Hubbry Logo
History of the HajjHistory of the HajjMain
Open search
History of the Hajj
Community hub
History of the Hajj
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
History of the Hajj
History of the Hajj
History of the Hajj
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

The Kaaba in Mecca is the destination of pilgrimage for the Muslims
Pilgrim encampment c. 1910

The hajj is a pilgrimage to Mecca performed by millions of Muslims every year, coming from all over the Muslim world. Its history goes back many centuries. The present pattern of the Islamic Hajj was established by Islamic prophet Muhammad, around 632 CE, who reformed the existing pilgrimage tradition of the pagan Arabs. According to Islamic tradition, the hajj dates from thousands of years earlier, from when Abraham, upon God's command, built the Kaaba (the "house of God"). This cubic building is considered the most holy site in Islam and the rituals of the hajj include walking repeatedly around it (circumambulation).

In medieval times, pilgrims would gather in cities like Basra, Damascus, and Cairo to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims. Some came from further afield in sailing ships. The Sultans of the Ottoman Empire supported the pilgrims, appointing the Amir al-Hajj ("Commander of the Hajj") to organise and lead the caravans. As other modes of transport including steamships and trains were introduced, pilgrims were able to make the trip to Mecca more quickly.

The nomadic tribes of the desert – known as Bedouin – had been a persistent security issue for the hajj caravans. The annual pilgrimage offered pilgrims as well as professional merchants the opportunity to conduct various merchandising activities both on route and in Mecca, Damascus, and Cairo. Through its history, the hajj has influenced literature and art as pilgrims have written guides and created artistic depictions of the holy sites and rituals.

Origin

[edit]

In Islamic tradition, pilgrimage was introduced during the time of prophet Ibrahim (Abraham). According to tradition, by God's command, Abraham left his wife Hagar (Hajar) and his son Ishmael (Ismail) alone in the desert of ancient Mecca with little food and water that they soon used up. Mecca was then an uninhabited place.[1] In search of water, Hagar desperately ran seven times between the two hills of Safa and Marwah but found none. Back in despair to Ishmael, she saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg and a water fountain underneath.[2][3] Because of the presence of water, tribes started to settle in Mecca, Jurhum being the first such tribe to arrive. When grown up, Ishmael married in the tribe and started living with them.[3] The Quran states that Ibrahim, along with his son Ishmael, raised the foundations of a house that is identified by most commentators as the Kaaba. After the placing of the Black Stone in the Eastern corner of the Kaaba, Ibrahim received a revelation in which Allah told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind.[2] The Quran refers to these incidents in 2:124-127 and 22:27-30. Islamic scholar Shibli Nomani mentions that the house raised by Abraham was 27 feet high, 96 feet long, and 66 feet wide.[4]

History

[edit]

Pre-Islamic Arabia

[edit]
A camel caravan traveling to Mecca for the annual pilgrimage, c. 1910.

The pilgrimage to Mecca is attested in some pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. Compared to Islamic-era poetry where the Hajj appears ubiquitously, only a small number of references are found to it in pre-Islamic poetry, indicating that its Arabian centrality was a development of Islamic times.[5] Among the references that do exist, they are concentrated among poets who resided near Mecca with a notable absence among those in northern, eastern, and southern Arabia.[6] Pre-Islamic poetry consistently associates the Hajj with a single deity (Allah), correlating with the rise of pre-Islamic Arabian monotheism indicated by inscriptions, although the survival of vestigial pagan rites is indicated by the mention of sacrifice stones in these contexts.[7] The rites of the pre-Islamic Hajj in the sixth century were similar to those in the Muslim era,[8] and evidence from the poetry of Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma found in the Mu'allaqat shows that, by the sixth century, the Quraysh (and perhaps earlier, Jurhum) were the custodians of the Kaaba.[9] Some of the main changes between the pre-Islamic and Islamic Hajj instituted by Muhammad appear to have been his decoupling of the Hajj from animal hunting and animal sacrifice rites.[10]

Pre-Islamic Arabia was a region of many pilgrimage rituals beyond that of Hajj.[11] Many words were used to describe pilgrimage, including the Semitic ḥgg.[12] The most important pilgrimage ritual in South Arabia was the one to the Temple of Awwam, dedicated to the god Almaqah, which was associated with a ḥaram or maḥram.[13][14] A number of other South Arabian deities were also associated with special sanctuaries and pilgrimages, including Dhu Samawi, Qaynan, Siyan, and several more.[15]

Muhammad and the Hajj

[edit]

The present pattern of the Hajj was established by Islamic prophet Muhammad who made reforms to the pre-Islamic pilgrimage of the pagan Arabs.[16] Mecca was conquered by the Muslims in 630 CE. Muhammad then destroyed all the pagan idols within the Kaaba, and consecrated the building to Allah.[17] Next year, at the direction of Muhammad, Abu Bakr led 300 Muslims to the pilgrimage in Mecca where Ali delivered a sermon stipulating the new rites of Hajj and abrogating the pagan rites. He especially declared that no unbeliever, pagan, and naked man would be allowed to circumambulate the Kaaba from the next year.[18] In 632 CE, shortly before his death, Muhammad performed his only and last pilgrimage with a large number of followers, and taught them the rites of the Hajj and the manners of performing them.[19] In the plain of Arafat, he delivered a famous speech – known as The Farewell Sermon – to those who were present there.[20] From then, Hajj became one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Hajj was made compulsory in 9th Hijri.[21]

Indian (top) and Iranian (bottom) pilgrim camps depicted in the 1677 Anis al-Hujjaj

Caliphate era

[edit]
Further information: Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, and Arab Caliphate

During medieval times, pilgrims would gather in the capital cities of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims.[22] The Muslim rulers would undertake the responsibility of the Hajj, and provide state patronage for organizing such pilgrimage caravans.[23][24] To facilitate the pilgrimage journey, a road measuring 900 miles was constructed, stretching from Iraq to Mecca and Medina. The road's construction was probably undertaken during the third Abbasid caliph al-Mahdi, father of fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, around 780 CE. It was later named the 'Way of Zubayda' (Darb Zubaidah), after Harun's wife, as she is noted for conducting improvements along the route and furnishing it with water cisterns and eating houses for pilgrims at regular intervals.[25][26] Both Harun and Zubayda performed the Hajj several times conducted improvement activities in Mecca and Medina.[27][28]

A good deal of information on the medieval hajj comes from the firsthand observations of three Muslim travelers - Nasir Khusraw, Ibn Jubayr, and Ibn Battuta - who themselves performed the pilgrimage and recorded detailed accounts. Khusraw performed the hajj in 1050. Starting his first journey from Granada in 1183, Ibn Jubayr, a native of Spain, performed his pilgrimage in 1184 and then went to Baghdad.[29] Ibn Battuta, a native of Morocco, left his home in 1325 and performed his pilgrimage in 1326.[30] After the fall of Baghdad in 1258 (during Mamluk period), Damascus and Cairo became the main assembly points for the pilgrims.[31] While pilgrims from Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and Anatolia regions joined the Damascus caravan, those from North Africa and Sub-Saharan regions joined the Cairo caravan.[22][31]

Ottoman era

[edit]
Further information: Mamluk Sultanate, Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Arabia, and Hejaz vilayet
The Egyptian pilgrim caravan crossing the Suez Canal on its way to Mecca, circa 1885

After the Ottomans came into power, the sultans of Ottoman Empire concerned themselves with the management of hajj program, and allocated annual budget for its arrangement.[32] During this period, Damascus and Cairo were still the main points from where the chief hajj caravans would depart and come back.[33][34] These caravans included thousands of camels for carrying pilgrims, merchants, goods, foodstuff, and water. A lot of people also made their pilgrimage journey on foot. The rulers would supply necessary military forces to ensure security of hajj caravans. Commanders for the caravans leaving from Cairo and Damascus were designated by the Muslim sovereign and were known as Amir al-Hajj. They were in charge of protecting the pilgrims of the caravan, and securing funds and supplies for the journey.[35] Surgeons and physicians were also sent with Syrian caravans to doctor the pilgrims free of costs.[36] During this period, around 20,000 to 60,000 people made their pilgrimage annually.[35]

Modern period

[edit]
The route of Hejaz Railway

During the second half of the nineteenth century (after 1850s), steamships began to be used in the pilgrimage journey to Mecca, and the number of pilgrims traveling on sea route increased.[37] With the opening of Suez Canal in 1869, the travel time for pilgrimage was shortened.[38] Initially, the British ship companies had a monopoly in these steamship business and they offered little facilities to the pilgrims. In 1886, the then government of India adopted some regulations to improve the pilgrimage journey from India to Hejaz.[39] During the early twentieth century, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II constructed the Hejaz Railway between Damascus and Medina which further facilitated the pilgrimage journey: the pilgrims traveled in relative ease and reached Hejaz in only four days.[40] Starting from Damascus in September 1900, the railway reached Medina in September 1908 having a span of 1,300 kilometers (810 mi).[41][42] The railroad was damaged during the First World War by an Arab Revolt force led by British officer T. E. Lawrence.[43][40] Plague used to break out almost every year until 1918.[44]

Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works in Switzerland built a class of ten 2-8-0 locomotives for the Hejaz Railway in 1912, numbered 87–96.

