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High German
Geographic
distribution		German-speaking Europe, United States, Canada, Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Colonia Tovar
Linguistic classificationIndo-European
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottologhigh1289

The High German languages (German: hochdeutsche Mundarten, i.e. High German dialects), or simply High German (Hochdeutsch [ˈhoːxˌdɔɪ̯t͡ʃ] ⓘ) – not to be confused with Standard High German which is commonly also called "High German" – comprise the varieties of German spoken south of the Benrath and Uerdingen isoglosses, i.e., in central and southern Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Luxembourg, and eastern Belgium, as well as in neighbouring portions of France (Alsace and northern Lorraine), Italy (South Tyrol), the Czech Republic (Bohemia), and Poland (Upper Silesia). They are also spoken in diasporas in Romania, Russia, Canada, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile, and Namibia.

High German is marked by the High German consonant shift, separating it from Low German (Low Saxon) and Low Franconian (including Dutch) within the continental West Germanic dialect continuum. "Low" and "high" refer to the lowland and highland geographies typically found in the two areas.

Classification

[edit]
German dialect area, defined as all West Germanic varieties using Standard German as their literary language:[1][2][3][4]
  Frisian
  Low Franconian
  Low Saxon or Low German
  Central German
  Upper German

As a technical term, the "high" in High German is a geographical reference to the group of dialects that forms "High German" (i.e., "Highland" German), out of which developed Standard German, Yiddish and Luxembourgish. It refers to the Central Uplands (Mittelgebirge) and Alpine areas of central and southern Germany; it also includes Luxembourg, Austria, Liechtenstein, and most of Switzerland. This is opposed to Low German, which is spoken in the lowlands and along the flat sea coasts of the North German Plain.[5]

High German can be subdivided into Upper German (Oberdeutsch) and Central or Middle German (Mitteldeutsch, this includes Luxembourgish, which itself is now a standard language).[6]

High German varieties are distinguished from other West Germanic varieties in that they took part in the High German consonant shift (c. AD 500) to various degrees. To see this, compare the following:[7][page needed]

English Low German Standard High German Consonant shift
pan Pann Pfanne [p] to [p͡f]
two twee zwei [t] to [t͡s]
make maken machen [k] to [x]

In the southernmost High Alemannic dialects, there is a further shift: Sack (like English/Low German "sack/Sack") is pronounced [z̥ak͡x] ([k] to [k͡x]).

History

[edit]
See also: Theodiscus

Old High German evolved from about 500 AD. Around 1200 the Swabian and East Franconian varieties of Middle High German became dominant as a court and poetry language (Minnesang) under the rule of the House of Hohenstaufen.

The term "High German" as spoken in central and southern Germany (Upper Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria) and Austria was first documented in the 15th century.[8]

Gradually driving back Low German variants since the Early modern period, the Early New High German varieties, especially the East Central German of the Luther Bible, formed an important basis for the development of Standard German.[9]

Family

[edit]

Divisions between subfamilies within Germanic are rarely precisely defined, because most form continuous clines, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. In particular, there has never been an original "Proto-High German". For this and other reasons, the idea of representing the relationships between West Germanic language forms in a tree diagram at all is controversial among linguists. What follows should be used with care in the light of this caveat.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

High German languages

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from Grokipedia
The High German languages (Hochdeutsche Sprachen) constitute a subgroup of West Germanic dialects spoken primarily in the central and southern highlands of the German-speaking regions, including , , , , and parts of . These dialects are distinguished from (Niederdeutsch) by their geographical elevation and key linguistic innovations, notably the , a series of sound changes that affected consonants like /p/, /t/, and /k/ (e.g., shifting to /pf/, /ts/, and /x/). The term "High German" carries a dual significance: it refers both to this continuum of dialects and to the standardized variety known as (Hochdeutsch), which serves as the of , , and , and is used in , media, administration, and across the German-speaking . Traditionally classified into two main branches—Central German (Mitteldeutsch) and Upper German (Oberdeutsch)—the High German dialects exhibit significant regional variation while sharing core phonological and morphological features that set them apart from neighboring languages like Dutch and . dialects, spoken in areas like and , represent an intermediate zone with partial application of the consonant shift, while dialects, found in , , and , show the full effects of the shift and include subgroups such as Alemannic and Bavarian. The (an isogloss running from near to near ) and the Speyer line further delineate the transition from Low to High German, with High German prevailing south of these boundaries. The historical evolution of High German spans several periods, beginning with (ca. 750–1050 CE), the earliest attested stage, marked by Christianization-driven literacy and texts like the Muspilli poem and Otfrid's Evangelienbuch. This was followed by (ca. 1050–1350 CE), a period of literary flourishing with epic works by authors like and , during which vowel lengthening and diphthongization became prominent. The transition to (ca. 1350–1650 CE) saw increased standardization, influenced by printing and Martin Luther's 1534 translation, which drew on dialects to form the basis of modern . Today, while dominates formal communication, High German dialects remain vital in informal and cultural contexts, with over 50% of Germans reportedly using regional varieties alongside the standard.

