effective in close-quarters assaults during the and the . Grenades saw prominent early use in major 17th-century conflicts, including the Siege of Breda (1624–1625) during the , where Spanish and Dutch troops deployed them to breach fortifications and repel counterattacks, highlighting their role in attritional siege tactics. Similarly, in the English Civil War (1642–1651), both Royalist and Parliamentarian forces integrated grenades into infantry assaults, with specialized "granadiers"—elite soldiers selected for their strength and accuracy—leading charges by hurling the devices over walls or into enemy ranks to sow chaos before melee engagement. These granadiers, often the tallest and most robust troops, wore distinctive uniforms and carried pouches of grenades, establishing the grenade as a hallmark of assault units. Despite their potential, early gunpowder grenades faced significant limitations, primarily from unreliable fuse mechanisms that frequently resulted in duds, premature detonations, or inconsistent burn rates influenced by weather and manufacturing quality, rendering them hazardous to users as often as to targets. Initially popularized as shipboard weapons for boarding actions—where crews lobbed them from decks to clear enemy vessels—these devices transitioned to widespread hand-thrown use on land by the mid-17th century, as armies recognized their utility in breaching static defenses during an era of prolonged sieges. This evolution underscored 's transformative impact, bridging ancient incendiaries to modern explosive ordnance, though practical constraints kept grenade employment elite and situational until later refinements.

Modern fragmentation and specialized grenades

In the 19th century, advancements in grenade design focused on improving reliability and lethality through better fuse mechanisms and casing construction. British artillery began stocking percussion fuses for general use in 1846, marking a shift from unreliable time fuses to impact-initiated , which later influenced hand grenade development by enabling more precise activation upon throwing or striking a target. By mid-century, designs like the French Modèle 1847 hand grenade incorporated friction time fuses, but percussion elements emerged in variants such as the U.S. of 1861, featuring a striker assembly for impact , though prone to malfunctions due to moisture sensitivity. Concurrently, segmented casings were introduced to enhance fragmentation; for instance, later 19th-century French grenades featured internal segmentation in their cast-iron bodies, designed to shatter into more predictable and numerous shards upon explosion, increasing the effective casualty radius to around 60 yards. The World Wars accelerated fragmentation grenade innovation, with designs optimized for and trench combat effectiveness. During , the British No. 5 , introduced in 1915 by engineer William Mills, revolutionized with its segmented, pineapple-like cast-iron body grooved for controlled fragmentation, producing shards that could wound up to 30 meters away. This time-delayed grenade, with a 7-second fuse, became essential in , where British records indicate hand grenades accounted for 2 to 2.5 percent of total casualties, often used by specialized "bombers" to clear enemy positions during assaults like those on the Somme. Over 75 million Mills Bombs were produced between 1915 and 1918, underscoring their role in enabling close-quarters dominance. In World War II, fragmentation grenades evolved further while specialization addressed emerging threats. The German Stielhandgranate Model 24, a stick-handled design retained from World War I, emphasized offensive use with a smooth casing to minimize user fragmentation risk, incorporating a 4.5-second friction fuse for reliable detonation; over 75 million units were manufactured, supporting Wehrmacht infantry in urban and defensive operations. The U.S. Mk 2 "pineapple" grenade, standardized in 1920 but widely deployed in WWII, featured deeply serrated cast-iron segments for enhanced shrapnel dispersion, filled with TNT for a lethal radius of 15 meters; more than 50 million were produced in the U.S. alone, equipping Allied forces across theaters. Specialized grenades emerged to counter armored and fortified targets, diverging from pure fragmentation roles. The British No. 82 , developed in 1942 by Captain Robert Gammon and introduced in 1943, was a malleable plastic-explosive charge in a fabric pouch, user-filled up to 2 pounds for anti-tank use, adhering on impact to penetrate vehicle armor via shaped-charge effects; it proved vital for airborne operations like D-Day, with production reaching hundreds of thousands. Incendiary variants, such as those using mixtures, targeted equipment disablement; WWII-era hand grenades, precursors to the post-war AN-M14, burned at over 2,000°C to melt engine blocks and barrels, preventing enemy salvage during retreats. These innovations highlighted grenades' adaptability, with WWII production exceeding 200 million units globally, amplifying their impact in combined-arms warfare.