After a contract between the Saudi Arabian government and the Misr Airlines of Egypt in 1936, the Misr Airlines introduced the first airline service for Hajj pilgrims in 1937.[45] The subsequent engine trouble of the aircraft disrupted the hajj flights, and the Second World War from 1939 to 1945 caused a decrease in pilgrims' number. Modern transportation systems in the pilgrimage journey effectively began only after the Second World War. Saudi Arabia established the Arabian Transport Company and the Bakhashab Transport Company, in 1946 and 1948, respectively, in order to transport the pilgrims at various Hajj sites which proved highly effective in later years, and the use of camels as a means of transport for pilgrimage journeys virtually ended in 1950.[45] According to one account, during the pilgrimage seasons of 1946–1950, around 80% of the total foreign pilgrims arrived by sea, 10% by land, and 7% by air transport.[46] The 1970s and subsequent decades saw a dramatic increase in the number of pilgrims because of the availability of affordable air travel system.[47]

In 1979, a large group of rebels seized the mosque. This was known as the Grand Mosque seizure. It took two weeks for the authorities to bring the situation under control and the rebels were later executed.[48][49] In recent years there have been several notable incidents such as a human stampede in 2004 and 2006, a crane collapse in 2015 and a stampede in the same year; the government of Saudi Arabia has spent billions of dollars in crowd control and safety measures.[50] During the COVID-19 pandemic, only 10,000 people were allowed to participate in the Hajj of 2020, with pilgrim numbers rising to 59,000 in 2021.[51] Amidst the lifting of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, Hajj participation figures rebounded to 926,000 in 2022, and roughly doubled to 1.84 million in 2023.[52]

Hajj routes

[edit]
The procession waiting for the pilgrim. On the right are camels kneeling down. On the left are the silver-and-ivory palanquins, 1911.

"Way of Zubayda" (Iraqi route)

[edit]

In medieval Iraq, the principal gathering points for the pilgrims were Kufa and Basra where the former was connected to the Hejaz region by the Way of Zubayda. This Iraqi route started from Kufa, ran through Fayd (a place near Jabal Shammar in central part of Saudi Arabia), crossed the Nejd region (a region in central Saudi Arabia), proceeded to Medina, and then reached Mecca.[53]

Syrian route

[edit]

In medieval Syria, the departure point for the pilgrims was Damascus. This Syrian route started from Damascus, and heading south, reached Al-Karak and then Ma'an (both are in present-day Jordan), crossed through Tabuk (a place in north-western Saudi Arabia), Hijr (now Mada'in Saleh), and Al-'Ula (in north-western Saudi Arabia, 380 km north of Medina), then proceeded to Medina, and then reached Mecca.[54][55]

From the Umayyad period until Ottoman times, the town of Ma'an served as a market place for the pilgrims on the Syrian route.[56]

Ottoman period

[edit]

Ottoman khans are fortified inns for pilgrims, which are called in different ways - khan, qal'a/qil'a, or manzil.[clarification needed]

By modern country:

  • Syria: forts 1-7 (Sulaymaniyya Takiyya - Muzayrib)
  • Jordan: forts 8-17 (Mafraq - Mudawwara)
  • Saudi Arabia: forts 18-32 (Dhat al-Hajj - Hafira at Medina)
  1.  Sulaymaniyya Takiyya
  2.  Maydan
  3.  Kiswa (Al-Kiswah)
  4.  Khan Dannun
  5.  Ghabaghib
  6.  Sanamayn
  7.  Muzayrib
  8.  Mafraq: Khan or Qal'at el-Mafraq[57]
  9. Manzil az-Zarqa or Qasr Shabib/[57] Shebib (32°03′48″N 36°04′56″E / 32.06333°N 36.08222°E / 32.06333; 36.08222)[58]
  10.  Birkat Zizia: Manzil or Qal'at Zizya[57]
  11.  Dab'ah: Manzil or Qal'at Dab'ah[57] (see pin map at Theeb: Qasr Dab'ah about 40 km SSE of Amman; previously Qal'at Balqa'; 31°35′46″N 36°03′02″E / 31.59611°N 36.05056°E / 31.59611; 36.05056)[59]
  12.  Qatrana: Khan Qatrana/[57]Qasr al-Qatraneh (31°14′30″N 36°02′23″E / 31.24167°N 36.03972°E / 31.24167; 36.03972)[60]
  13. Hasa/el-Hassa: Khan al-Hasa/[57] Qal'at al-Hasa (1760), stands next to a bridge (c. 1730–33) over Wadi el-Hasa in its upper course, 5 km northwest of the Hejaz railway station, at 30°50′21″N 35°56′01″E / 30.83917°N 35.93361°E / 30.83917; 35.93361.[61]
  14.  Uneiza ('Unayzah): Khan al-'Unayzah/[57] Qal'at 'Unaiza (30°29′17″N 35°47′43″E / 30.48806°N 35.79528°E / 30.48806; 35.79528)[62]
  15.  Ma'an: Manzilt or Qal'at Ma'an[57]
  16.  Fassu'a: Manzilt or Qal'at Fassu'a[57] (29°45′55″N 35°52′51″E / 29.76528°N 35.88083°E / 29.76528; 35.88083)[63]
  17.  Mudawwara: Manzilt or Qal'at al-Mudawwara[57] (29°19′23″N 35°59′28″E / 29.32306°N 35.99111°E / 29.32306; 35.99111)[64]
  18.  Dhat al-Hajj
  19.  Tabuk: Tabuk Castle
  20. Qalandariyya
  21.  al-Ukhaydir: Qal'at al-Akhdar
  22. Muazzem/Al-Mu'azzam
  23.  Dar al-Hamra
  24.  Mada'in Saleh/Meda'in Saleh (Al-Hijr/Hegra)
  25.  Al-'Ula
  26.  Bir al-Ghannam
  27.  Zumurrud/Zumrud
  28.  Sawrah
  29.  Hadiyya (Hadiyyah, Al Madinah)
  30.  Nakhlatayn
  31.  Wadi al-Qura
  32.  Hafira/al-Hafirah

Egyptian route

[edit]

For the Egyptian route, the pilgrims would gather in Cairo, and after four days, start for the ground of Ajrud (24 kilometers northwest of Suez), and from there they would reach Suez, and crossing the Sinai Peninsula through Al-Nakhl point, they would reach Aqaba (in south part of present-day Jordan), then traveling parallel to the Red Sea, they reach Yanbu, then proceed to Medina, and finally reach Mecca.[65][54] The hajj caravans would start their pilgrimage journey from there, traveled by land or sea and through deserts, and, after the performance of pilgrimage, return there. The total journey would take approximately two to three months on average.[65][31]

From further afield

[edit]
Mecca pilgrims from the Netherlands East Indies (today Indonesia) on board of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd steamer Kota Nopan, in the Red Sea, 1937.

The pilgrimage to Mecca was mainly an overland journey using camels as a means of transport. Throughout the history, however, many distant pilgrims from the Maghreb, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia also had to use various sea routes to reach Hejaz.[66] The Anis Al-Hujjaj is an illustrated account of a Hajj taken in 1677 by a member of the Mughal court.[67] With other pilgrims, he crossed in a ship from Surat to Jeddah via Mocha, Yemen.[68] Pilgrims from Maghreb (Tunisia, Algeria, Libya) would travel through the lower coast of Mediterranean sea to reach and join the Cairo caravans.[69] Some pilgrims coming from Africa would cross the Red Sea to reach the Hejaz, and then to Mecca.[70][71]

Mahmal, royal power symbols

[edit]
Main article: Mahmal
The Egyptian Mahmal on its way to Mecca, c. 1880

A mahmal was a ceremonial passenger-less litter that was carried on a camel among the pilgrim caravan each year from the 13th century to the mid-20th. It symbolised the political power of the sultans who sent it, demonstrating their custody of Islam's holy sites. Mahmals were sent from Cairo, Damascus, Yemen, Hyderabad, Darfur, and the Timurid Empire in different periods.[72] The arrival of a mahmal in Mecca was a significant occasion which local people and pilgrims came out to watch.[73] Before entry to the city, the simple textiles which had covered the mahmal on its journey were replaced with the kiswah: an ornate, colourful textile embroidered with verses from the Quran and the tughra (emblem) of the sponsoring sultan.[74] Mahmals from different countries competed for the best position in front of the Kaaba.[74] A mahmal returning from Mecca to its city of origin was regarded as carrying barakah (blessing). As the procession returned, parents brought out their children to touch the mahmal, and people briefly put their handkerchiefs inside it.[75]

Taxation on pilgrims

[edit]
Ornamental chamfron (face armour) for a camel or horse in the Mahmal procession, Ottoman Empire, 18th century.