Overview

Definition and Scope

The High German languages constitute the southern subgroup of the West Germanic branch within the broader , encompassing dialects spoken primarily in , , , and parts of surrounding regions. This classification excludes the northern varieties, which belong to the same West Germanic continuum but did not undergo the defining phonological innovations of High German. The primary linguistic marker distinguishing High German from other West Germanic languages, such as and the Anglo-Frisian group, is the (also known as the second Germanic consonant shift). This series of sound changes affected the voiceless stops of Proto-West Germanic, transforming them into affricates and fricatives: for instance, *p shifted to *pf (as seen in the correspondence between English apple and German Apfel), *t to *ts (English ten vs. German zehn), and *k to *x or *ch (English make vs. German machen). These shifts occurred to varying degrees across High German dialects but were absent in and like Danish and Swedish, creating a clear that delineates the High German area. The term "High German" derives from its geographical association with the elevated southern highlands (Hochlande) of the German-speaking territories, in contrast to the low-lying northern plains where prevails. This topographic etymology underscores the regional basis of the linguistic divide rather than any hierarchy of prestige. , the codified variety used in formal writing, education, and media across German-speaking countries, emerged primarily from Central and Upper High German dialects and serves as a unifying form within this subgroup.

Geographical and Demographic Overview

The High German languages are predominantly spoken in the southern regions of Germany (including and ), , the German-speaking , , , and the province of . These areas form a contiguous shaped by historical and geographical factors, encompassing alpine valleys, river basins, and urban centers in . Approximately 95 to 100 million people speak High German varieties as their native worldwide, making it one of the most widely spoken language groups in . This figure includes the majority of the population in the primary regions, where High German dialects serve as everyday vernaculars alongside or instead of . Diaspora communities contribute a smaller but notable portion, with native speakers found in the —particularly in the United States (around 900,000), (about 1.5 million descendants maintaining the language), , and —and in (roughly 75,000 speakers). Dialect use and retention vary significantly between urban and rural settings, with stronger adherence to traditional High German varieties in rural areas such as the Alpine foothills and the river basin, where isolation and cultural traditions preserve linguistic diversity. In contrast, urban centers like , , and Zurich exhibit greater standardization, though dialects persist in informal contexts. Political borders have limited impact on dialect continuity in some cases; for instance, Austro-Bavarian varieties extend seamlessly across the Germany- frontier, reflecting shared historical speech communities in eastern and western Austria. Standard German, derived from High German dialects, predominates in education, media, and official communication throughout these regions, often complementing local varieties.