Contemporary advancements

Following , grenade technology advanced significantly during the era, with innovations focusing on improved reliability, safety, and explosive efficiency. The developed the M67 fragmentation hand grenade in the late 1950s as a successor to earlier models like the M26 and M33 series, introducing a more compact spherical design filled with 180 grams of , a plastic-bonded high explosive composed of , TNT, and wax for enhanced stability and fragmentation performance. This grenade, which entered service in 1968, featured a pyrotechnic delay fuse with a 4- to 5-second timing mechanism, but parallel developments included impact-sensitive fuses in variants like the M33A1 to enable detonation upon striking a target, reducing dud rates and improving tactical flexibility in diverse combat environments. These advancements addressed limitations in earlier grenades, such as inconsistent fusing, and reflected broader efforts to equip infantry with munitions that balanced lethality and ease of use amid escalating proxy conflicts. In the late 20th century, grenade design shifted toward precision guidance and non-lethal alternatives, driven by lessons from the and urban operations. Rifle grenades evolved with early guidance systems, including laser-designation prototypes explored in U.S. programs during the and , such as the Objective Individual Combat Weapon (OICW) initiative, which integrated semi-guided 20mm airburst rounds for improved accuracy over traditional ballistic trajectories. Concurrently, non-lethal options proliferated post-Vietnam to address in and ; the U.S. military developed sting grenades, such as 40mm rubber pellet variants and the , which disperse disorienting flashes and kinetic impactors without permanent injury, minimizing escalation in low-intensity conflicts. These were tested in operations like those in the , where stinger rounds helped de-escalate crowds without fatalities. The brought electronic and programmable features to grenades, emphasizing precision to counter urban threats and reduce unintended casualties. The U.S. Army's XM25 Counter Defilade Target Engagement system, developed starting in 2005, introduced a shoulder-fired 25mm launcher with programmable airburst ; its and fuse setter allowed grenades to detonate at a user-specified above cover, increasing hit probability against concealed enemies by up to 300% in trials while limiting blast radius exposure. Fielded experimentally in from 2010, the XM25 exemplified reduced designs, though the program was canceled in 2018 due to cost and reliability issues, influencing successor efforts like the Precision Grenadier System. Complementary innovations include multi-mode hand grenades, such as those with adjustable yields to tailor effects, further mitigating risks in populated areas. Globally, modern conflicts have accelerated a trend toward modular grenade systems, allowing customization for mission-specific needs, while improvised variants highlight adaptive threats. The U.S. Marine Corps and have pursued stackable offensive hand grenades like Nammo's Scalable Offensive Hand Grenade (SOHG), introduced in the , where 1 to 3 modules can be connected for scalable blast effects—ranging from to full fragmentation—enhancing versatility in breaching or area without excess lethality. This modular approach, echoed in systems like the SSW40 40mm launcher, supports squad-level firepower in . In and , insurgents frequently improvised hand grenades using household chemicals, nails, and fragments packed into containers, thrown manually to patrols and compensate for limited access to standard munitions; however, improvised devices (IEDs) in general—including roadside and vehicle-borne types—contributed to over 60% of U.S. fatalities in and about 50% in . These trends underscore a broader evolution toward adaptable, low-collateral systems amid urban and . As of 2025, the U.S. Army continues advancing grenade technology through the Precision Grenadier System (PGS) program, aimed at replacing legacy 40mm launchers like the M320 with lighter, more precise systems. In October 2025, FN America received a development contract for a compact PGS incorporating smart munitions for improved accuracy and reduced weight. Additionally, in May 2025, the Army down-selected Barrett Firearms' 30mm grenade design to enhance individual soldier firepower against defilade targets, building on lessons from prior programs like the XM25.

