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Pauline epistles
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The Pauline epistles, also known as Epistles of Paul or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen books of the New Testament attributed to Paul the Apostle, although the authorship of some is in dispute. Among these epistles are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity. As part of the canon of the New Testament, they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics.
Most scholars believe that Paul actually wrote seven of the thirteen Pauline epistles (Galatians, Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philemon, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians), while three of the epistles in Paul's name are widely seen as pseudepigraphic (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus).[1] Whether Paul wrote the three other epistles in his name (2 Thessalonians, Ephesians and Colossians) is widely debated.[1] These latter six epistles are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.[2] The Epistle to the Hebrews, although it does not bear his name, was traditionally considered Pauline (although Rome questioned its authorship), but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content and because the epistle does not indicate that Paul is the author, unlike the others.[3]
The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the catholic epistles (also called the general epistles) in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts place the general epistles first,[4] and a few minuscules (175, 325, 336, and 1424) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament.
Authenticity
[edit]| 36 | (31–36 AD: conversion of Paul) |
|---|---|
| 37 | |
| 38 | |
| 39 | |
| 40 | |
| 41 | |
| 42 | |
| 43 | |
| 44 | |
| 45 | |
| 46 | |
| 47 | |
| 48 | Epistle to the Galatians |
| 49 | |
| 50 | First Epistle to the Thessalonians |
| 51 | Second Epistle to the Thessalonians |
| 52 | |
| 53 | |
| 54 | First Epistle to the Corinthians |
| 55 | Second Epistle to the Corinthians |
| 56 | |
| 57 | Epistle to the Romans |
| 58 | |
| 59 | |
| 60 | |
| 61 | |
| 62 | Epistle to the Philippians |
| Epistle to Philemon | |
| Epistle to the Colossians | |
| Epistle to the Ephesians | |
| 63 | |
| 64 | First Epistle to Timothy |
| 65 | Second Epistle to Timothy |
| 66 | Epistle to Titus |
| 67 | (64–67 AD: death of Paul) |
In all of these epistles, except the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author and writer does claim to be Paul. The contested letters may have been written using Paul's name, as it was common to attribute at that point in history.[5]
Locations where Paul's letters were sent
Seven letters (with consensus dates)[6] considered genuine by most scholars:
- Galatians (c. 48 AD)
- First Thessalonians (c. 49–51)
- First Corinthians (c. 53–54)
- Second Corinthians (c. 55–56)
- Romans (c. 55–57)
- Philippians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
- Philemon (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
The three letters on which scholars are about evenly divided:[1] If these letters are inauthentic, then the consensus dates are probably incorrect.
- Second Thessalonians (c. 51–52)
- Colossians (c. 57–59 or c. 62)
- Ephesians (c. 62)
The letters thought to be pseudepigraphic by many scholars (traditional dating given):[1] The content of these letters strongly suggests they were written a decade or more later than the traditional dates.