Linguistic Classification

Position in Germanic Languages

High German languages form a major subgroup within the West Germanic branch of the , which itself descends from the Indo-European language family. The are traditionally divided into three primary branches: East Germanic (now extinct, including Gothic), North Germanic (Scandinavian languages such as Swedish and Danish), and West Germanic. West Germanic encompasses High German alongside other groups like Anglo-Frisian (including English and Frisian) and (often associated with varieties). This classification is based on shared phonological, morphological, and lexical innovations traceable to a common ancestor. All , including High German, trace their origins to Proto-Germanic, a reconstructed ancestral spoken approximately around 500 BCE in southern and . Proto-Germanic emerged from the broader Indo-European through distinct sound shifts, such as the First Germanic Consonant Shift, which differentiated it from other Indo-European branches. Divergences among the West Germanic subgroups began to accelerate following early contacts with the in the 1st century BCE, influenced by Latin and interactions along trade routes and frontiers, though the core internal developments occurred later in the . High German shares significant comparative features in vocabulary and grammar with other West Germanic and , reflecting their common Proto-Germanic heritage. For instance, the Proto-Germanic word *hūsą, meaning "," cognates directly with High German Haus, English house, Dutch huis, and even North Germanic forms like Swedish hus, illustrating retained semantic and phonetic similarities across the family despite later divergences. Grammatically, High German exhibits West Germanic traits such as the use of a definite article derived from Proto-Germanic (e.g., High German der paralleling English the and Dutch de), and verb-second in main clauses, a feature widespread in continental West Germanic but altered in English due to subsequent changes. These parallels highlight High German's position as a continental West Germanic language, bridging closer ties with Dutch and than with the more insular Anglo-Frisian branch. Within West Germanic, High German occupies a key role in the broader that spans from varieties in the north to High German in the south and east, forming a gradual transition zone rather than sharp boundaries. This continuum reflects historical migrations and settlements from the early medieval period, with (part of the subgroup) showing greater affinity to Dutch and English, while High German dialects extend into and . Internally, High German further subdivides into Central and groups, but this positioning underscores its integration within the larger West Germanic mosaic.

Internal Subdivisions

The High German languages are traditionally divided into two primary branches: (Mitteldeutsch) and (Oberdeutsch), with the latter often referred to as High German proper. This classification stems from historical phonological developments, particularly the varying degrees of the , which distinguish these varieties from and from each other. The , an east-west extending from to , marks the northern boundary of High German by separating it from Low German dialects; north of this line, words like "to make" retain the form maken with /k/, while south of it, Central and Upper German varieties shift to machen with /x/ or /ç/. Within High German, the Speyer line (also known as the Appel-Apfel line) further delineates the subgroups, running roughly from on the southeastward to the near , dividing to the north from to the south. This line highlights differences in the second phase of the consonant shift, where often partially preserves original sounds (e.g., appel for "apple" with /p/), whereas completes the affrication and fricativization (e.g., apfel with /pf/). Additional subcriterion include phonological features like the extent of the High German —such as the monophthongization of diphthongs in but not uniformly in —and morphological distinctions, including variations in endings (e.g., -e in versus -en in ) and strong verb paradigms. These subdivisions reflect a rather than discrete categories, characterized by gradual transitions across regions rather than abrupt boundaries. Transitional zones, such as the Middle Franconian dialects (including Hessian and ), exhibit mixed features of both Central and , blending partial consonant shifts with emerging Upper German vowel patterns, which underscores the fluid nature of the linguistic landscape in central . Yiddish, although historically derived from medieval Central and Upper German dialects spoken by Ashkenazic Jews in the Rhineland, is classified as a distinct language due to extensive lexical and grammatical influences from Hebrew, Aramaic, and later Slavic languages, setting it apart from the core High German continuum.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Forms

The High German languages originated from Proto-West Germanic dialects spoken between the 1st and 5th centuries CE, during a period of significant tribal migrations across central Europe. These migrations involved groups such as the Alemanni, who settled in southwestern regions including parts of modern Switzerland and southwestern Germany; the Bavarians, who expanded into southeastern areas like Bavaria and Austria; and the Franks, whose movements influenced the Rhine and Main river valleys, contributing to the diversification of West Germanic varieties that would evolve into High German. This era laid the foundation for High German by separating it from Low German through geographic and cultural isolation in upland areas, fostering distinct phonetic and lexical developments. The period, spanning approximately 750 to 1050 CE, marks the first attested written form of these languages, emerging in the East Frankish Kingdom amid the . The earliest surviving text is the Abrogans glossary, a Latin-German word list compiled around 780 CE in a southwestern German , possibly , in the Alemannic region, containing over 3,000 entries that demonstrate early efforts to translate religious terms into vernacular speech. Another key example is the Hildebrandslied, a fragmentary heroic lay from around 830 CE, preserved in a Bavarian , which recounts a tragic father-son in and reflects pre-Christian Germanic oral traditions adapted to Christian contexts. These texts, primarily religious glosses, prayers, and poetic fragments, reveal a still undergoing grammatical simplification and dialectal divergence. Christianization, accelerating from the 8th century under figures like Boniface, and the under (r. 768–814 CE) profoundly boosted literacy in by establishing monastic scriptoria as centers of and . Missionaries needed to convey to local populations, prompting the creation of German-Latin glossaries and hymns to aid preaching, while Charlemagne's reforms standardized scripts and promoted bilingual learning to unify his empire's administration and church. Monasteries such as , founded in 744 CE, and St. Gallen, established in 612 CE but flourishing under Carolingian patronage, produced many early manuscripts, showcasing regional variations like Alemannic forms in St. Gallen's works and Franconian influences in Fulda's glosses. These institutions preserved and innovated linguistic practices, with scribes adapting Latin models to local dialects, thus documenting the fragmented yet evolving nature of . By around 1050 CE, the completion of major sound shifts facilitated a transition to .