Grenade Types

Fragmentation and high-explosive grenades

Fragmentation and high-explosive grenades are primarily designed for anti-personnel effects, combining blast from high explosives with shrapnel dispersion to neutralize enemy forces in close-quarters scenarios. These grenades feature a metal casing engineered to shatter upon , producing lethal fragments that extend the weapon's casualty radius beyond the blast alone. High-explosive variants emphasize the wave for concussion and structural damage, whereas pure fragmentation types prioritize controlled shrapnel patterns for wounding exposed , though most modern examples integrate both mechanisms for versatility. The casing design often incorporates pre-grooved or notched elements to ensure predictable fragmentation, such as internal coiled wire liners or scored spheres that break into hundreds of uniformly sized pieces. For instance, the U.S. employs a 2.5-inch (64 mm) diameter spheroidal body without external grooves, relying on the material's fracture to generate numerous fragments upon explosion. In contrast, the Russian uses an egg-shaped cast-iron body with minimal external ribbing—a lateral seam for assembly—that shatters into approximately 350 fragments, optimizing for offensive throws where the user remains close to the blast. These designs typically yield 100-350 fragments per grenade, depending on the casing thickness and explosive force, with fragment sizes ranging from BB pellet-like to larger shards for penetration. Explosive fillings in these grenades commonly include high-energy compositions like , a mix of 59.5% , 39.5% TNT, and 1% wax for stability and castability, as used in the M67 with 180 grams (6.5 ounces) of filler. The , by comparison, contains 110 grams of TNT for reliable via a 3.5-4.5 second pyrotechnic delay . While (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) offers higher detonation velocity in advanced munitions, it is less prevalent in standard hand grenades due to sensitivity concerns, with preferred for its balance of power and safety in 5-7 second delay systems. These explosives generate a lethal of 5 meters and casualty potential up to 15 meters, where fragments can cause severe lacerations or organ trauma. Tactically, fragmentation and high-explosive grenades enable to suppress enemy positions during assaults, clearing trenches, rooms, or cover by forcing defenders to seek protection or exposing them to follow-up fire. The M67, standard in U.S. and Israeli forces, supplements small-arms fire in close combat, thrown to disrupt clusters of personnel within 40 meters . Similarly, the supports Soviet and Russian doctrine for rapid advances, its compact design allowing quick employment in urban or open assaults to achieve area . In operations, they are employed in volleys to saturate zones, reducing enemy reaction time and facilitating maneuvers. Effectiveness stems from fragment velocities reaching 1,000-1,500 meters per second, enabling penetration of cover and inflicting wounds at distances where blast pressure dissipates. In urban combat, such grenades contribute to casualty rates by wounding multiple targets per throw, with historical analyses indicating fragments account for a significant portion of non-penetrating injuries in confined spaces, though exact kill ratios vary by engagement density and cover availability.

Anti-tank and anti-vehicle grenades

Anti-tank and anti-vehicle grenades employ specialized warheads to penetrate or disrupt armored vehicles, focusing explosive energy to defeat thick protective plating that standard munitions cannot overcome. These devices emerged as countermeasures to tanks and other vehicles, prioritizing armor defeat over area effects. Unlike fragmentation grenades, they rely on directed energy transfer to create entry points that disable critical components like engines or crew compartments. The core mechanism in most anti-tank grenades is the , where a conical liner—typically —sits atop an filler. Upon , the liner collapses inward, forming a high-velocity metal jet that erodes through armor via rather than blunt force. This jet achieves penetration depths of 300-800 mm in rolled homogeneous armor (RHA), scaling with liner diameter and explosive power. A seminal example is the German warhead, a disposable grenade that penetrated up to 200 mm of RHA at close range, enabling to target Allied tanks effectively. Modern variants advance this principle with explosively formed penetrators (EFPs), which deform a metal plate into a dense, aerodynamic slug propelled at lower velocities than traditional jets but with enhanced stability over distance. EFPs appear in warheads like the PG-29, capable of defeating reactive armor layers before penetrating up to 500 mm of base armor. Innovations include sticky or magnetic adhesion for precise placement, often integrated into drone-delivered munitions to counter vehicle mobility in contested environments. Delivery methods balance portability and accuracy, with hand-thrown designs requiring close proximity for impact. The British No. 82 Gammon bomb, a versatile grenade filled with , served anti-vehicle roles by adhering and detonating against underbellies or tracks. Rifle-launched options extend range to 50-100 meters; the Belgian Energa projectile, fired from standard rifles, used a to penetrate 200 mm of RHA or 500 mm of concrete at 90-degree impact. Post- developments include directional variants akin to the , directing effects in a narrow arc for ambush against passing vehicles. Performance metrics emphasize short-range efficacy, with capable designs defeating 500 mm of armor at 2-5 meters standoff, sufficient to breach most light and medium vehicles while minimizing user exposure. In asymmetric warfare, these grenades adapt into improvised explosive devices (IEDs), such as RPG warhead clusters buried along routes, amplifying threats to convoys in and by exploiting gaps in vehicle underarmor.