According to Ibn Jubayr, during the period of Fatimid overlordship over the Hejaz, taxes were imposed on the pilgrims by the local rulers of Hejaz at the rate of seven and a half gold dinar per head. Those who were unable to pay them had to suffer extreme physical torture.[76] However, imposing taxes on the pilgrims was considered illegal by the Islamic jurists. After Saladin overthrew the Fatimid Caliphate around 1171 and established the Ayyubid dynasty, attempts were made by him to abolish the taxes on the pilgrims.[76] Saladin's removal of illegal taxes was praised by Ibn Jubayr. Saladin's measures, however, proved insufficient, especially in later times, partly because there were other taxes (like taxes on hajj caravans or camels) and also because the administrative decisions, taken in Damascus or Cairo, were not easy to be applied effectively in Hejaz due to long distance. Some of the later Mamluk sultans – like Baybers and Hassan – made active attempts to control the Meccan local rulers from taxing the pilgrim caravans by compensating the Meccan rulers with annual allocation of a fixed sum of money.[77] Al-Suyuti mentions that in the year 384 AH (around 994 CE), pilgrims who came from Iraq, Syria, and Yemen to perform hajj went back unsuccessful because they were not allowed to perform hajj without paying tax. Only Egyptian pilgrims performed hajj that year.[26]

Bedouin security issues

[edit]
An Ottoman fort in Saudi Arabia, adjacent to Bedouin encampments, 1907.

Throughout the history of the hajj, the nomadic tribes of desert – known as Bedouin – have been a persistent security issue for the hajj caravans.[78] They often used to attack the caravans – hajj or merchandise – that passed their territories. They had to be paid in exchange for the security of the hajj caravans.[79] The head of the regime would hand over the payment to the Amir al-Hajj – the commander in charge of the hajj caravans – who would then make the payments to the Bedouin according to the demands of the situation.[79] Even then, there were occasional casualties. In 1757, a Bedouin tribe, Bani Sakhr, attacked the hajj caravans that resulted in the death of many pilgrims, immediately and afterwards, as well as other casualties.[80]

Trading activities

[edit]

Throughout the history, the pilgrimage journey to Mecca had offered the pilgrims as well as the professional merchants the opportunity to conduct various merchandising activities both en route and in Mecca, Damascus, and Cairo.[81][82] The exemption of customs on land and the security provided to the hajj caravans further made it a lucrative field for trading. Many pilgrims brought goods, produced in their respective lands, in order to sell them, thus becoming an occasional trader, and managing some expenses for hajj trip.[83] According to John Lewis Burckhardt, the Afghans brought coarse shawls, beads of stone, tooth-brush; the European Turks brought shoes, slippers, knit silk purse, embroidered items, and sweetmeats; the Anatolian Turks brought Angora shawls and carpet; the pilgrims of Maghreb brought cloaks made of wool.[83] The professional businessmen conducted large-scale merchandising activities that included transportation of goods between Mecca and their own towns as well as sales alone the hajj route.[84] The Indian and other Eastern goods, brought to Mecca by ships, were purchased by big merchants of Cairo and Damascus who, upon return, then sold them in their own markets. These goods generally included Indian textile, various spices, coffee, drugs, and precious stones.[85]

Hajj certificates

[edit]
Early 20th century Hajj certificate illustrating, with captions, features of the Mecca sanctuary.

From the 11th century to the early 20th century, pilgrims could obtain paper Hajj certificates which they would typically display in their homes.[86] The earliest known certificates, from the 11th century, are purely calligraphic works. From the late 12th century onwards, they included depictions of the Kaaba and other holy sites, either hand-painted or woodblock printed.[87] These are some of the earliest surviving figurative depictions of these sites.[88] Over the years, the certificates became more colourful. Being distributed throughout the Muslim world by returning pilgrims, they were used as references for other artistic depictions of the holy sites.[87] They served as maps and guides to the pilgrimage routes. Later certificates listed the rites that a pilgrim had performed at each location, and illustrated the locations in vertical sequence.[88] By confirming the devotional activities of the pilgrim in the sight of Allah, the certificates were seen as a source of barakah (blessing), which was enhanced by them being made near the holy site of Mecca and bearing Quranic text.[88] Certificates that survive include that of the 16th century Ottoman prince Mehmed.[89]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

History of the Hajj

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Hajj is the annual pilgrimage to Mecca undertaken by Muslims during the Islamic lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah, obligatory once in a lifetime for those who are physically and financially capable, and one of the Five Pillars of Islam central to the faith's practice. Its core rituals, including circumambulation of the Kaaba, standing at Arafat, and symbolic stoning, originated in pre-Islamic Arabian traditions, as evidenced by contemporary poetry and early hadith reports confirming pilgrimage activity to Mecca in the generation preceding Muhammad. The Prophet Muhammad formalized and purified these rites during his Farewell Pilgrimage in 632 CE, establishing the template for Islamic observance by redirecting pagan elements toward monotheistic devotion to Allah. Throughout history, the Hajj has served as a unifying ritual for the ummah, facilitating trade, knowledge exchange, and political alliances, while evolving under successive caliphates and empires—from Umayyad expansions that intertwined pilgrimage with state legitimacy to Ottoman-era caravans and infrastructure like the Hejaz Railway. In the modern era, Saudi guardianship has enabled mass participation via air travel, though it has also amplified risks of overcrowding and health crises, underscoring the pilgrimage's enduring scale and logistical challenges.

Pre-Islamic Origins

Ancient Arabian Practices

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Kaaba in Mecca functioned as a polytheistic sanctuary drawing annual pilgrimages from Arab tribes, particularly during the sacred months of Dhu al-Qa'dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, Muharram, and Rajab, when intertribal warfare was suspended to facilitate safe assembly. These gatherings combined ritual circumambulation (tawaf) of the Kaaba, animal sacrifices at nearby sites, and commercial fairs that boosted trade in goods like leather, spices, and incense. Pre-Islamic poetry provides textual evidence of these practices; for instance, verses attributed to poets such as Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma reference pilgrimage oaths and rites performed both at the Kaaba and in surrounding areas, underscoring the Hajj-like journey's role in tribal alliances and divination. The itself housed up to 360 idols representing local and regional deities, with —likely a Nabataean import depicted as a figure with divination arrows—serving as the principal god venerated by the tribe, 's custodians. leveraged the sanctuary's prestige to enforce oaths of protection for pilgrims and merchants, transforming into a neutral nexus despite its arid, off-route location, with annual fairs generating revenue through levies and markets. Archaeological parallels from Nabataean sites like reveal similar pilgrimage circuits involving processions and around sacred rocks or shrines, while inscriptions from nomadic northern Arabia document rituals of and oath-taking at tribal sanctuaries, indicating a broader Semitic tradition of seasonal, truce-bound gatherings without monotheistic framing. These elements highlight regional continuity in polytheistic centered on cubic shrines and astral deities, sustained by economic incentives rather than singular foundational myths.

Abrahamic Traditions and Historical Scrutiny

According to Islamic tradition, the Kaaba in Mecca was first built by the prophet Abraham and his son Ishmael around 2000 BCE, following divine command to establish a house of worship. The Quran describes Abraham and Ishmael raising the Kaaba's foundations while invoking it as a place of security, assembly for the people, and a site of prayer (Quran 2:125–127). This construction is tied to Abraham's relocation of his wife Hagar and infant Ishmael to the desolate valley of Mecca, where, upon their desperation for water, the angel Jibril struck the ground to reveal the Zamzam well, ensuring their survival and marking the site's sanctity, as detailed in hadith collections like Sahih al-Bukhari. These accounts position the Hajj's core rituals—such as circumambulation of the Kaaba and supplication—as restorations of primordial monotheistic practices instituted by Abraham to reject idolatry and affirm tawhid (God's oneness). Historical scrutiny reveals no corroborating archaeological or textual evidence outside Islamic sources for Abraham's activities in Mecca or the Kaaba's erection during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Biblical chronologies date Abraham's life to circa 2000–1800 BCE, primarily in Mesopotamia (Ur and Haran) and Canaan, with key events like the covenant and near-sacrifice of Isaac occurring near Hebron or Salem, absent any reference to Arabian journeys or structures resembling the Kaaba. Excavations in Mecca yield no settlements or artifacts from this era, and ancient Near Eastern records, including Assyrian, Ptolemaic, and biblical texts, omit Mecca entirely until post-Islamic references, casting doubt on its prominence as an Abrahamic hub. Scholars argue that the tradition likely retrojects 7th-century CE monotheistic legitimacy onto pre-existing pagan Arabian pilgrimage centers, conflating Semitic migratory motifs with local cultic sites to forge continuity with biblical patriarchs, though Abraham's historicity itself remains unproven beyond scriptural narratives. Comparative analysis with Jewish and Christian traditions underscores divergences: Abraham's altars and worship occur in Canaanite locales like Bethel and (Genesis 12–13), with pilgrimage motifs centered on or annual festivals, not arid Arabian valleys or well-based rituals. Islamic reframing aligns Hajj sacrifices with Abraham's tested obedience but substitutes for and relocates the narrative southward, potentially drawing from shared Semitic lore while adapting indigenous practices—evident in pre-Islamic and stoning rites—to symbolize rejection of . This etiological strategy, common in religious evolutions, prioritizes theological coherence over empirical timelines, as no independent epigraphic or material traces link Abrahamic events to Meccan topography.