Key Sound Changes

The High German consonant shift, also known as the Zweite Lautverschiebung or Second Germanic Consonant Shift, occurred approximately between 500 and 800 CE in the southern dialects of West Germanic. This series of phonological changes primarily targeted the voiceless stops /p/, /t/, and /k/, transforming them into affricates or fricatives depending on their position within the word, thereby distinguishing High German from northern West Germanic varieties like and Dutch that remained unaffected. In contrast to the First Germanic Consonant Shift (), which systematically converted Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops to fricatives across all Proto-Germanic languages around the 1st millennium BCE, the Second Shift operated on the inherited Germanic stops in a more localized manner, affecting only the High German branch. The shift's core transformations are position-dependent, with initial and medial stops typically affricating, while geminates (doubled stops) or final stops fricativized. Representative examples from Proto-Germanic to Old High German illustrate these rules:
Proto-GermanicOld High GermanModern GermanEnglish Cognate
*appulą/p/ → /pf/apfulApfelapple
*tīdiz/t/ → /ts/zītZeit/time
*makeną/k/ → /x/mahhēnmachenmake
*pipar/pp/ → /ff/pfeffarPfefferpepper
*wattu/tt/ → /ss/wazzarwater
*brokkaz/kk/ → /gg/broggarBrocker (related to brock)
These developments are documented in early manuscripts from the , providing textual evidence of the shift's progression. Regional variations in the shift's implementation reflect a , with the full set of changes occurring in areas (such as Alemannic and Bavarian dialects south of the Speyer line), while dialects (like Franconian and Hessian north of the line but still within High German) exhibited partial application. In , all positions of /p/, /t/, and /k/ underwent the shift, resulting in consistent affricates and fricatives; in , initial /p/ often remained unshifted or only partially affricated to /pf/, /t/ shifted reliably to /ts/, but /k/ typically became a stop-fricative cluster /kx/ rather than simplifying to /x/, as in Central forms like *maken > machen vs. Upper machen with full /x/. This uneven diffusion, progressing from south to north, defines the boundary between High and . The shift profoundly influenced High German morphology, particularly by altering consonant alternations in inflectional paradigms. In verb conjugations, stem-final stops in strong and weak verbs shifted differently from those in endings, creating new patterns; for instance, the weak verb past tense suffix *-ta- affricated its /t/ to /tsə/ in some forms, contributing to the modern -te ending (e.g., *habēn > haben 'to have', past *habēta > habēta > hatte), while stem stops like /k/ in *sprekkan > sprechen 'to speak' became /x/, distinguishing singular and plural forms where gemination interacted with the shift (e.g., 1st person singular *sprekkō > sprahhō vs. plural *sprekkum > sprahhum). For noun plurals, the changes affected stems ending in stops, leading to alternations amplified by umlaut; a classic case is *gastiz > gast 'guest' (singular), plural *gastī > gesti, but with shifted related forms like *dōm > Dom vs. plural *dōmiz > Türme in Upper German, where /t/ from other sources fricativized, enhancing paradigmatic contrasts absent in non-shifted languages. These morphological repercussions increased the language's internal complexity and contributed to its divergence from other Germanic branches.