Incendiary and thermobaric grenades

Incendiary grenades employ pyrotechnic compositions designed to ignite and sustain intense heat, primarily for destroying equipment, supplies, or structures through fire rather than blast fragmentation. Common fillings include or mixtures, which react exothermically to produce temperatures exceeding 2,200°C, melting metals and igniting flammable materials. The AN-M14 TH3 incendiary hand grenade, developed during , exemplifies this type; its thermate filler burns for 30 to 45 seconds at approximately 4,000°F (2,200°C), enabling it to fuse metallic parts and incinerate fuel dumps or stores. White phosphorus is another traditional incendiary agent in certain munitions, igniting spontaneously in air to burn at 800–1,300°C and capable of setting fire to vegetation, clothing, or equipment upon contact. These devices are particularly effective for area denial in military operations, where sustained burning prevents enemy access to positions, supplies, or terrain features like bunkers and wooded areas. For instance, the AN-M14's heat output can destroy vehicles, weapons systems, or shelters by warping components or igniting onboard fuels, making it a tactical tool for disrupting logistics without relying on explosive force. White phosphorus variants similarly create fire hazards in open or enclosed spaces, though their dual smoke-producing effects have historically blurred classifications. Overall, incendiary grenades prioritize thermal damage over kinetic impact, with burn radii extending several meters depending on environmental factors and filler quantity. Thermobaric grenades operate on a two-stage : an initial burst disperses a into the air, followed by a secondary that ignites the mixture, generating a prolonged combining , heat, and vacuum effects. This mechanism produces significantly greater than equivalent high-explosive charges—often 2 to 10 times higher in confined spaces—due to the expanded volume and sustained pressure pulse. The Russian , a man-portable rocket-propelled introduced in the , illustrates this; its disperses a volatile before detonating, yielding effects comparable to 5–6 kg of TNT within a 10–20 meter radius. Hand-thrown examples include the Russian RG-60TB, designed to defeat manpower and light equipment in open or sheltered areas through fuel-air explosive effects, and the RGT-27S2, a cylindrical variant optimized for enclosed spaces where it generates high-temperature, high-pressure combustion damage. In applications, thermobaric grenades excel at neutralizing fortified positions or enclosed environments, such as bunkers or buildings, where the penetrates barriers and consumes oxygen, causing severe burns, damage from , and disorientation from the thermal-vacuum aftermath. Their casualty effects stem from intense (up to 2,500–3,000°C) and a negative pressure phase that can rupture organs, with effective blast radii typically spanning 20–30 meters in open areas or extending further indoors. Vegetation or urban settings amplify capabilities by igniting surroundings and limiting escape routes. International regulations, particularly Protocol III of the 1980 , impose restrictions on incendiary weapons like those using white phosphorus, prohibiting their use against civilians or civilian objects and limiting air-delivered variants over populated areas. These rules, ratified by over 100 states, aim to mitigate indiscriminate fire risks, though ground-launched munitions face fewer constraints if not primarily incendiary. In response, modern alternatives incorporate gelled fuels or compositions—such as enhanced pastes in updated AN-M14 variants—to reduce scatter and environmental persistence while maintaining efficacy against soft targets. Thermobaric weapons remain unregulated under specific treaties but must comply with broader prohibitions on indiscriminate or excessive harm.

