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Antipope Felix II
Antipope Felix II
Antipope Felix II
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Antipope Felix II, an Archdeacon of Rome, was installed as Pope in 355 AD after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe to a sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius.[1]

Key Information

Biography

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In May 357 AD the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365 AD.[2][3]

This Felix was later confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V.[4]

The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) called this confusion a "distortion of the true facts" and suggested that it arose because the "Liber Pontificalis", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, says that this Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried.[5] However, a more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name.[6]

The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that "the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July." At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text:

At Rome, on the Aurelian Way, St. Felix II, pope and martyr. Being expelled from his See by the Arian emperor Constantius for defending the Catholic faith, and being put to the sword privately at Cera in Tuscany, he died gloriously. His body was taken away from that place by clerics, and buried on the Aurelian Way. It was afterwards brought to the Church of the Saints Cosmas and Damian, where, under the Sovereign Pontiff Gregory XIII, it was found beneath the altar with the relics of the holy martyrs Mark, Marcellian, and Tranquillinus, and with the latter was put back in the same place on 31 July. In the same altar were also found the bodies of the holy martyrs Abundius, a priest, and Abundantius, a deacon, which were shortly after solemnly transferred to the church of the Society of Jesus, on the eve of their feast.

This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology[7] have instead:

At Rome, at the third milestone on the Via Portuensis, in the cemetery dedicated to his name, Saint Felix, martyr.

The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July.[7] The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr's,[8] occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century.

As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition,[9] does not appear in the 1962 typical edition.[10] To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral "II" and the word "Papae", the correction had already been made by then. One Catholic writer excuses this by saying that the antipope "himself did refuse to accept Arianism, and so his feast has been kept in the past on [29 July]".[1]

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References

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Antipope Felix II

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Antipope Felix II (died 22 November 365) was a Roman archdeacon unlawfully consecrated as Bishop of Rome in 355 after the Arian Emperor exiled the legitimate for refusing to condemn and upholding the . His installation, performed by the Arian bishops Acacius of Caesarea and two others, exemplified imperial interference in ecclesiastical affairs amid the , aiming to replace orthodox leadership with sympathizers of the heresy. Though supported by a majority of the Roman clergy, Felix faced rejection from the laity, who remained faithful to Liberius. Upon Liberius's return to in 358 under pressure from unrest, Felix was deposed, expelled from the city, and relegated to Porto Romano, yet he persisted in claiming papal authority until his death there. This episode highlighted the tensions between imperial power and church autonomy, with Felix's tenure marked by efforts to convene synods aligning with Arian positions. In later centuries, errors in papal catalogs and conflation with a third-century led to his inclusion as "Pope Felix II" in some lists and martyrologies, resulting in unwarranted veneration as a or until corrections in the twentieth century affirmed his status as an invalid claimant. The Catholic Church's now explicitly designates him an , resolving the historical numbering that once shifted subsequent popes named Felix.

Historical Context

The Arian Controversy and Imperial Interference

, originating from the teachings of , a in around 318 AD, asserted that the Son was a created being subordinate to the Father, lacking eternal co-equality and full divinity, thereby challenging the traditional understanding of the . This doctrine was formally anathematized at the in 325 AD, convened by Emperor Constantine I, where over 300 bishops endorsed the declaring the Son homoousios (of the same substance) with the Father to safeguard Christ's divinity against subordinationist interpretations. Despite this condemnation and Arius's subsequent exile, Arian and semi-Arian views continued to gain traction in Eastern sees, fueled by theological debates and regional synods that evaded strict Nicene enforcement. Emperor , who ruled from 337 to 361 AD and consolidated power as sole Augustus in the East by 353 AD, actively promoted semi-Arian compromises to unify the empire's fractured church, viewing doctrinal uniformity as essential for political stability. He sponsored multiple councils at (modern ), including one in 351 AD that deposed Nicene-leaning bishops and another in 357 AD issuing the "Blasphemy of Sirmium," which explicitly rejected the homoousios term as unscriptural while avoiding outright . Constantius's policy of exiling refractory orthodox leaders exemplified this interference; , a key Nicene advocate and bishop since 328 AD, faced his third exile in 356 AD after imperial troops disrupted his liturgy, part of a broader pattern banishing dozens of non-compliant prelates to install compliant successors. This imperial strategy extended to the West, where Constantius sought to align the Roman church with Eastern . In 355 AD, he convened a council at and summoned (r. 352–366 AD), demanding he condemn Athanasius on charges of and doctrinal intransigence to foster . Liberius's refusal to comply, prioritizing fidelity to over political expediency, prompted his deposition and exile to (later Beroea in 357 AD), exposing the papacy to direct Caesaro-papist pressure and creating a vacuum in Roman ecclesiastical leadership amid the ongoing heresy-orthodoxy struggle.