Dialects and Varieties

Upper German Dialects

Upper German dialects constitute the southernmost branch of the High German language continuum, encompassing varieties spoken across the Alpine regions of , , , and northern . These dialects are distinguished by their conservative retention of archaic features alongside innovative developments, particularly in , and they maintain vitality in informal and cultural contexts despite the dominance of in formal settings. As the most geographically isolated High German group, they reflect influences from mountainous terrain and historical migrations, fostering unique lexical and prosodic traits that enhance regional identity. The primary subgroups are Alemannic and Austro-Bavarian. Alemannic varieties, including (Schwiizerdütsch) in and the cantons of and , and Swabian (Schwäbisch) in Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria's region, form the western branch. Austro-Bavarian, the eastern counterpart, includes across most of , with subdialects like Viennese and the Tyrolean variety in the western Alps extending into northern Italy's . , a historically significant variety derived from medieval dialects, developed among Ashkenazi Jewish communities and shares phonological features like the full consonant shift, though it incorporates Hebrew and Slavic elements. These subgroups share a common foundation but diverge in intonation and vocabulary, with Alemannic often featuring sharper pitch contours and Austro-Bavarian showing more rounded vowels. The distinction from dialects occurs along key isoglosses, such as the full implementation of the south of the Speyer line. Phonologically, Upper German dialects exhibit the most complete effects of the High German consonant shift (Zweite Lautverschiebung), transforming Proto-Germanic stops into affricates and fricatives more thoroughly than in northern varieties—for instance, rendering "apple" as Apfel (with /pf/ from /p/) and "make" as machen (with /x/ from /k/). Diminutives frequently employ the suffix -le, as in Swabian Häusle ("little house") or Mädle ("girl"), reflecting a productive morphological pattern distinct from Standard German's -chen. The realization of /r/ is predominantly uvular, articulated as a fricative [ʁ] or trill [ʀ], which lends a throaty quality especially prominent in Austro-Bavarian and Alemannic speech. These traits contribute to mutual intelligibility challenges with Standard German speakers from the north. Lexical influences in dialects stem from Celtic and Romance substrates, particularly in Alpine areas where pre-Germanic Celtic populations and later Roman settlements left imprints on vocabulary related to , , and life—examples include terms for specific mountain flora or cheese-making borrowed or adapted from Raeto-Romance languages like Romansh. In border regions, French and Italian admixtures further enrich the lexicon, such as borrowings for culinary items. These substrates underscore the dialects' role as cultural bridges in multilingual . Upper German dialects remain predominant in daily life, with around 7 million using Austro-Bavarian varieties in informal interactions and about 60% of Switzerland's population (over 5 million speakers) employing as their primary vernacular, especially at home and in social settings. In , particularly and , they are equally vital among rural and urban communities. Culturally, these dialects sustain folk traditions like Alpine yodeling songs and markets, while modern media, including Swiss Television (SRF) broadcasts and Austrian radio programs, actively feature them to preserve linguistic heritage and foster regional pride.

Central German Dialects

The Central German dialects constitute the middle tier of the High German continuum, bridging the more conservative varieties to the north with the ones, and displaying a transitional profile that makes them relatively closer to in structure and vocabulary. They are subdivided into , encompassing Rhine Franconian dialects including Hessian spoken along the and in , and , which includes Thuringian in and Upper Saxon in and adjacent parts of . This geographical positioning in central fosters a diverse array of local varieties, with internal variation reflecting historical migrations and trade routes. A defining phonological characteristic of Central German dialects is their partial adherence to the , where affricates like /pf/ simplify to /p/ in certain environments, as seen in the Hessian pronunciation of Appel for Apfel (apple). These dialects also exhibit innovative vowel reductions, especially in unstressed positions, leading to centralized or schwa-like vowels that enhance their rhythmic flow and distinguish them from the fuller vowel systems of . Such traits underscore their intermediary role in the . Lexically, Central German dialects incorporate borrowings from Dutch and , reflecting their proximity to the western border and northern Low German-speaking areas; for instance, Rhine Franconian varieties adopt Dutch-influenced terms for and , such as shared for river items. These influences enrich the dialects' everyday while maintaining a core High German foundation. These dialects are predominantly used in rural communities across and , where they serve as markers of regional identity, though their prevalence is waning in urban settings due to the spread of through schooling and media. Efforts to document and revive them persist, and they endure in cultural expressions, including Hessian elements evident in the rhymes and phrasing of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's poetry. Notably, the East Central subgroup, particularly Thuringian and Upper Saxon, provided much of the lexical and grammatical basis for during its early standardization.