Chemical, smoke, and gas grenades

Chemical, smoke, and gas grenades deploy non-lethal or obscuring agents through dispersion mechanisms designed for concealment, signaling, or incapacitation without causing direct damage. These devices typically employ pyrotechnic compositions or small burster charges to release agents like smoke-producing chemicals or irritants, creating temporary effects such as visual screening or sensory disruption. Unlike fragmentation types, their primary role is tactical support in military operations or scenarios, with agents formulated to degrade rapidly in the environment. Smoke grenades, a key variant, generate dense clouds for concealment or marking positions. The most common composition involves a (HCE)-zinc oxide mixture, which combusts to produce white primarily consisting of aerosol particles that scatter light effectively. This pyrotechnic reaction yields a lasting 30 to 90 seconds, depending on the munition size and environmental conditions, allowing troops to maneuver under cover or signal . For instance, the U.S. M18 grenade, widely used during the for ground-to-air identification and area screening, emits vibrant red, green, yellow, or violet via a similar burning process, providing visibility over distances up to several hundred meters. Gas grenades, often termed riot control agents, disperse irritants like CS (2-chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile) or CN (chloroacetophenone) to temporarily incapacitate personnel through eye, skin, and respiratory irritation. These are typically deployed in for , with a small burster charge or pyrotechnic igniter releasing 10 to 20 grams of agent, forming an aerosol cloud covering an area of approximately 20 meters in radius. The dispersion relies on either explosive bursting for rapid aerosolization or continuous burning for sustained release, ensuring the agent particles remain airborne long enough to affect targets without permanent harm under normal exposure. Modern variants, such as the Defense Technology Riot Control CS Grenade, emphasize outdoor efficacy with high-volume expulsion over 20 to 30 seconds. Historically, gas grenades emerged during as early chemical delivery systems, with French forces deploying tear-gas variants containing in August 1914 for initial battlefield trials. By 1915, both Allied and incorporated and into grenade designs, though shells dominated large-scale use; these early munitions dispersed choking agents via simple bursting mechanisms to disrupt lines. In contemporary applications, HC grenades serve dual roles in signaling and obscuration, as seen in U.S. military operations where colored or white variants mark landing zones or screen advances. Dispersion mechanics in these grenades contrast pyrotechnic generation, where agents burn to produce ongoing smoke or vapor (as in HC mixes), with aerosol methods using a low-explosive burster to fragment and propel the payload into a fine mist for quicker, wider coverage. Pyrotechnic types offer prolonged effects suitable for screening, while burster-driven aerosols excel in targeted incapacitation, with particle sizes optimized (typically 5-10 microns) for inhalation efficacy. However, environmental impacts include residue deposition; HC smoke leaves zinc chloride particles that can acidify soil and contaminate water, while CS/CN agents degrade into non-toxic byproducts but may cause short-term toxicity in high concentrations, prompting restrictions on training use near sensitive ecosystems.

Non-lethal and training grenades

Non-lethal grenades are designed for use in crowd control, operations, and suppression, aiming to incapacitate targets temporarily without causing permanent or . These devices typically employ mechanisms such as disorienting flashes, loud acoustic bursts, or kinetic impacts from non-penetrating projectiles to achieve compliance. One common type is the sting grenade, which disperses rubber pellets to deliver painful but non-lethal impacts. For example, the ALSG101CS distraction and diversion device releases approximately 70 .45-caliber rubber balls along with CS irritant powder upon activation, intended for short-range crowd dispersal. Similarly, the Stinger Grenade employs a timed with a 1.5-second delay followed by a 0.5-second burst, expelling rubber pellets at controlled velocities to minimize injury risk. Flashbang grenades represent another key non-lethal variant, producing intense light and sound to disorient individuals. These devices generate a peak level of around 170-180 decibels at close range, accompanied by a strobe flash exceeding one million candelas, causing temporary without fragmentation. The effects are maximized at distances under 5 meters, with acoustic output calibrated to induce vertigo and while avoiding structural damage. Mechanisms in non-lethal grenades often involve impact or timed fuzes for controlled release of irritants, pellets, or sensory agents. Impact variants activate upon striking a surface, propelling payloads at reduced velocities typically below 100 meters per second to limit penetration and trauma. Timed models, like those in flashbangs, use pyrotechnic for safe standoff deployment, incorporating safety features such as arming to prevent premature during handling. Training grenades simulate operational use without explosive hazards, often featuring inert bodies painted for easy identification. These devices, such as the M69 practice grenade, contain no high explosives and may include or dye markers to replicate trajectories and visual cues during throws. The coloration adheres to standards for distinguishing training ordnance from live munitions, facilitating safe instructional exercises. Adoption of non-lethal grenades by law enforcement expanded in the post-1960s era, driven by civil unrest and the need for alternatives to firearms during protests. Devices like sting and flashbang grenades have been integrated into police tactics since the 1970s, providing options that significantly reduce the risk of fatalities compared to high-explosive ordnance by prioritizing incapacitation over . Studies indicate these tools lower lethal outcomes in crowd control scenarios by offering graduated levels, though risks of injury from misuse persist.