- First Timothy (c. 62–64)
- Second Timothy (c. 62–65)
- Titus (c. 66–67)
Finally, Epistle to the Hebrews, although anonymous and not really in the form of a letter, has long been included among Paul's collected letters. Although some churches ascribe Hebrews to Paul,[7] neither most of Christianity nor modern scholarship does so.[1][8]
Paul's use of secretaries
[edit]A number of scholars have argued that from biographic details from Paul, he likely suffered from some physical impediment such as vision loss or damaged hands. Paul explicitly states in multiple epistles that he used secretaries, sometimes mentioned by name, a potential explanation for seemingly non-Pauline epistles.[9][10][11][12] The six disputed epistles are believed by some scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters written by him that no longer survive.[2] Paul used scribal secretaries and may have had a team of readers, which adds layers to how Paul's letters were composed.[13] Candida Moss has argued that enslaved and formerly enslaved secretaries played a significant but overlooked role in the production of early Christian texts such as the Pauline epistles, urging a broader and more ethical recognition of their contributions to authorship beyond traditional assumptions.[14]
Order
[edit]In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:
| Name | Addressees | Greek | Latin | Abbreviations | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Full | Min. | ||||
| Romans | Church at Rome | Πρὸς Ῥωμαίους | Epistola ad Romanos | Rom | Ro |
| 1 Corinthians | Church at Corinth | Πρὸς Κορινθίους Αʹ | Epistola I ad Corinthios | 1 Cor | 1C |
| 2 Corinthians | Church at Corinth | Πρὸς Κορινθίους Βʹ | Epistola II ad Corinthios | 2 Cor | 2C |
| Galatians | Churches in Galatia | Πρὸς Γαλάτας | Epistola ad Galatas | Gal | G |
| Ephesians | Church at Ephesus | Πρὸς Ἐφεσίους | Epistola ad Ephesios | Eph | E |
| Philippians | Church at Philippi | Πρὸς Φιλιππησίους | Epistola ad Philippenses | Phil | Phi |
| Colossians | Church at Colossae | Πρὸς Κολοσσαεῖς | Epistola ad Colossenses | Col | C |
| 1 Thessalonians | Church at Thessalonica | Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς Αʹ | Epistola I ad Thessalonicenses | 1 Thess | 1Th |
| 2 Thessalonians | Church at Thessalonica | Πρὸς Θεσσαλονικεῖς Βʹ | Epistola II ad Thessalonicenses | 2 Thess | 2Th |
| 1 Timothy | Saint Timothy | Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Αʹ | Epistola I ad Timotheum | 1 Tim | 1T |
| 2 Timothy | Saint Timothy | Πρὸς Τιμόθεον Βʹ | Epistola II ad Timotheum | 2 Tim | 2T |
| Titus | Saint Titus | Πρὸς Τίτον | Epistola ad Titum | Tit | T |
| Philemon | Saint Philemon | Πρὸς Φιλήμονα | Epistola ad Philemonem | Philem | P |
| Hebrews* | Hebrew Christians | Πρὸς Ἑβραίους | Epistola ad Hebraeos | Heb | H |
This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, but keeping the three pastoral epistles addressed to individuals in a separate final section. The only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians.[15]
| Date | Name | Location of authorship |
|---|---|---|
| c. 48 | Galatians | Antioch (uncertain) |
| c. 49–51 | 1 Thessalonians | Corinth |
| c. 49–51 | 2 Thessalonians | Corinth |
| c. 53–55 | 1 Corinthians | Ephesus |
| c. 55–56 | 2 Corinthians | Macedonia |
| c. 57 | Romans | Corinth |
| c. 62 | Ephesians | Rome |
| c. 62 | Philippians | Rome |
| c. 62 | Colossians | Rome |
| c. 62 | Philemon | Rome |
| c. 62–64 | 1 Timothy | Macedonia |
| c. 62–64 | Titus | Nicopolis |
| c. 64–67 | 2 Timothy | Rome |
In modern editions, the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Paul's letters and before the general epistles. This practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts with hardly any exceptions.[15]
The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts:
- between Romans and 1 Corinthians (i.e., in order by length without splitting the Epistles to the Corinthians): Papyrus 46 and minuscules 103, 455, 1961, 1964, 1977, 1994.
- between 2 Corinthians and Galatians: minuscules 1930, 1978, and 2248
- between Galatians and Ephesians: implied by the numbering in B. In B, Galatians ends and Ephesians begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1493); similarly 2 Thessalonians ends and Hebrews begins on the same side of the same folio (page 1512).[17]
- between 2 Thessalonians and 1 Timothy (i.e., before the Pastorals): א, A, B, C, H, I, P, 0150, 0151, and about 60 minuscules (e.g. 218, 632)
- after Philemon: D, 048, E, K, L and the majority of minuscules.