Exile of Pope Liberius

In November 355 AD, Emperor summoned Pope to to compel him to condemn , whose orthodoxy the emperor opposed amid efforts to impose a semi-Arian creed. Liberius refused, asserting the innocence of Athanasius and upholding the without qualification, despite pressure from imperial officials including the eunuch . Constantius granted Liberius three days to reconsider but, upon his continued defiance—"There is no need of many words; no violence will make me betray the truth"—ordered his immediate banishment to Beroea in (modern , ). This exile, enacted without ecclesiastical trial, stemmed directly from Liberius's rejection of the Milan council's proceedings, where most bishops had yielded to imperial coercion by signing Athanasius's condemnation. From Beroea, Liberius dispatched letters to Constantius and others, reiterating Athanasius's exoneration and his own fidelity to Nicene orthodoxy, as evidenced in surviving correspondence that decried Arian innovations. These documents, alongside accounts from church historians like Socrates Scholasticus, demonstrate Liberius's uncompromised stance prior to exile, prioritizing doctrinal integrity over imperial favor. The resulting vacancy in prompted initial resistance from the and , who protested the intrusion, but threats of similar banishment led to partial submission among the majority, enabling exploitation of the see's absence.

Installation and Reign

Election by Constantius II

In late 355, following the Council of Milan, Emperor Constantius II exiled Pope Liberius to Beroea in Thrace for refusing to anathematize Athanasius of Alexandria and endorse a creed accommodating Arian views, an act that did not canonically vacate the Roman see since Liberius retained his legitimate election by clergy and laity in 352. Constantius, seeking to install a compliant bishop amid the Arian controversy, pressured the Roman clergy to select a successor, bypassing traditional electoral processes requiring consensus among the presbytery and popular acclamation. Archdeacon Felix, a Roman cleric of uncertain doctrinal leanings but amenable to imperial directives, was chosen by a minority faction of the clergy aligned with Constantius's Arian-sympathizing court. His consecration occurred irregularly outside a church, reportedly in the imperial palace, officiated by three Arian-leaning bishops—Acacius of Caesarea, , and Ursacius of —with imperial eunuchs substituting for the absent populace, highlighting the state's coercive override of ecclesiastical autonomy. While some clergy acknowledged Felix's installation, orthodox partisans and much of the Roman laity rejected it as invalid, maintaining allegiance to the exiled Liberius and decrying the process as heretical imperial interference rather than a valid episcopal succession. This reflected broader tensions between Nicene fidelity and Constantius's efforts to homogenize church leadership under semi-Arian influence.

Governance and Ecclesiastical Actions

Felix maintained occupation of the Lateran Basilica, the traditional papal seat, from his irregular consecration in late 355 until Pope Liberius's return from exile in 358, during which he endeavored to exercise administrative authority over the Roman clergy despite widespread rejection by those adhering to Liberius's legitimacy. His efforts to assert control were constrained by the , with only a minority faction acknowledging his leadership, reflecting the absence of canonical election and reliance on imperial imposition rather than consensus. After expulsion from the in 358, Felix relocated his operations and constructed a dedicated to a named Felix along the , utilizing it as a center for his remaining supporters until his death in 365; this act represented one of the few documented infrastructural initiatives attributed to his tenure. Felix issued pastoral letters to bishops, urging patience in the face of adversities stemming from Constantius II's policies, which favored non-Nicene positions and included the condemnation of figures like Athanasius; these communications aligned with imperial directives but lacked independent synodal endorsement or novel doctrinal content. No records indicate Felix convened major councils or pursued administrative reforms beyond sustaining his contested claim, underscoring the provisional nature of his ecclesiastical influence amid ongoing Arian pressures documented by contemporaries such as , whose writings highlight the era's coercive dynamics without crediting Felix with substantive governance achievements.