Establishment Under Muhammad

Pre-Islamic Reforms and the Conquest of Mecca

In January 630 CE (8 AH), led an army of about 10,000 Muslims from to after the violated the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, resulting in the city's capitulation with minimal bloodshed and general amnesty granted to its inhabitants. Upon reaching the , ordered the removal and destruction of the pagan idols enshrined within and around it, traditionally reported as numbering 360, which represented various Arabian deities and symbolized the site's pre-Islamic polytheistic function. He personally struck the principal idol of with his bow before overseeing the comprehensive cleansing, rededicating the structure exclusively to the worship of and thereby initiating the site's transformation from a hub of to a monotheistic . During this entry, performed rather than , as the pilgrimage season had passed, but used the occasion to enforce immediate ritual modifications rooted in and Islamic norms. Pre-Islamic practices included naked (tawaf) by certain participants, particularly men and women seeking ritual purification or vows; explicitly prohibited this, mandating that tawaf be conducted clothed to uphold (haya) and reject pagan customs. He also recited verses emphasizing Allah's oneness, such as "Truth has come and falsehood has vanished" ( 17:81), while directing the effacement of idolatrous images except those depicting prophets like and Mary, which were spared temporarily. These interventions established precedents for pilgrimage exclusivity to monotheistic believers, as the purge of idols effectively barred ongoing polytheistic participation and aligned the site's sacred status with Islamic doctrine, though full ritual standardization occurred later. The conquest's success, bolstered by tribal alliances and Quraysh demoralization, facilitated mass conversions in Mecca, causal factors in consolidating Muslim control over the pilgrimage center without protracted resistance.

The Farewell Pilgrimage and Ritual Codification

The took place in Dhul-Hijjah 10 AH, corresponding to March 632 CE, marking the only performed by and serving as the model for its standardized rites. departed on 25 Dhul-Qa'dah with a large assembly of followers, entering (ritual consecration) at Dhu'l-Hulaifa and proceeding to , where he circumambulated the seven times (tawaf al-qudum) and ran between (sa'i). These actions integrated pre-existing Arabian practices into a monotheistic framework centered on devotion to alone. On 9 Dhul-Hijjah, at , delivered the to the gathered pilgrims, proclaiming the equality of all humans regardless of or non- origin, with superiority determined solely by and righteous deeds; he urged men to treat women justly, fulfilling marital obligations and providing for them; and he abolished () along with pre-Islamic blood feuds, declaring all past usurious claims void. The sermon's content, preserved across multiple narrations in collections like and , reinforced adherence to the and 's exemplary conduct () as the basis for Islamic law. This address, occurring during the essential wuquf (standing) at Arafat—the rite's climax—emphasized Hajj's role in transcending tribal divisions. The pilgrims then moved to for combined evening prayers and gathering pebbles, before advancing to Mina on 10 Dhul-Hijjah for the symbolic stoning of the largest Jamrah (pillar representing ), followed by animal sacrifice on and shaving or trimming the head to complete the major rites and exit . The comprehensive sequence, including instructions on intention () as prerequisite for validity, is detailed in the of Jabir ibn Abdullah, which recounts 's step-by-step performance and commands to emulate it precisely. explicitly directed the assembly to derive their practices from his observed actions, stating, "Take your rituals from me, for I do not know whether I shall perform after this year." This pilgrimage unified Arabian tribes under a codified Islamic legal and ritual framework, dissolving jahiliyyah-era hierarchies through shared observance; following Muhammad's death in June 632 CE, companions such as immediately replicated the rites in subsequent years, embedding them as the obligatory fifth pillar of .

Early Islamic Expansion

Rashidun Caliphate Organization

During the (632–661 CE), the Hajj transitioned to centralized caliphal administration amid expansive conquests that incorporated diverse Muslim populations from Persia, , and , enforcing its status as an obligation () on financially and physically capable adult Muslims while upholding the exclusion of non-Muslims established by the Prophet Muhammad's announcement in 631 CE. This period saw initial state efforts to sustain pilgrimage logistics despite internal rebellions and external campaigns, integrating new adherents without altering core rituals and relying on tribal alliances for route security from key centers like . The caliphs' oversight reflected the rite's role in unifying , with growing pilgrim numbers necessitating infrastructural responses. Caliph (r. 634–644 CE) contemplated compulsory enforcement, stating his intent to dispatch agents to compel neglectful residents of means to perform under escort to . His administration maintained route viability from through pacified tribal territories, enabling pilgrims from emerging provinces to join despite ongoing wars. Successor ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE) addressed capacity strains by expanding , acquiring and demolishing adjacent properties to enlarge the open prayer area and installing a roof supported by wooden columns for shelter. These enhancements accommodated influxes from conquered regions, bolstering 's feasibility as the caliphate's territorial scope widened. Under ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661 CE), civil strife disrupted broader governance, yet the pilgrimage endured via provincial coordinators, underscoring its resilient institutional embedding.

Umayyad and Abbasid Innovations

During the (661–750 CE), logistical enhancements to the included the establishment of specialized pilgrimage roads and desert waystations to mitigate risks from arid terrain and banditry. Caliphs developed a northern route from Syrian territories through to , incorporating pilgrim encampments and qusur—fortified rest stops that served as vital nodes for water, shelter, and security along the overland path. These measures reflected sporadic but targeted patronage, enabling broader participation amid the empire's expansion into new provinces. Caliph (r. 685–705 CE) commissioned the in between 685 and 691 CE, a structure some early sources portray as a provisional counter-pilgrimage site during the Second Fitna civil war, when rebel leader held and disrupted access to the . Following the Umayyad reconquest of in 692 CE, however, emphasis shifted back to supporting the canonical rites there, with infrastructure investments underscoring the caliphate's commitment to as a unifying imperial ritual despite internal challenges. The (750–1258 CE) marked a phase of intensified state sponsorship and cultural elaboration, with caliphs viewing as a mechanism for political cohesion across a diverse realm spanning Persia to . Rulers like (r. 786–809 CE) personally undertook the pilgrimage multiple times, including on foot from to , exemplifying piety and mobilizing official caravans that drew thousands from peripheral regions. Enhanced provisioning, such as the Darb Zubaydah route's engineering feats—including milestones, pavements, reservoirs, and aqueducts—facilitated larger-scale assemblies, with caravan sizes often reaching 5,000 to 8,000 pilgrims by the era's later centuries. Scholarly advancements under the Abbasids standardized Hajj practices through the maturation of Sunni schools, which documented ritual variations grounded in and . For instance, the , formalized by (d. 767 CE), mandated assuming strictly before designated miqats (boundaries) like Dhu'l-Hulaifa for Medina-bound pilgrims, while the , established by (d. 820 CE), permitted flexibility such as entering after miqat under certain conditions, reflecting debates over optimal adherence. These codifications, disseminated via texts like Malik ibn Anas's Muwatta (compiled ca. 795 CE), promoted interpretive diversity while preserving core obligations, with Mecca serving as a hub for jurists' exchanges that enriched Islamic intellectual networks. Increased Persian and provincial Muslim involvement further amplified participation, transforming Hajj into a conduit for trans-regional knowledge dissemination beyond mere ritual observance.

Medieval Logistics and Economy

Development of Pilgrimage Routes

The primary overland routes to developed from pre-existing trade paths during the Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258 CE) caliphates, shaped by the locations of administrative capitals and the need for secure passage across deserts. The Iraqi route, termed Darb Zubayda, linked and later to over roughly 1,400 kilometers, incorporating wells, reservoirs, and fortified stations to mitigate and . This path gained prominence after the Abbasid relocation of the caliphate to , evolving from ancient caravan trails into a dedicated pilgrimage artery by the . Parallel to this, the Syrian route (Darb al-Hajj al-Shami) extended from southward, traversing arid expanses via established waystations that dated to the but were systematically fortified under Umayyad oversight from the provincial capital. Spanning about 1,300 kilometers to and onward to , it served as the principal conduit for Levantine and Anatolian pilgrims, integrating with broader trade networks while prioritizing seasonal security for hajj . The Egyptian route commenced from , organizing large-scale caravans for North African and Levantine pilgrims, with departures facilitated through state-managed logistics emerging in the Fatimid period (909–1171 CE) but rooted in earlier Abbasid influences. Complementing land paths, maritime routes from the onward drew pilgrims from via coastal ports, across the , and through extended voyages terminating at , Mecca's chief seaport, which handled surges of seaborne arrivals amid seasonal patterns. Critical infrastructure enhancements underscored these routes' viability, exemplified by Abbasid-era engineering under Zubayda bint Ja'far (d. 831 CE), who funded aqueducts channeling water from the Hunayn spring, approximately 95 kilometers distant, to sustain multitudes at Arafat during the standing ritual. These qanat-style conduits, integrated with surface channels and reservoirs, exemplified adaptive responses to geographic constraints, ensuring potable supplies for tens of thousands amid the hajj's exigencies.