Design and Components

Fuse mechanisms and igniters

Fuse mechanisms in grenades are critical safety and initiation systems designed to arm the device only after release from the user and detonate the at the intended time or upon impact. These systems typically consist of a primer, delay element, and , activated through mechanical, chemical, or electronic means to prevent accidental during handling or transport. The primary types of grenade fuses include time-delay, impact, and electronic variants. Time-delay fuses, the most common in hand grenades, employ a chemical or mechanical burning element that postpones detonation for 3 to 5 seconds after arming, allowing the thrower time to seek cover; for instance, the U.S. M67 fragmentation grenade uses a 4- to 5-second pyrotechnic delay. Impact fuses initiate detonation upon contact with a target after a safety delay, often using a striker pin that releases on ground impact, as seen in Russian RGN and RGO defensive grenades, which include a pyrotechnic delay of 1 to 2 seconds after release to arm the fuze before impact for reliability. Electronic fuses, increasingly used in advanced munitions like 40mm launched grenades, are programmable for airburst detonation at a preset height or distance, enabling precise targeting; the MK285 point-detonating/airburst round, for example, programs its fuse via a fire control unit before launch to explode in proximity to personnel. Mechanically, most fuses rely on a spring-loaded striker mechanism held in place by a and a spoon-shaped . In the standard sequence, as in the M67 or fuse, the user removes the (which can be reinserted if needed) while gripping the ; upon release of the during throw, the striker rotates under spring tension to strike a primer, igniting the delay element or impact sensor. This dual-safety design ensures the fuse arms only after both the pin removal and release, minimizing premature . The evolution of grenade fuses traces from rudimentary black powder match cords in 15th-century cast-iron spheres, which required manual lighting and were prone to inconsistent burn rates, to sophisticated systems by the . marked the shift to reliable time-delay mechanisms, such as the British Mills bomb's 4-second spring-loaded striker fuse, replacing hazardous impact designs that detonated too readily. By the , piezoelectric impact sensors emerged, using crystal deformation on contact to generate voltage for electronic initiation, enhancing sensitivity and reducing mechanical wear in modern fuzes like those in shaped-charge projectiles. Reliability is paramount, with dud rates—defined as failure to detonate after the expected fuse time—targeted below 5% through rigorous design and testing. Environmental factors like temperature extremes (-50°C to 60°C) and high humidity are evaluated per MIL-STD-331 standards to ensure fuse performance, including resistance to and delay consistency; for example, U.S. military protocols require weekly cleaning to prevent rust-induced malfunctions in training environments.

Body construction and explosives

The body of a hand grenade serves as the primary container for the filler, while in fragmentation variants, it also functions to generate lethal shrapnel upon . Casing materials are selected based on the grenade's intended effect: serrated is commonly used for fragmentation grenades to promote controlled breaking into sharp, high-velocity fragments, as seen in the M67 model, which employs a 64 mm diameter sphere. casings, often molded from polymers like , are utilized in low-shrapnel or offensive grenades to reduce unintended fragmentation and . Aluminum alloys provide lightweight options for certain anti-tank or rifle-launched grenades, minimizing overall mass while maintaining structural integrity. Typical grenade weights range from 200 to 600 grams, balancing portability with explosive payload capacity; for instance, the M67 weighs approximately 397 grams. Explosive fillers in modern hand grenades primarily consist of high-energy compositions such as Composition B, a castable mix of 59.5% RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), 39.4% TNT (trinitrotoluene), and 1% wax for desensitization, offering superior brisance compared to pure TNT. This filler yields an explosive power equivalent to 0.5-1 kg of TNT, though the actual charge mass is lower (e.g., 184 grams in the M67), due to RDX's higher detonation velocity of about 8,750 m/s. RDX-based fillers exhibit high stability under normal handling, with low sensitivity to friction or impact (critical diameter for detonation around 1 mm), but require a blasting cap for initiation; PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) is occasionally incorporated in specialized mixes for enhanced velocity, though it is more sensitive and typically reserved for boosters. Grenade bodies are constructed using techniques like for robust, one-piece or iron shells that ensure uniform wall thickness and fragmentation patterns, or stamping from for lighter, segmented designs that allow precise control over shrapnel distribution. is integral, achieved through coatings, sealed joints, and corrosion-resistant alloys to prevent filler degradation in humid or wet environments, enabling reliable performance in all-weather conditions. Safety standards mandate fragment containment during non-detonation phases, such as transport or accidental drops, with bodies engineered to withstand impacts up to 10 meters without rupturing, per U.S. Department of Defense criteria for and explosives. These designs also preserve aerodynamic stability and retention during throws, typically achieving initial speeds of 30-50 m/s for effective ranges of 30-40 meters by an average . The body integrates seamlessly with the fuse at its apex, ensuring the explosive remains isolated until arming.