Deposition and Aftermath

Return of Liberius

In 357, Emperor , responding to popular unrest during his visit to , shifted policy and ordered the recall of Liberius from exile in , following Liberius's subscription to a creed acceptable to the imperial court that avoided explicit endorsement of the Nicene homoousios while condemning . Constantius initially envisioned a shared governance arrangement, permitting both Liberius and Felix to occupy the Roman see jointly to maintain order amid clerical factions. However, upon Liberius's arrival in on August 2, 358, enthusiastic crowds loyal to him rioted against Felix, forcing the latter to withdraw to Porto Romano while preserving influence over a minority clerical faction. Liberius was thereby restored as the sole legitimate , though the dual-papacy tension persisted through competing claims and mutual excommunications: Liberius anathematized Felix and his key supporters, while Felix's adherents reciprocated against Liberius's circle, exacerbating divisions among the Roman presbyters. Despite this, Liberius gradually consolidated authority, with many of Felix's clerical followers reintegrated into the Roman church under his oversight, leading to the effective resolution of the in his favor by 366. This outcome reflected the broader rejection of imperial interference by the Roman populace and , prioritizing continuity under the pre-exile pontiff.

Death and Immediate Succession Issues

Felix died on 22 November 365 AD in , a town near to which he had retired following his deposition in 358 AD. His death occurred without incident or martyrdom, contrary to later hagiographic traditions that conflated him with an earlier ; contemporary accounts indicate he lived quietly in after an unsuccessful bid to reclaim the Roman see. With Felix's passing, his supporters did not promptly install a successor, as the schism's dynamics shifted under the recognized of Liberius, who had reconciled with portions of Felix's to stabilize church and avert further imperial reprisals. This fragile unity unraveled upon Liberius's death on 24 September 366 AD, precipitating dual elections: Damasus I, backed by a including reconciled elements from Felix's faction, was ordained on 1 October amid clashes, while deacon Ursinus garnered minority support from rigorists opposed to any perceived leniency toward Arian sympathizers. The ensuing factional violence included riots at the Liberian , where accounts report 137 deaths from swordplay and mob confrontations. Optatus of Milevis, writing circa 366–367 AD against the Donatist schism, invoked Rome's episcopal primacy to underscore the peril of division, implicitly referencing the recent Roman turmoil as evidence of schism's destructive potential without naming Felix directly; imperial prefect Viventius's intervention quelled immediate disorder, but Valentinian I's prefects ultimately favored Damasus, exiling Ursinus and affirming the majority despite lingering factionalism tied to earlier antipapal claims.

Theological Positions

Relations with Arianism

Felix II was installed as bishop of Rome in late November 355 by Emperor Constantius II, whose policies favored Arian and semi-Arian positions over Nicene orthodoxy, following the exile of Pope Liberius for refusing to subscribe to a condemnation of Athanasius of Alexandria at the Synod of Milan earlier that year. Felix's consecration was performed by three bishops aligned with the Arian party—Acacius of Caesarea, Eudoxius of Antioch, and Ursacius of Singidunum—indicating his acceptance within circles promoting subordinationist Christology and tolerance for imperial interference in ecclesiastical affairs. This alignment with Constantius's efforts to suppress Nicene resistance, including the replacement of orthodox leaders, implies Felix's opportunism or sympathy toward Arian influences, as the emperor would not have elevated a figure openly hostile to his theological agenda. While no direct creedal document from Felix personally endorses strict —such as Arius's original denial of the Son's eternal divinity—his governance tolerated Arian bishops and clergy in , contrasting with Liberius's exile for upholding the homoousios of . Supporters from Felix's faction participated in the of Ariminum in 359, where over 400 Western bishops were coerced into signing a homoian creed that avoided Nicene terminology and affirmed the Son as "like the Father" in substance but without , furthering Constantius's homogenization of doctrine under semi-Arian terms. This involvement by Felix's circle in synodal acts compromising underscores a causal link to imperial promotion of , weakening Roman adherence to the 325 Nicene formulation amid ongoing Arian ascendancy. Felix's position thus facilitated the temporary entrenchment of Arian-tolerant elements in the Roman see, as evidenced by the emperor's letters and decrees supporting such appointments to consolidate control over dissenting sees. Historians like Scholasticus note Felix's prior embrace of Arian views before , attributing it to the broader climate of , though primary accounts emphasize actions over explicit personal . Ultimately, these relations highlight Felix's role in the causal chain of imperial enforcement, prioritizing political survival over unyielding Nicene defense.