Caravans, Taxation, Trade, and Certificates

In the medieval Islamic period, particularly during the (750–1258 CE), Hajj pilgrims traveled in large, organized caravans departing from key urban centers including , , , and later . These expeditions, comprising 2,500 to 4,000 camels along with water carriers, guides, and armed escorts, were led by an appointed amīr al-ḥajj to coordinate logistics over routes spanning 30–40 days to Mecca. Early accounts, such as those by Ibn Khurdādhbih (d. 912 CE), document these assemblies as essential for collective safety and efficiency amid desert challenges. State authorities imposed tolls and taxes on pilgrims' merchandise, camels, and possessions to fund caravan operations and passage rights, circumventing prohibitions on direct levies on individuals fulfilling religious obligations. Rulers negotiated tributes with local tribes for safe transit, integrating these fiscal mechanisms into the pilgrimage's economic framework and sustaining infrastructure along established paths. Such revenues supported not only transport but also broader caliphal investments in Hijazi facilities, as Abbasid rulers expanded beyond the sporadic efforts of their Umayyad predecessors (661–750 CE). The convergence of pilgrims and merchants in these spurred , with seasons hosting markets in Mina and Arafat where commodities were exchanged, enhancing Mecca's commercial vitality. Abbasid-era networks facilitated the flow of goods like spices, textiles, slaves, , , metals, and ceramics, often transported alongside pilgrims from distant regions. These fairs, predating formalized urban bazaars in Mecca itself, drew participants from across the Islamic world, blending devotional travel with economic exchange as permitted by Quranic injunctions (e.g., 2:198). From the 11th century onward, authorities issued certificates as stylized documents attesting to the fulfillment of pilgrimage rites, providing verifiable proof for legal privileges, social prestige, and communal recognition of ḥajjī status. These records, emerging in the later Abbasid era, confirmed ritual completion—including Medina visits in some cases—and served as enduring testaments to , later evolving into printed forms by the . Such certification underscored the pilgrimage's role in personal and familial validation within Islamic society.

Security and Conflicts in History

Bedouin Raids and Tribal Dynamics

Bedouin tribes posed a recurring security challenge to Hajj caravans throughout medieval Islamic history, leveraging their dominance over desert routes to demand tribute or conduct raids known as ghazw. These nomadic groups, inhabiting arid regions with sparse oases and limited water sources, relied on raiding as a core economic strategy to supplement scarce resources, often targeting vulnerable pilgrim convoys for livestock, provisions, and ransom. Weak central authority in the vast Arabian Peninsula exacerbated this dynamic, allowing tribes to control key waypoints and extort protection fees, or himaya, from caravan leaders in exchange for safe passage. During the , specific incidents underscored the threat; for instance, in 259 AH (873 CE), the Banū Asad tribe attacked pilgrims near al-Mughītha, killing the Hajj road superintendent, while in 268 AH (882 CE), multiple groups assaulted caravans en route. To mitigate such risks, caliphal authorities under the amir al-hajj—the caravan commander—often disbursed tribute payments, termed sarr, to influential tribes, half upon outbound travel and the remainder on return if unmolested. This system reflected pragmatic tribal dynamics, where alliances or pacts provided temporary security amid ongoing negotiations and occasional ambushes driven by unpaid dues or inter-tribal rivalries. Medieval travelers documented these encounters, highlighting the precarious balance between threat and negotiation. Ibn Jubayr, journeying in the late 12th century during the Ayyubid era, observed Bedouin interactions along his Hajj route, noting their role in desert security and potential for extortion. Similarly, Ibn Battuta in the 14th century faced bandit attacks and Bedouin interventions during his pilgrimage travels, illustrating how water scarcity and mobility enabled opportunistic raids despite the sanctity of the ihram state. These accounts reveal that while outright massacres were rarer than extortion, the underlying tribal power structures compelled pilgrims to navigate a landscape of enforced tribute and fragile truces.

Major Incidents and Political Violence

In 683 CE, during the Second Fitna, Umayyad forces under Husayn ibn Numayr laid to , then controlled by , coinciding with the pilgrimage season; catapults bombarded the city, igniting a fire that severely damaged the , though no specific casualties within from the assault are recorded in contemporary accounts. The siege disrupted pilgrimage rituals and supply lines, forcing to rely on imported food, but lifted after the death of Caliph later that year. A subsequent Umayyad campaign in 692 CE, led by under Caliph Abd al-Malik, culminated in the storming of , the death of Ibn al-Zubayr, and the restoration of Umayyad authority, ending the prolonged civil strife but further entrenching patterns of caliphal contests spilling into the Hijaz. The most notorious episode of occurred in 930 CE during the Abbasid era, when Qarmatian forces from Bahrayn, led by , invaded on the first day of , massacring pilgrims en masse and desecrating the by dumping corpses into it. This Isma'ili splinter group's raid, motivated by apocalyptic ideology and opposition to Abbasid Sunni orthodoxy, resulted in the theft of from the , which they transported to their stronghold in al-Ahsa and withheld for over two decades until ransom in 952 CE. Historical chronicles attribute thousands of deaths to the sack, reflecting the vulnerability of Hajj gatherings to ideologically driven assaults amid fragmented caliphal authority, though exact tolls vary due to the era's limited record-keeping. Medieval power struggles, including Fatimid efforts to extend Shi'i influence into the after their 969 CE conquest of , occasionally fueled tensions with local Abbasid-aligned sharifs, manifesting in sporadic disruptions to oversight rather than direct clashes during processions. These dynamics underscored geopolitical rivalries where external caliphates vied for symbolic control over , imposing taxes or patronage on pilgrims while avoiding outright violence to preserve legitimacy, as overt aggression risked alienating the broader Muslim . Empirical patterns from dated chronicles reveal that such incidents peaked during periods of caliphal weakness, with causal factors rooted in sectarian schisms and proxy contests rather than localized tribalism, highlighting the 's role as a flashpoint for empire-building ambitions.

Ottoman Administration

Centralized Oversight and Infrastructure

Following Sultan Selim I's conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1516–1517, the Ottoman Empire assumed custodianship of the Hijaz, integrating Mecca and Medina into its administrative framework while delegating local governance to the appointed Sharif of Mecca, such as Barakat II bin Muhammad al-Hashimi. This arrangement balanced imperial oversight from Istanbul with regional autonomy, positioning the Hajj as a core imperial priority to bolster the sultans' legitimacy as caliphs. The central bureaucracy in financed extensive security for caravans, including escorts departing from and , construction of forts and reservoirs along routes, and subsidies to tribes to deter raids. Annual surre convoys delivered cash, goods, and funds—reaching over 3.5 million kurush by the late under Abdulhamid II—to sustain the Sharifs, maintain , and support indigent pilgrims in the holy cities. These measures reflected systematic investment, with evolving as the primary northern hub handling up to 60,000 pilgrims annually by the . To manage surging pilgrim numbers, Ottoman sultans directed renovations to the ; commissioned chief architect in 1570 for structural enhancements, while rebuilt the in 1630. The also functioned as a diplomatic nexus, convening elites from distant provinces and fostering cultural exchanges that reinforced Ottoman alliances across the Muslim world.

Symbols of Power Including the Mahmal

The Ottoman sultans maintained and adapted the Mamluk-era tradition of dispatching the mahmal, an elaborately decorated, empty palanquin mounted on a camel, as part of the annual Egyptian (Misr) and Syrian (Sham) Hajj caravans departing from Cairo and Damascus, respectively. This ceremonial litter, often adorned with richly embroidered textiles known as sitr, symbolized the sultan's role as caliph and protector of the pilgrimage, affirming imperial authority over the holy sites following the conquest of Egypt in 1517. The mahmal typically carried the new kiswa (black cloth covering for the Kaaba) along with other ritual items, serving as the visual centerpiece of the caravan and a reminder of caliphal patronage without the physical presence of the ruler. Complementing the mahmal, the Ottoman administration organized the surre-i hümayun, annual consignments of gold, silver, provisions, and luxury gifts dispatched from to and , transported either via dedicated surre caravans or integrated into the processions. These offerings, packed in ornate chests and accompanied by official envoys, reinforced the hierarchical relationship between the -caliph and the religious establishment, funding maintenance of the mosques and distributing alms to pilgrims and sharifs. Such displays projected sovereignty and piety, with the scale of gifts varying by 's resources— for instance, initiated enhanced protocols post-1517 to legitimize caliphal claims. These symbols, while enhancing Ottoman prestige, underscored distinctions of power amid the Hajj's doctrinal emphasis on pilgrim equality, as all participants don identical simple garments (ihram) to erase social differences. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fiscal strains from wars, territorial losses, and internal reforms under the and era limited the opulence of these expeditions, though the traditions endured until the empire's dissolution in 1922-1924, after which Saudi authorities prohibited the mahmal entry in 1926.