Production and Use

Manufacturing processes

The manufacturing of grenades involves several key industrial stages, beginning with the synthesis of explosive materials. Common high explosives like TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) are produced through a multi-step process, where is reacted with a mixture of concentrated and to progressively add nitro groups, yielding mono-, di-, and finally trinitrotoluene. This occurs in controlled reactors to manage exothermic reactions and ensure purity, as impurities can affect stability and performance. Other fillers, such as (a mix of and TNT), incorporate TNT produced via while is synthesized through nitrolysis of hexamine. Casing fabrication typically employs metalworking techniques like for traditional bodies, which provide the structural integrity needed for fragmentation upon . In historical processes, such as those for WWII-era M42 and M46 grenades, cylindrical cups were deep-drawn, with the closed end punched out and warm-forged into a domed before being copper-brazed to form a seamless body. Modern variants may incorporate polymer composites molded with pre-formed fragments, where a rotating shell mold is heated to 122°F (50°C) for 30 minutes to cross-link the material and embed shrapnel evenly. These casings are designed to be hollow with a threaded for fuse insertion, optimizing weight and . The filling stage entails loading the charge into the casing to ensure uniform density, preventing premature detonation or reduced effectiveness. Melted or slurry-form explosives like TNT are poured or pressed into the body. The assembly is then sealed with a fuse mechanism, often using automated presses for precision. is rigorous throughout production to verify structural and explosive integrity. Batch testing includes measuring , typically ranging from 6,000 to 8,000 m/s for common fillers like TNT (around 6,900 m/s), to confirm consistent performance. Modern processes emphasize compliance, using explosives less prone to accidental initiation, and incorporate robotic assembly for enhanced safety and efficiency as of 2023. Historically, grenade production shifted from labor-intensive hand-assembly during —where initial U.S. requirements reached 68 million units, met through rapid but manual scaling—to automated assembly lines post-1950s, enabling higher throughput and consistency in modern facilities. Major producers include U.S. operations under the , which oversees plants like those producing the M67 fragmentation grenade, and Russia's , a key developer of grenade systems and munitions. Cost factors for manufacturing range from $20 to $50 per unit in contemporary production, influenced by materials, scale, and regulatory compliance, though wartime economies reduced this significantly—U.S. output exceeded 50 million fragmentation grenades during through mass mobilization.

Throwing techniques and tactical employment

Hand grenades are typically thrown using the overhand method to achieve maximum distance and accuracy, with the thrower gripping the grenade firmly, pulling the , releasing the safety lever (), and propelling it in an arc toward the target. Underhand throws are employed for lobbing grenades into elevated positions like windows or over obstacles, while sidearm techniques may be used in confined spaces or prone positions to minimize exposure. Rolling the grenade is a short-range option for delivering it around corners or into trenches without direct line-of-sight exposure. Trained personnel can achieve throwing distances of 30 to 40 meters, depending on the grenade's weight—typically around 400 grams for fragmentation types—and the thrower's physical conditioning, with U.S. Army and Marine Corps qualifications requiring hits within a 35-meter target zone. Safety protocols emphasize preventing premature and self-injury, starting with a to confirm the , clip, and are intact and free of damage. The standard arming sequence involves securing the grenade in the throwing hand with the safety held against the body by the thumb, then removing the pin with the non-throwing hand while maintaining pressure on the lever to prevent activation. —releasing the lever for 1 to 2 seconds before throwing to shorten the 4- to 5-second delay fuse—is authorized only in for grenades like the M67 to ensure above ground, but it is prohibited during due to the of mishandling. To avoid fragmentation injury, throwers must ensure a minimum distance of 15 to 20 meters from the point, as the M67's casualty extends to 15 meters and lethal to 5 meters. In tactical employment, hand grenades enhance infantry maneuvers by providing immediate suppressive fire and area denial in close-quarters combat, often integrated with rifle fire for combined effects. During bounding overwatch, one element uses grenades to pin down enemy positions while the other advances, disrupting defenses in open terrain or fortifications and allowing safe movement under cover. In room clearing, the second team member throws a fragmentation or concussion grenade (e.g., MK3A2) through the entry point after shouting "FRAG OUT," followed by immediate assault to neutralize remaining threats in confined urban environments. Grenades complement rifle-launched 40mm variants by extending reach against vehicle or bunker targets, with hand-thrown types focusing on dismounted infantry engagements within 40 meters. Military training for grenade throwing follows a crawl-walk-run progression, beginning with mock-bay drills using inert simulators like the M69 practice grenade to build without live explosives. Live-fire qualification, such as the U.S. Army's grenade , requires demonstrating proficiency across positions (standing, kneeling, prone) at targets 20 to 40 meters away, with personnel shouting warnings and adhering to lanes. Simulators replicate fuse delays and weights for repeated practice, reducing live costs, while stress incorporates simulated noise and movement to improve accuracy. Studies indicate that under controlled conditions, trained throwers achieve accuracies within 5 to 7 meters deviation, though performance can degrade in high-stress scenarios due to factors like and grenade design. Sustainment occurs every six months for units to maintain these skills.