- omitted: F and G
Lost Pauline epistles
[edit]Paul's own writings are sometimes thought to indicate several of his letters that have not been preserved:
- A first, or "zeroth", epistle to Corinth, also called A Prior Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians,[18] or Paul's previous Corinthian letter,[19] possibly referenced at 1 Corinthians 5:9.[20]
- A third epistle to Corinth, written in between 1 and 2 Corinthians, also called the Severe Letter, referenced at 2 Corinthians 2:4[21] and 2 Corinthians 7:8–9[22]
- An earlier epistle to the Ephesians referenced at Ephesians 3:3–4[23]
- A possible Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans,[19] referenced at Colossians 4:16[24]
Pseudepigraphic epistles
[edit]Several other epistles were attributed to Paul during the course of history but are now considered pseudepigraphic:
- Third Epistle to the Corinthians, a correspondence of two letters allegedly sent by the Corinthians to Paul, and then a reply letter allegedly sent by Paul to the Church of Corinth. It was considered genuine for some time by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church, but is now widely dated in the second half of the 2nd century CE.[25][26]
- Epistle to the Alexandrians, an alleged epistle written by Paul to the Church of Alexandria. It is mentioned in the Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE), which denounces it as a spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.[27]
- Non-Pauline Epistle to the Laodiceans versions:
- The Marcionite Epistle to the Laodiceans. The Muratorian fragment (2nd century CE) denounces a claimed Epistle to the Laodiceans as another spurious work forged by Marcion of Sinope. Its text has been lost and nothing is known about its content.[27]
- The Latin Epistle to the Laodiceans. It is found in some old Latin Bible manuscripts, but is widely considered a forgery, and is largely a copy of verses from the Epistle to the Philippians. Theories vary, but it was possibly made as a counterforgery to offset the popularity of the Marcionite epistle.[27]
- Correspondence of Paul and Seneca, a collection of correspondence claiming to be between Paul and Seneca the Younger. They are universally considered a forgery from the 4th century CE.[28]
Collected epistles
[edit]David Trobisch finds it likely that Paul first collected his letters for publication himself.[29] It was normal practice in Paul's time for letter writers to keep one copy for themselves and send a second copy to the recipient(s); surviving collections of ancient letters sometimes originated from the senders' copies, at other times from the recipients' copies.[30] A collection of Paul's letters circulated separately from other early Christian writings and later became part of the New Testament. When the canon was established, the gospels and Paul's letters were the core of what would become the New Testament.[29][page needed]
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e New Testament Letter Structure, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.
- ^ a b Sanders, E.P. (27 December 2019). "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- ^ The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, publ. Geoffrey Chapman, 1989, chapter 60, at p. 920, col. 2 "That Paul is neither directly nor indirectly the author is now the view of scholars almost without exception. For details, see Kümmel, I[ntroduction to the] N[ew] T[estament, Nashville, 1975] 392–94, 401–03"
- ^ Metzger, Bruce M. (1987). The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance (PDF). Clarendon Press. pp. 295–96. ISBN 0198261802. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-01.
- ^ Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Gal 6:11] the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
- ^ Wall, Robert (2002). New Interpreter's Bible. Vol. X. Abingdon Press. p. 373. ISBN 1426739125.
- ^ Arhipov, Sergei, ed. (1996). The Apostol. New Canaan, PA: St. Tikhon's Seminary Press. p. 408. ISBN 1-878997-49-1.
- ^ Ellingworth, Paul (1993). The New International Greek Testament Commentary: The Epistle to the Hebrews. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eardmans Publishing Co. p. 3.
- ^ Moss, Candida R (29 April 2023). "The Secretary: Enslaved Workers, Stenography, and the Production of Early Christian Literature". The Journal of Theological Studies. 74 (1): 20–56. doi:10.1093/jts/flad001.
- ^ Blumell, Lincoln H. (2006). "Scribes and Ancient Letters Implications for the Pauline Epistles". Brigham Young University. How the New Testament Came to Be: The Thirty-fifth Annual Sidney B. Sperry Symposium, ed. p. 208-226.
- ^ Marshall, Dr Taylor (30 January 2015). "The Secretaries of Peter, Paul and John". Taylor Marshall.
- ^ Richards, E. Randolph (1991). The Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3161455754.