19th-Century Shifts

Wahhabi Disruptions and Restoration

In 1803, Wahhabi forces under the First Saudi State captured , imposing strict doctrinal reforms rooted in Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's puritanical interpretation of , which condemned practices like saint veneration and tomb visitation as shirk (). These forces prohibited pilgrims from engaging in such rituals during , disseminating edicts that threatened death for grave visitation, thereby altering longstanding customs integrated into the pilgrimage. By 1806, after seizing , Wahhabis systematically demolished domed mausoleums in the Baqi' and Mu'alla cemeteries, including structures over the graves of early Islamic figures, to eradicate perceived innovations; this destruction extended to several mosques and historical sites in both cities, fundamentally reshaping the religious landscape accessed by Hajj participants. Wahhabi control also introduced security disruptions, as their raids targeted deemed supportive of Ottoman or Shi'i influences, exacerbating risks for pilgrims traveling to and from the Hijaz; for instance, blockades and attacks followed their initial expulsions from , hindering safe passage. In response, Ottoman Sultan commissioned Pasha of to eradicate the Wahhabi threat, launching campaigns from 1811; his son Tusun initially faced defeats, but Ibrahim Pasha's forces recaptured in 1813 and shortly after, culminating in the 1818 siege and destruction of the Saudi capital , where thousands of Wahhabis were massacred. This reconquest restored Ottoman-style Hajj administration, reinstating suppressed rituals like tomb visits under Sharifian oversight and Egyptian garrisons, though at the cost of heavy taxation and military presence. The Second Saudi State, established by Turki bin Abdullah in 1824 after escaping Egyptian captivity, revived Wahhabi influence in Najd but lacked direct control over the Hijaz, leading to intermittent raids on pilgrim routes from the interior; these actions, driven by territorial ambitions and ideological opposition, periodically endangered caravan safety into the 1830s and beyond, prompting further Ottoman-Egyptian interventions to secure passages. Despite Faisal bin Turki's expansions in the 1840s, Saudi power waned after Egyptian withdrawal in 1840, limiting disruptions but sustaining a climate of tribal volatility for Hajj travelers until Ottoman reconsolidation.

European Influences and Early Modernizations

As Ottoman authority waned in the , European colonial powers intervened to protect pilgrims from their territories, establishing consular presences in the Hijaz to counter local insecurities and exploitation. British officials, administering vast Muslim populations in , invoked capitulation privileges from the to extend protections to Indian Hajjis, including oversight of pilgrim ships departing Bombay and assistance against threats and corrupt officials. Dutch authorities similarly opened a consulate in in 1872, facilitating safeguards for Indonesian pilgrims amid concerns over unmonitored maritime routes and potential anti-colonial agitation. These measures, driven by imperial interests in stability and disease control, marked an era of indirect European influence on Hajj logistics without altering core rituals. Technological advancements introduced by European shipping firms transformed pilgrimage accessibility and scale. Steamships began operating on routes from to ports in the 1830s, slashing travel durations from several months via sailing vessels to mere weeks and accommodating thousands more pilgrims annually. The opening of the in 1869 further streamlined voyages from and , boosting pilgrim numbers from under 10,000 in the early 1800s to over 50,000 by century's end, though exposing routes to cholera outbreaks that prompted international protocols. These innovations, while commercially motivated, integrated Hajj into global maritime networks, reducing reliance on overland caravans. European adventurers' accounts offered rare pre-modern glimpses into Hajj conditions, blending critique with empirical detail. In 1853, undertook a disguised pilgrimage, documenting in his of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah the rampant unsanitation in Mina and Arafat camps—piles of refuse, contaminated water sources, and risks amid dense throngs—alongside fervent crowd dynamics he termed fanatical zeal, though rooted in observed ritual intensity rather than invention. Such reports, filtered through explorers' biases toward perceived backwardness, nonetheless provided verifiable logistics like camp overcrowding and supply shortages, informing later reforms without endorsing unsubstantiated Orientalist stereotypes.

Saudi Unification and 20th-Century Growth

Establishment of Saudi Control

In 1924, Abdulaziz ibn Saud, ruler of the , launched a campaign to conquer the from Sharif bin Ali, capturing on September 5 after initial advances in late August, followed by on October 13. Medina fell in December 1925, and was secured shortly thereafter, leading to Hussein's abdication and exile to , ending Hashemite rule over the holy cities. On January 8, 1926, ibn Saud was proclaimed king of Hejaz in Mecca's Great Mosque, consolidating Saudi authority and integrating the region into his emerging state. Under Wahhabi doctrine, which emphasized strict and rejected practices viewed as polytheistic innovations, Saudi authorities initiated the "purification" of holy sites immediately after conquest. In April 1925, with ibn Saud's permission, forces demolished mausoleums, domes, and gravestones in Medina's , including structures associated with early Islamic figures, to eliminate sites of deemed idolatrous. Similar demolitions targeted tombs and shrines in , aligning rituals with austere interpretations that prohibited saint worship and grave visitation, reshaping the pilgrimage's spiritual landscape to prioritize over historical commemoration. To address persistent Bedouin raids that had long threatened pilgrim caravans, reorganized tribal forces, drawing on militias—Wahhabi-inspired warriors who aided the conquest—but imposed central control to prevent uncontrolled attacks. Precursors to the modern , known as the for their distinctive uniforms, were expanded from loyal units established around 1915, providing organized policing along routes and in holy cities to suppress intertribal violence and ensure safer passage. This shift from decentralized tribal dynamics to state-enforced security reduced ad hoc extortion and ambushes, though indiscipline persisted until their suppression in the late . Saudi rule introduced early regulations emphasizing doctrinal conformity, banning non-Wahhabi rituals such as elaborate processions or tomb-related supplications during , with enforcement prioritizing pilgrims adhering to puritanical standards over sheer volume. The 1925 Hajj season, overlapping the conquest, saw disruptions and implicit limits on attendance amid conflict, setting precedents for vetting participants to align with Wahhabi norms rather than accommodating diverse sectarian practices. These measures reflected a causal focus on ideological unity, subordinating logistical expansion to religious reform.

Post-WWII Expansions and Quota Systems

The discovery and exploitation of , which generated revenues rising from approximately $655 million in 1965 to $26.7 billion by 1975, enabled substantial investments in Hajj infrastructure during the mid-20th century. These funds supported modernization efforts to handle surging pilgrim arrivals, facilitated by advancements that reduced barriers. Pilgrim numbers grew from around 50,000 in 1950 to 300,000 by 1965 and over 400,000 by 1975, reflecting broader economic prosperity and improved access. A key initiative was the first major Saudi expansion of the , initiated in 1955 under King Saud and extending through the 1970s, which added four minarets, replaced flooring, and increased capacity to accommodate larger crowds. Parallel developments included upgrades to Jeddah's port and airport, construction of hotels, and introduction of air-conditioned accommodations for pilgrims, transforming the traditional experience amid rapid . By the late 1970s, these enhancements, funded primarily by oil windfalls, had elevated Hajj logistics from rudimentary caravan-based systems to modern facilities capable of supporting over a million participants annually. As attendance approached 2.5 million by the mid-1980s, overwhelming existing capacities, Saudi authorities implemented a quota system in 1988 to regulate inflows, assigning one pilgrim per 1,000 Muslims based on each country's population to prevent overcrowding and ensure logistical feasibility. This policy, formalized through the Ministry of Pilgrimage, tied allocations to verified national Muslim demographics, stabilizing numbers around 2 million while prioritizing equitable distribution. Economically, while oil dominated state finances, Hajj generated secondary revenues via visas, transport fees, and services—estimated in billions of dollars by the late 20th century—reinvested into further infrastructure and underscoring the pilgrimage's role in national development despite its obligatory religious nature.

Modern Era Challenges

Overcrowding, Stampedes, and Safety Criticisms

The Hajj pilgrimage has repeatedly faced severe overcrowding in ritual sites like Mina, where millions of pilgrims perform the stoning of the devil (rami al-jamarat), leading to densities exceeding safe thresholds of 4 persons per square meter and triggering crowd crushes. These incidents stem from the convergence of large pilgrim waves in narrow pathways and tunnels, compounded by factors such as poor ventilation, inadequate flow separation, and occasional pilgrim deviations from designated routes. Despite capacity quotas introduced in the 1980s, annual attendance often surpasses 2 million, straining infrastructure designed for controlled movement. On July 31, 1987, clashes erupted during an unauthorized Iranian-led demonstration in , escalating into riots and a that killed at least 402 people, mostly Iranian pilgrims, with Saudi authorities attributing the violence to provocative chanting and attacks on police, while Iranian sources claimed excessive force by security. The incident resulted in 649 injuries and prompted Saudi bans on Iranian participation for years, highlighting tensions between political protests and ritual safety. The July 2, 1990, Al-Ma'aisim tunnel crush near suffocated and trampled 1,426 pilgrims, primarily from , as air conditioning failed amid overheating and a sudden influx exceeding the tunnel's capacity during the journey from Arafat to Mina. Investigations pointed to ventilation breakdowns and unchecked crowd buildup, though Saudi officials noted pilgrims ignoring warnings to disperse. This disaster, the deadliest tunnel incident in history, spurred initial infrastructure reviews but underscored persistent risks from high volumes in enclosed spaces. The September 24, 2015, during the ritual killed at least 2,431 pilgrims and left 427 missing, with converging pilgrim groups bottlenecking on a 220-meter stretch of road near the Jamarat bridge, exacerbated by unauthorized tents blocking exits and densities reaching 10 persons per square meter. Saudi authorities reported 769 deaths officially but released over 1,000 images acknowledging higher figures, blaming pilgrim non-compliance with timed slots and route deviations; international probes, including from affected nations like and , criticized inadequate signage, insufficient barriers, and delayed evacuations as causal factors. Countries like accused deliberate mismanagement, though evidence supports systemic overload rather than intent, with pilgrims from diverse backgrounds often disregarding multilingual instructions due to language barriers and zeal. Critics, including engineering analyses, argue Saudi oversight fails to enforce density limits empirically proven to prevent in crowds, where forces from pushing can exceed 4,000 Newtons per person; defenders, including Saudi Hajj ministry statements, emphasize pilgrim indiscipline—such as shortcut-taking and group clustering—as primary triggers, citing compliance rates below 70% in monitored zones. Post-2015 reforms included widening Mina pathways, erecting multi-tier Jamarat bridges to segregate flows (reducing single-level by 80% since 2006 expansions), and stricter visa quotas, yet incidents persist due to uneven enforcement and rising global participation. Recent advancements incorporate AI-driven surveillance with thousands of cameras and drones to predict congestions via real-time mapping, as deployed in 2025 Hajj operations, allowing dynamic rerouting before critical thresholds; however, reliance on technology assumes flawless , and critiques persist over accountability gaps in hybrid human-AI systems where pilgrim behavior remains unpredictable. These measures reflect causal recognition of flow dynamics but face skepticism from safety experts questioning their efficacy against cultural non-adherence to protocols.