Assessments of Orthodoxy

The prevailing assessment among early orthodox theologians, including , rejected Felix's episcopal claims due to his installation under Arian imperial auspices, viewing it as an act of that facilitated heretical influence in . Athanasius, in documenting the Arian persecutions, highlighted Felix's consecration by bishops aligned with Emperor Constantius II's homoian policies, which subordinated Nicene terminology like homoousios to imperial formulas avoiding explicit affirmation of the Son's consubstantiality with the Father. This stance positioned Felix as an enabler of , contrasting sharply with the Roman clergy's oath of fidelity to the exiled Liberius, who, despite his own coerced subscription to a Sirmian in 357, later reaffirmed Nicene upon return. No surviving doctrinal writings from Felix explicitly endorse the Nicene Creed of 325, leaving his personal orthodoxy unsubstantiated amid evidence of his endorsement of the Council of Ariminum's 359 homoian formula, which omitted homoousios and aligned with semi-Arian compromises under imperial pressure. Later Western fathers, such as , critiqued such synodal outcomes as deviations from , implicitly encompassing Felix's support within broader condemnations of imperial-engineered episcopal intrusions. Eastern sources from the Nicene party similarly dismissed his legitimacy without doctrinal neutrality, prioritizing the integrity of election over any potential personal fidelity, though some fragmentary accounts focus more on political illegitimacy than explicit attribution. Minority traditions defending Felix's orthodoxy stem from medieval martyrologies, such as the Martyrologium Hieronymianum, which erroneously venerated him as a martyr alongside Liberius, possibly conflating him with earlier popes like Felix I or later figures amid numbering confusions. These claims lack primary patristic support and are critiqued by historians as anachronistic errors, given Felix's alignment with Arian consecrators and absence of anti-Arian testimony; orthodox consensus thus prioritizes Athanasian and conciliar evidence of schismatic heresy-enabling over hagiographic anomalies.

Legacy

Papal Numbering Adjustments

The initial inclusion of Felix in early ecclesiastical lists as Felix II resulted in misnumbering for subsequent legitimate popes with the same name; for instance, the pope who served from 483 to 492 was originally enumerated as Felix III due to counting the antipope in the sequence. This anomaly persisted through much of the medieval period, as evidenced by contemporary records that accepted Felix's position without contest. To rectify the discrepancy and affirm the legitimacy of the , later papal catalogues excluded Felix from the official numbering of legitimate while designating him retroactively as "Antipope Felix II," permitting the re-designation of the 483–492 as Felix II, the 526–530 as Felix III, and the 644–649 bishop of as Felix IV. The rationale for this correction hinged on the canonic invalidity of Felix's consecration in 355, which contravened church law prohibiting the of a new while a reigning (Liberius) remained alive and was further compromised by orchestration from the Arian-inclined Emperor . Although early compilations like the had incorporated Felix without distinction, the adjustment underscored an evolving ecclesiastical consensus on validity, with the standardized "antipope" label solidifying in official lists by the early .

Veneration as Saint and Martyr

During the medieval era, Felix II received veneration as a and , with his day listed on July 29 in various liturgical calendars and martyrologies, portraying him as having been expelled for defending Catholic doctrine against . This cult likely arose from conflation with an otherwise obscure named Felix, possibly a Roman deacon associated with burials along the , whose relics and traditions were erroneously merged with the antipope's biography in hagiographical compilations like the . Apocryphal texts, including the Acta Felicis and Acta Liberii, fabricated narratives of his and suffering, promoting the saintly image despite his installation under imperial Arian pressure. Historical records provide no for martyrdom, as Felix died of natural causes on November 22, 365, during a period absent widespread Christian in . Scholarly analysis from the onward, including Cesare Baronius's Annales Ecclesiastici, critiqued these traditions as rooted in errors or deliberate forgeries intended to rehabilitate his legacy amid later anti-Arian sentiments. By the 19th and 20th centuries, Catholic historiographers, on primary chronicles like those of , definitively rejected the martyrdom claims, attributing the persistence of the cult to uncritical transmission of spurious documents rather than verifiable events. The modern disavows Felix II's sanctity, omitting him from the and classifying him solely as an in official catalogs such as the , reflecting the prioritization of historical documentation over hagiographical legend. This correction underscores the risks of conflating distinct figures in early Christian commemorations, where multiple saints named Felix—such as the martyr paired with Simplicius, Faustinus, and Beatrice—further muddied attributions until rigorous philological and archaeological scrutiny prevailed.