Standardization and Modern Usage

Development of Standard German

The development of , or Hochdeutsch, emerged from the diverse High German dialects through a gradual process of codification influenced by key linguistic, cultural, and technological factors. Martin Luther's translation of the , completed between 1522 and 1534, laid a foundational role by establishing a widely accessible form based on the dialect of his native , which bridged regional variations and promoted a unified written language across German-speaking territories. This translation, disseminated through the , became a model for subsequent literary and administrative texts, fostering the dialect continuum's convergence into a common standard. In the , grammarian Johann Christoph Adelung advanced standardization through his comprehensive works, including Grammatisch-kritische Syntax der deutschen Sprache (1781), which codified syntax and rules to promote a pure, rational High German free from dialectal excesses and foreign influences. Building on this in the , the —Jacob and Wilhelm—contributed significantly via their (initiated in 1838), a that documented etymologies and usage to reinforce orthographic consistency and linguistic unity amid rising . The 19th century's political unification under the in 1871 amplified these efforts, with the enabling mass production of standardized texts and systems enforcing uniform in schools across fragmented states. This reduced dialectal divergence, as printers adopted consistent conventions to serve a growing literate public, solidifying as the for administration and . A pivotal milestone came with the Second Orthographic Conference in , where representatives from German-speaking states agreed on unified spelling rules, simplifying inconsistencies in capitalization, compound words, and foreign loan adaptations to create an official Rechtschreibung binding for schools and publications. This framework endured with refinements, including the 1996 reform—agreed upon in by , , , and —to further systematize rules for clarity and , followed by clarifications in 2004 and mandatory implementation by 2006.

Contemporary Role and Influence

Standard German, also known as Hochdeutsch, serves as the of and , while functioning as one of four official languages in alongside French, Italian, and Romansh. It is the primary language of , , and media in these countries, with approximately 95 million native speakers worldwide, of whom about 78% reside in . Additionally, Standard German boasts over 134 million total speakers when including second-language users, making it a key in and a major language in international diplomacy, science, and . Efforts to revitalize High German dialects persist through cultural festivals and literary initiatives, countering their decline in everyday use. In Germany's region, the annual Karneval () celebrations, attracting millions of participants, prominently feature local dialects in parades, music, and satirical performances, fostering community identity and linguistic pride. In , Swiss German dialects inspire a vibrant of that integrates dialect elements to preserve regional narratives and oral traditions. These activities build on the historical standardization of German as a unifying force, highlighting dialects' role in contemporary cultural expression. High German varieties extend influence through global diaspora communities, where they adapt and endure outside . In , a former German colony, approximately 22,000 speakers maintain Namibian German in education and media, serving as a bridge to heritage. hosts the largest such community, with around 3 million speakers of Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, a High German blended with , primarily in southern states like . In the United States, German (Pennsylvania Dutch), spoken by approximately 300,000 people primarily in and Mennonite communities, remains a living liturgical and domestic language in rural Pennsylvania and surrounding areas. Despite these roles, High German languages face significant challenges, including the influx of Anglicisms into slang and the erosion of dialects due to . Among younger Germans, English loanwords like "cool" and "" dominate informal speech, reflecting globalization's impact on lexical purity, as noted in sociolinguistic analyses of urban communication. Urban migration and standardization pressures have accelerated dialect loss, with classifying several High German varieties—such as Bavarian and Alemannic—as vulnerable or endangered, prompting preservation campaigns by linguists and local organizations. Recent studies reveal that AI models often underperform or exhibit biases against non-standard High German variants, such as dialects, due to skewed toward ; however, initiatives like Germany's first fully German-trained , LLäMmlein, aim to enhance support for diverse variants.

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