- ^ Longenecker, Bruce W. (2020). The New Cambridge Companion to St. Paul. Cambridge University Press. p. 9-11. ISBN 9781108529204.
- ^ Moss, Candida R (2023-04-01). "The Secretary: Enslaved Workers, Stenography, and the Production of Early Christian Literature". The Journal of Theological Studies. 74 (1): 20–56. doi:10.1093/jts/flad001. ISSN 0022-5185.
- ^ a b Trobisch 1994, p. 1–27.
- ^ ESV Study Bible. Wheaton, IL: Crossway. 2008. pp. 1806–1807. ISBN 978-1-4335-0241-5. Archived from the original on March 21, 2023.
- ^ Digital Vatican Library (DigiVatLib), Manuscript – Vat.gr.1209
- ^ "Lost Books of the Bible?". Archived from the original on 2006-06-23. Retrieved 2006-06-29.
- ^ a b "Are There Lost Books of the Bible?". Reason & Revelation. 23 (12). Apologetics Press. 1 December 2003. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
- ^ 1 Corinthians 5:9
- ^ 2 Corinthians 2:4
- ^ 2 Corinthians 7:8–9
- ^ Ephesians 3:3–4
- ^ Colossians 4:16
- ^ Charlesworth, James H.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2014-04-24). Sacra Scriptura: How "Non-Canonical" Texts Functioned in Early Judaism and Early Christianity. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-29668-9.
- ^ Olshausen, Hermann (1851). Biblical Commentary on St. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians. T. & T. Clark.
- ^ a b c Ehrman, Bart (2012). Forgery and Counterforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics. Oxford University Press. p. 452–458. ISBN 9780199928033.
- ^ "Letters of Paul and Seneca". www.earlychristianwritings.com. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
- ^ a b Trobisch, David (1994). Paul's Letter Collection. Minneapolis: Fortress. ISBN 978-0800625979.
- ^ Reece, Steve. Paul's Large Letters: Pauline Subscriptions in the Light of Ancient Epistolary Conventions. London: T&T Clark, 2016.[page needed]
Bibliographic resources
[edit]- Aland Kurt. "The Problem of Anonymity and Pseudonymity in Christian Literature of the First Two Centuries." Journal of Theological Studies 12 (1961): 39–49.
- Bahr, Gordon J. "Paul and Letter Writing in the First Century." Catholic Biblical Quarterly 28 (1966): 465–477. idem, "The Subscriptions in the Pauline Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 2 (1968): 27–41.
- Bauckham, Richard J. "Pseudo-Apostolic Letters." Journal of Biblical Literature 107 (1988): 469–494.
- Carson, D.A. "Pseudonymity and Pseudepigraphy." Dictionary of New Testament Background. Eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2000. 857–864.
- Cousar, Charles B. The Letters of Paul. Interpreting Biblical Texts. Nashville: Abingdon, 1996.
- Deissmann, G. Adolf. Bible Studies. Trans. Alexander Grieve. 1901. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1988.
- Doty, William G. Letters in Primitive Christianity. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. New Testament. Ed. Dan O. Via, Jr. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988.
- Gamble, Harry Y. "Amanuensis." Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 1. Ed. David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.
- Haines-Eitzen, Kim. "'Girls Trained in Beautiful Writing': Female Scribes in Roman Antiquity and Early Christianity." Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.4 (1998): 629–646.
- Hart, David Bentley. "The New Testament." New Haven and London: Yale University Press: 2017. 570–574.
- Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011.
- Longenecker, Richard N. "Ancient Amanuenses and the Pauline Epistles." New Dimensions in New Testament Study. Eds. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974. 281–297. idem, "On the Form, Function, and Authority of the New Testament Letters." Scripture and Truth. Eds. D.A. Carson and John D. Woodbridge. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983. 101–114.
- Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome. Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 1995.
- Richards, E. Randolph. The Secretary in the Letters of Paul. Tübingen: Mohr, 1991. idem, "The Codex and the Early Collection of Paul's Letters." Bulletin for Bulletin Research 8 (1998): 151–66. idem, Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004.