Societal and Cultural Impact

Role in military history and conflicts

Grenades emerged as a specialized weapon in the , prompting the formation of elite units in European armies, notably in under , where they were tasked with hurling early cast-iron grenades during sieges and assaults on fortified positions. This development represented a key doctrinal shift, establishing dedicated assault troops equipped for explosive close-quarters engagements and influencing organization across major powers for subsequent centuries. In , hand grenades revolutionized by enabling to dislodge entrenched enemies without direct exposure to machine-gun fire, effectively breaking stalemates along the Western Front. Fragmentation grenades, in particular, became indispensable for clearing bunkers and communication trenches, with their tactical employment shaping assault tactics amid the war's static defenses. By war's end, grenades had evolved from niche tools to standard issue, underscoring their role in overcoming the limitations of rifles and bayonets in confined spaces. World War II's Pacific theater highlighted grenades' enduring utility in island-hopping campaigns, where dense jungles and fortified caves necessitated their use in brutal close combat. In battles such as , fragmentation grenades inflicted heavy casualties during Japanese defensive stands, aiding U.S. Marines in suppressing hidden positions and countering banzai charges that characterized the theater's high-intensity clashes. The Vietnam War exemplified grenades' adaptation to guerrilla tactics, with forces rigging them into booby traps—such as tripwire mechanisms concealed in foliage or streams—that caused extensive U.S. casualties and psychological strain. These improvised devices, often standard M26 or captured grenades, emphasized asymmetric warfare's reliance on portable explosives to ambush patrolling troops. In urban and post-conflict settings like the Gulf War's , grenades supported coalition infantry in clearing Iraqi-held buildings, integrating with to minimize exposure in built-up environments. Modern doctrines further evolve this legacy through integration, where grenades complement drone-delivered munitions for enhanced precision. In , fragmentation weapons including hand grenades accounted for 75.6% of penetrating injuries during the , highlighting their persistent impact on casualty patterns in urban . Grenades' proliferation has empowered non-state actors globally, who craft IEDs mimicking their compact, lethal design—using commercial fuses and fillers for hand-emplaced or thrown devices in insurgent operations. Such adaptations, seen in conflicts from to , amplify asymmetric threats by leveraging accessible components for targeted strikes against conventional forces. In films, grenades are often depicted with varying degrees of realism. Steven Spielberg's (1998) portrays their use authentically during sequences, including soldiers employing 60mm mortar rounds as improvised grenades in close-quarters combat, a tactic drawn from real accounts like that of recipient Charles "Commando" Kelly. In contrast, action genres frequently exaggerate grenade effects for dramatic impact, such as in the Rambo series where protagonist fires exploding arrows akin to grenades from a , amplifying their destructive spectacle beyond realistic fragmentation blasts. Literature has captured grenades in wartime narratives, notably through Ernest Hemingway's accounts of . As a war correspondent, Hemingway documented his own use of hand grenades to flush out German soldiers from a house in a French village in , an incident he described in dispatches that influenced his raw, experiential style in works like , where improvised explosives symbolize abrupt violence in . In video games, grenades appear as customizable tactical tools, particularly in the Call of Duty series, where players select lethal variants like fragmentation grenades alongside perks and attachments in loadout systems, emphasizing strategic deployment in multiplayer modes. Beyond combat portrayals, grenades serve as metaphors for sudden disruption in political cartoons, often illustrating volatile situations like elections or scandals as "pulling the pin" on instability. Replicas and collectibles further embed them in , with inert vintage models like the British prized by enthusiasts for their historical design, transforming military artifacts into symbols of bygone conflicts. Cultural depictions of grenades have shifted over time, contrasting heroic tropes with anti-war critiques. Post-Vietnam media often highlighted their unreliability and tragic misuse, such as incidents with fragmentation grenades that underscored internal distrust and moral ambiguity in films exploring the war's psychological toll. Earlier heroic narratives, like soldiers diving onto grenades in action films to save comrades, romanticize but ignore real blast dynamics. In modern , memes frequently lampoon grenade duds or erratic throws, portraying them as comically undependable in contrast to cinematic heroics.

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