Disease Outbreaks and Health Management

The reached Mecca in 1349, likely transmitted by infected pilgrims during the , resulting in approximately one-third of the city's population perishing amid apocalyptic conditions described by contemporary historian . This outbreak exemplified how pilgrimage routes facilitated the rapid spread of across the Islamic world, with overcrowded conditions and limited sanitation exacerbating mortality. In the , pandemics repeatedly devastated gatherings, originating from contaminated sources and propagating along caravan and maritime routes from . The 1831 epidemic in the Hijaz claimed around 20,000 lives, underscoring the role of pilgrim mobility in global dissemination, as the disease reached via returning travelers. Subsequent outbreaks in 1865 and 1890 similarly originated in , killing thousands and prompting international quarantines, with poor in encampments—marked by inadequate waste disposal and shared —serving as primary causal vectors. These events highlighted deficiencies in transient pilgrim camps, where high densities overwhelmed rudimentary facilities. Twentieth- and twenty-first-century outbreaks shifted toward respiratory pathogens, with influenza viruses consistently causing spikes; studies estimate infection rates among pilgrims ranging from 0% to 28.6%, driven by close-contact rituals and airborne transmission in dense assemblies. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) raised alarms in 2015 amid a Saudi hospital cluster, though no large-scale Hajj-linked transmission occurred, as surveillance of returning pilgrims detected influenza but not MERS. Annual flu surges persist due to variable pilgrim immunity and environmental factors like dust storms, with empirical data from cohort studies confirming elevated incidence compared to non-pilgrimage baselines. Saudi authorities have implemented mandatory vaccinations since the mid-20th century to mitigate risks, requiring quadrivalent meningococcal (ACYW) shots for all pilgrims over one year old, alongside seasonal immunization for adults and high-risk groups, issued no earlier than three years and ten days prior to arrival. Data-driven measures include syndromic surveillance for respiratory symptoms, with quarantines enforced for confirmed cases and contacts within camps, alongside to contain clusters. Hygiene protocols emphasize handwashing stations and , yet audits reveal compliance gaps, particularly in overcrowded tents where fecal-oral transmission risks remain elevated despite interventions. These strategies, informed by post-outbreak analyses, have reduced meningococcal incidence since mandatory policies began, though respiratory threats persist due to inherent gathering densities.

COVID-19 Impacts and Recent Reforms (2020s)

In response to the , Saudi authorities canceled international participation in the 2020 Hajj, limiting attendance to approximately 1,000 residents of the kingdom who tested negative for the virus and adhered to strict protocols, a drastic reduction from the typical 2 million pilgrims. This decision aimed to prevent superspreader events amid global outbreaks, with also suspended earlier in 2020. Subsequent years saw phased restrictions: 2021 permitted only 60,000 vaccinated Saudi residents, while 2022 allowed about 1 million pilgrims under quotas and vaccination requirements; 2023 lifted caps, approaching pre-pandemic levels with over 2 million attendees. The Hajj resumed fully in 2024 with 1.83 million participants, predominantly from abroad, but extreme heat exceeding 50°C contributed to 1,301 deaths, 83% of whom were unauthorized pilgrims lacking permits and exposed to prolonged outdoor conditions without adequate shelter. Saudi officials attributed these fatalities to non-compliance with quotas and heat advisories, prompting arrests and fines for illegal operators facilitating unauthorized access. Attendance dipped to approximately 1.6-1.8 million in 2025, the lowest non-pandemic figure in 30 years, amid higher costs, stricter regulations, and lingering heat concerns, yet health outcomes improved markedly with a 90% reduction in cases compared to 2024, credited to enhanced cooling technologies, misting stations, and real-time monitoring. These measures, including expanded field hospitals and AI-driven , demonstrated Saudi adaptations to climate challenges, though experts noted ongoing vulnerabilities from global warming. Reforms in the 2020s emphasized digital integration and quota enforcement, such as the Nusuk app for mandatory permit applications, real-time tracking, and visa allocations (one per 1,000 per country), reducing fraud and overcrowding while aligning with Vision 2030's tourism goals. These steps improved but faced for favoring licensed operators and excluding smaller agencies. Critics argue that , including luxury accommodations and high fees (5,000−5,000-9,000 per pilgrim), undermines Hajj's egalitarian of equality before , prioritizing revenue over accessibility and fostering inequality between affluent and budget pilgrims. Geopolitical strains, such as intermittent Iran-Saudi tensions, have sporadically disrupted Iranian participation, though eased relations in the mid-2020s enabled resumed flights and aid for stranded groups, reflecting pragmatic amid broader rivalries.