Historiography

Primary Sources and Early Accounts

The primary accounts of Felix's episcopate derive from pro-Nicene writers such as Athanasius of Alexandria, whose History of the Arians (composed around 358) describes the emperor Constantius II's intervention in Rome in November 355, wherein Liberius was exiled to Thrace for refusing to condemn Athanasius, and Felix, an archdeacon, was consecrated bishop by three Arian-leaning prelates including Acacius of Caesarea, amid opposition from the Roman clergy and populace who initially barricaded themselves in churches. Athanasius portrays this as an imperial imposition of heresy, emphasizing Felix's role in anathematizing orthodox bishops like Athanasius himself, though the text focuses more on the broader Arian machinations than Felix's personal theology. Hilary of Poitiers, exiled by Constantius in 356 for Nicene adherence, references the Roman schism in fragments of his writings against Auxentius of and in his Liber contra Auxentium, condemning the "impious" installation of Felix as part of the emperor's coercion of Western sees, aligning with his broader critique of Arian sympathizers who accepted such consecrations. These testimonies, while contemporaneous, exhibit a clear pro-Nicene hostility, framing Felix's legitimacy as null due to his backing by heretical imperial forces rather than canonical election, potentially understating any clerical support he garnered during Liberius's absence. The , a 6th-century Roman compilation drawing on earlier , provides a hagiographic entry on Felix (listed as the 26th , ob. 365), depicting him as a who resisted Constantius by upholding Nicene faith and ordaining presbyters, though it conflates events and anachronistically casts him as orthodox, contradicting earlier pro-Nicene rejections. This later account reflects evolving papal historiography, initially venerating Felix before later traditions demoted him to status. Direct documents from Felix, such as letters or synodal acts under his name, are absent, necessitating reconstruction from imperial correspondence (e.g., Constantius's edicts documented in of Vercelli's records) and council proceedings like the 355 synod, which contextualize the chronology of his eight-year tenure ending with his natural death on November 22, 365. Arian-leaning sources, such as those from of Nicomedia's circle, are scarce and do not prominently defend Felix, possibly due to the transient nature of his role and the eventual Nicene resurgence in , leaving pro-orthodox narratives dominant but requiring cross-verification against neutral chronological markers like Constantius's itinerary.

Modern Interpretations

Contemporary scholarship, spanning the 20th and 21st centuries, unanimously classifies Felix II as an installed irregularly by Emperor in 355 following the exile of , emphasizing his role as an instrument of imperial policy amid Arian pressures on the Roman see. Historians highlight the lack of election and widespread resistance from Roman clergy and , who viewed his elevation—likely occurring in the imperial palace at or —as a coercive substitution rather than legitimate succession. This interpretation rests on primary accounts like those in the Historia Ecclesiastica of Socrates Scholasticus and , cross-verified against later fabrications, rejecting any notion of Felix holding valid papal authority. Textual criticism has systematically debunked medieval claims portraying Felix as a martyr-saint and of Nicene , attributing such hagiographies to apocryphal works like the Acta Felicis and interpolated entries in the , which conflated him with later figures such as or unrelated martyrs. Scholars apply philological analysis to demonstrate these narratives emerged from 8th-9th century traditions influenced by political needs to legitimize papal numbering and calendars, not historical fidelity; no contemporary evidence supports Felix's martyrdom under Julian the Apostate in 365, as his death aligns with natural causes amid ongoing . Fringe revisionist , occasionally advanced in traditionalist circles to defend early papal , falter against this evidential consensus, prioritizing causal chains of imperial interference over unsubstantiated defenses. Debates persist on Felix's personal theological stance, with scant direct evidence beyond his actions—such as the 355 condemning Athanasius and endorsing semi-Arian formulas—suggesting pragmatic alignment with Constantius's non-Nicene agenda rather than deep-seated conviction. Modern analysts, drawing on patristic correspondences like those of , infer his archdiaconal background offered no prior indication of staunch anti-Arianism, rendering claims of hidden speculative and unsupported by doctrinal writings or episcopal endorsements outside imperial circles. This accommodation exemplifies church-state dynamics where power imbalances compelled conformity, cautioning against normalizing heretical imperial influences as mere political expediency without rigorous scrutiny of orthodoxy's substantive erosion.

References

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