References

  1. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv19fvzqz
  2. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/mill-2023-0004/html
  3. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%253A3674391/download
  4. https://blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/2022/07/the-hajj-to-mecca/
  5. https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%253A3663459/view
  6. https://origins.osu.edu/article/hajj-and-europe
  7. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC544433/
  8. https://nabataea.net/cinema/archeologyislam/archeology-and-islam-14-hubal/
  9. https://historyofislam.org/pre-islamic-arab-economy/
  10. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/20.500.12657/54655/1/9789004504271.pdf
  11. https://nabataea.net/cinema/archeologyislam/archeology-and-islam-14-petra-pilgrimage/
  12. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:3364
  13. https://www.biblestudy.org/maps/life-of-abraham-timeline.html
  14. https://rrimedia.org/Worldviews/Islam/ArtMID/1437/ArticleID/20/THE-HISTORY-AND-ARCHAEOLOGY-OF-ARABIA-SHOW-THAT-MECCA-DID-NOT-EXIST-BEFORE-THE-ADVENT-OF-CHRISTIANITY
  15. https://www.academia.edu/7027500/The_Hajj_before_Muhammad
  16. https://www.answering-islam.org/authors/toler/abraham_kaaba.html
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/animal-sacrifice-and-the-origins-of-islam/abraham-as-the-originator-of-the-hajj-sacrifice/BD1F00D42EC7F6773E1B18B8C6A7791B
  18. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/tc3-boundless-worldhistory/chapter/muhammad-and-the-rise-of-islam/
  19. https://worldhistoryedu.com/the-kaaba/
  20. https://al-islam.org/articles/idols-pre-islamic-arabia-yasin-t-al-jibouri
  21. https://iconoclastink.com/pre-islamic-kaaba-what-ancient-records-tell-us-about-arabian-idolatry/
  22. https://www.amanchourasia.in/2025/06/pre-islamic-arabia.html
  23. https://al-islam.org/message-jafar-subhani/chapter-56-eradication-idol-worship-arabia
  24. https://search.proquest.com/openview/a1ab28fa66d5ed7b5788a11172fc97ab/1
  25. https://madainproject.com/hajj
  26. https://historyofislam.org/pre-islamic-arab-religious-beliefs/
  27. https://en.al-shia.org/farewell-pilgrimage-of-the-prophet-pbuhh/
  28. https://sunnah.com/muslim:1218a
  29. https://icrjournal.org/index.php/icr/article/download/103/89/433
  30. https://islamichistory.org/the-farewell-hajj/
  31. https://www.imamghazali.org/blog/hajj
  32. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1711561/saudi-arabia
  33. https://www.islamiclandmarks.com/makkah-haram-sharief/masjid-al-haram-the-sacred-mosque
  34. https://amrayn.com/bukhari/64/ch-66
  35. https://www.pef.org.uk/sacred-landscapes-the-umayyad-syro-jordanian-hajj-roads-to-mecca-and-their-pilgrim-camps/
  36. https://architecture.mit.edu/sites/default/files/course-documents/24sp-4.154-syll-nahleh.pdf
  37. https://www.academia.edu/128854369/Power_and_Money_on_the_Hajj_Connections_between_Caliphate_and_Pilgrimage_in_Early_Islam
  38. https://www.islamic-awareness.org/history/islam/dome_of_the_rock/hajjdome.html
  39. https://www.arabnews.com/node/2603864/saudi-arabia
  40. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364806875_The_Early_Hajj_Seventh-Eighth_Centuries_CE
  41. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6577/
  42. https://muslimheritage.com/darb-zubayda/
  43. https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201307/journey.of.faith.roads.of.civilization-.compilation.htm
  44. https://al-islam.org/five-schools-islamic-law-muhammad-jawad-mughniyya/ihram
  45. https://historyofislam.com/contents/the-classical-period/al-imam-al-azam-abu-haneefa/
  46. https://www.worldheritagesite.org/tentative/the-darb-zubaydah-saudi/
  47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/124863
  48. https://archive.sana.sy/en/?p=358910
  49. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6028/
  50. https://africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-380.html
  51. https://madainproject.com/canal_of_zubaida
  52. https://www.arabnews.com/node/2437751/saudi-arabia
  53. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EMPO/SIM-000160.xml?language=en
  54. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4125193
  55. https://www.tota.world/article/1082
  56. https://www.ducksters.com/history/islam/trade_and_commerce.php
  57. https://funci.org/hajj-certificates-a-beautiful-history/?lang=en
  58. https://www.tota.world/article/1077/
  59. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004525245/BP000014.xml
  60. https://graphsearch.epfl.ch/en/concept/47604947
  61. https://ibnjubayr.lib.virginia.edu/view-exhibits
  62. https://mec.sas.upenn.edu/k-12-resources/media-lending-library/journey-mecca-footsteps-ibn-battuta
  63. https://historyofislam.org/umayyad-caliphate/political-developments-iii/
  64. https://www.academia.edu/12517273/MAKKAH_ISLAM_HOLIEST_CITY_IN_THE_WORLD
  65. https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/downloads/4t64gn939
  66. https://www.iis.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/kinship_sj.pdf
  67. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/historical-journal/article/saudi-arabia-egypt-and-the-longue-duree-struggle-for-islams-holiest-places/016A4CD4D50DD142C85927685EB14DA9
  68. https://journal.uinjkt.ac.id/jmd/article/download/36884/14314/121868
  69. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/709169
  70. https://bulten.isam.org.tr/the-journey-of-loyalty-to-hejaz-the-tradition-of-surre/
  71. https://hisartravel.com.au/the-ottoman-empire-and-hajj-guardians-of-the-pilgrimage-routes/
  72. https://www.europeana.eu/en/stories/hajj-and-the-remarkable-story-of-the-mahmal
  73. https://kureansiklopedi.com/en/detay/mahmal-6f741
  74. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/a-visual-history-of-the-hajj/SAUhauzrf6WAJQ
  75. https://brill.com/previewpdf/journals/muqj/23/1/article-p289_13.xml
  76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284357
  77. https://www.awazthevoice.in/opinion-news/hajj-promotes-equality-and-brotherhood-38042.html
  78. https://aspace.library.jhu.edu/repositories/3/resources/1812
  79. https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/The-Wahhabi-movement
  80. https://www.al-adaab.org/wah-39.html
  81. https://www.merip.org/2014/10/life-and-death-in-the-graves-of-mecca-and-medina/
  82. https://thestrategybridge.org/the-bridge/2014/11/3/why-isis-forerunners-lost
  83. https://adventuresinhistoryland.com/2021/11/09/the-ottoman-wahhabi-war/
  84. https://www.marxists.org/subject/arab-world/lutsky/ch06.htm
  85. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/jottturstuass.3.2.06
  86. https://academic.oup.com/book/12020/chapter/161299280
  87. https://www.arts.kuleuven.be/scicomm/english/research-stories/interviews/hajj
  88. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/hajj-across-empires/company-raj-and-the-hajjis/564BBFBAABCF69271C812D8F95E28C26
  89. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30069613
  90. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004514034/BP000016.pdf
  91. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4657
  92. https://history-maps.com/story/History-of-Saudi-Arabia/event/Saudi-conquest-of-Hejaz
  93. https://www.unofficialroyalty.com/king-abdulaziz-ibn-saud-of-saudi-arabia/
  94. https://blog.knowksa.com/history/the-unification-of-saudi-arabia/
  95. https://www.citiesfromsalt.com/blog/the-destruction-of-mecca-and-medinas-historic-landscapes
  96. https://www.opindia.com/2024/07/the-destruction-of-mecca-medina-how-wahabi-islam-razed-down-ancient-structures-fearing-idolatry/
  97. https://kyleorton.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/joseph-kostiner-1985-ikhwan-of-najd-and-the-saudi-state.pdf
  98. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-09-27-britains-secret-saudi-military-support-programme/
  99. https://www.reviewofreligions.org/23842/hajj-saudi-conquest-hijaz-1925/
  100. https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/arab-embargo-50-years-ago-weaponized-oil-inflict-economic-trauma-sound-familiar
  101. https://kontinentalist.com/stories/what-is-hajj-islam-pilgrimage-to-kaaba-mecca-2020
  102. https://factsanddetails.com/world/cat55/sub358/item1443.html
  103. https://www.facebook.com/HaramainArchives/videos/first-saudi-expansion-of-masjid-al-haram-1955-1973video-of-the-first-major-renov/696050494065356/
  104. https://www.araburbanism.com/magazine/hajj-pilgrims-jeddah
  105. https://hajj.leeds.ac.uk/exhibition/the-changing-hajj-in-modern-times/
  106. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP89S01450R000300320001-9.pdf
  107. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-20067809
  108. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326840875_The_business_of_hajj
  109. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5292036/
  110. https://www.vox.com/2015/9/24/9392929/hajj-stampede
  111. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34346449
  112. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/08/02/world/400-die-iranian-marchers-battle-saudi-police-mecca-embassies-smashed-teheran.html
  113. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1987/08/02/402-die-as-iranians-police-clash-in-mecca/1dfa6dba-0dd0-432b-ac63-411aeb8938a4/
  114. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2006/1/12/timeline-hajj-tragedies
  115. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/july-2/pilgrim-stampede-kills-1400
  116. https://www.workingwithcrowds.com/al-maaisim-tunnel-crowd-incident-3rd-july/
  117. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/06/hajj-disasters-stampedes-infernos-and-bloody-siege
  118. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/09/06/world/middleeast/2015-hajj-stampede.html
  119. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/28/saudi-arabia-1100-photographs-suggest-rise-hajj-death-toll
  120. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/09/25/443390314/saudi-arabia-faces-criticism-over-hajj-stamped-that-killed-700
  121. https://www.cnn.com/2015/09/30/middleeast/hajj-deaths-saudi-iran-yemen
  122. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/9/26/saudi-arabian-hajj-stampede-death-toll-rises
  123. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/03/hajj-crush-how-crowd-disasters-happen-and-how-they-can-be-avoided
  124. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4078860/
  125. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2025/06/saudis-use-ai-drones-and-thousands-cameras-keep-hajj-pilgrims-safe
  126. https://english.aawsat.com/gulf/5150726-sdaia-saudi-ai-platform-baseer-boosts-crowd-security-control-during-hajj
  127. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364974103_Saudi_Arabia%27s_Management_of_the_Hajj_Season_through_Artificial_Intelligence_and_Sustainability
  128. https://biographics.org/the-black-death/
  129. https://www.thoughtco.com/black-death-in-asia-bubonic-plague-195144
  130. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7129522/
  131. https://academic.oup.com/book/2354/chapter/142521989
  132. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0035920338901002
  133. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876034124002818
  134. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/21/4/14-1745_article
  135. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15109471/
  136. https://www.cdc.gov/yellow-book/hcp/africa-middle-east/saudi-arabia-hajj-and-umrah-pilgrimages.html
  137. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7137990/
  138. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7709701/
  139. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/hajj-2020-coronavirus-intl
  140. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7409790/
  141. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/hajj-saudi-arabia-no-limit-pilgrimage-numbers
  142. https://english.alarabiya.net/News/saudi-arabia/2024/06/16/hajj-2024-in-numbers-annual-pilgrimage-draws-over-1-83-mln-worshipers-
  143. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8000dgk9gzo
  144. https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/23/middleeast/egypt-hajj-tourism-companies-revoke-licenses-intl
  145. https://apnews.com/article/saudi-arabia-hajj-pilgrims-arafat-5bf6f65b4ad0c53b69fc51589989a202
  146. https://www.spa.gov.sa/en/N2335078
  147. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-06-10/climate-change-extreme-heat-deaths-mecca-hajj-pilgrimage/105381764
  148. https://www.youngausint.org.au/post/reforming-the-sacred-hajj-modernisation-vision-2030-and-saudi-arabia-s-geopolitical-stakes
  149. https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2023/06/28/new-hajj-booking-process-frustrates-many-foreign-pilgrims/
  150. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jun/26/british-muslim-travel-agencies-in-uproar-over-saudi-hajj-changes
  151. https://mondediplo.com/2020/08/07hajj
  152. https://www.the-independent.com/voices/hajj-saudi-arabia-mecca-pilgrimage-commercialisation-riches-reclaim-worship-a7919606.html
  153. https://www.travelandtourworld.com/news/article/saudi-airline-resumes-iran-hajj-flights-for-first-time-in-nearly-a-decade/
  154. https://www.arabnews.com/node/2604431/saudi-arabia
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.