- Robson, E. Iliff. "Composition and Dictation in New Testament Books." Journal of Theological Studies 18 (1917): 288–301.
- Slaten, Arthur Wakefield (1918) "Qualitative nouns in the Pauline epistles and their translation in the revised version". Chicago, Illonis: The University of Chicago Press. OCLC 1051723498
- Stowers, Stanley K. Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Library of Early Christianity. Vol. 8. Ed. Wayne A. Meeks. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1989.
- Wall, Robert W. "Introduction to Epistolary Literature." New Interpreter's Bible. Vol. 10. Ed. Leander E. Keck. Nashville: Abingdon, 2002. 369–391.
External links
[edit]
Pauline epistles
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
The Pauline epistles are a group of thirteen letters included in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, traditionally attributed to Paul the Apostle, a pivotal figure in the early Christian movement who converted from Judaism and became an apostle to the Gentiles around 33–64 CE.[1] These epistles, written primarily between 50 and 120 CE, address specific issues in nascent Christian communities across the Roman Empire, offering theological, ethical, and practical guidance to believers.[2]
Scholars classify the epistles into undisputed and disputed categories based on linguistic, stylistic, and theological analysis. The seven undisputed letters—Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon—are almost certainly authored by Paul himself, dating to 50–60 CE and providing the earliest extant Christian writings outside the Gospels.[1] The six disputed or deutero-Pauline letters—Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus)—are viewed by most experts as composed by Paul's followers between 70 and 120 CE, reflecting later developments in Pauline thought while invoking his authority.[1] These letters were often collaborative efforts, involving co-authors like Timothy or Silvanus and scribes for dictation, and followed a standard ancient epistolary structure: an opening greeting, thanksgiving, main body with theological exposition and exhortations, and a closing with greetings or autographs.[2]
Central themes across the epistles include justification by faith rather than works of the law, the unity of Jewish and Gentile believers in Christ, ethical living in community, and eschatological hope in Jesus' return.[1] For instance, Romans articulates Paul's gospel of salvation through faith (circa 57–58 CE), while 1 Corinthians addresses divisions and moral challenges in the Corinthian church (circa 53–54 CE).[2] Their occasional nature—responding to real crises like false teachings in Galatia or idleness in Thessalonica—makes them invaluable for understanding the diverse, evolving Jesus movement in the first century.[2] Collectively, the Pauline epistles shaped Christian doctrine profoundly, influencing theology from the patristic era onward and remaining subjects of intense scholarly debate on authorship, interpretation, and historical context.
Overview
Definition and Scope
The Pauline epistles refer to a collection of thirteen letters in the New Testament traditionally attributed to the Apostle Paul, comprising Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon.[3] These writings form a significant portion of the New Testament, representing personal correspondence rather than narrative or biographical accounts.[4] In scope, the epistles are primarily addressed to early Christian communities, such as those in Rome, Corinth, Galatia, Ephesus, Philippi, Colossae, and Thessalonica, or to individuals like Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, with a focus on theological doctrines, ethical instructions, and practical guidance for church life.[5] Collectively, they contain approximately 2,033 verses[6] and 32,407 Greek words,[7] making them a substantial body of literature within the New Testament canon. While debates exist regarding the authenticity of some letters, they are unified by their attribution to Paul in Christian tradition.[8] The primary purpose of these epistles was to instruct, correct, and encourage emerging Christian churches facing challenges like persecution, internal divisions, and doctrinal controversies in the mid-first century.[5] Paul wrote them as pastoral responses to specific situations, offering exhortations on faith, community conduct, and eschatological hope to foster spiritual growth and unity.[2] Unlike the narrative-driven Acts of the Apostles or the didactic teachings of the Gospels, the Pauline epistles are occasional and situational documents, crafted for immediate contexts rather than as comprehensive theological treatises.[5] This distinguishes them as dynamic interventions in early Christian development, emphasizing application over abstract systematization.[9]Historical Background
Paul, originally named Saul, was born in Tarsus, a prominent city in Cilicia (modern-day Turkey), to a Jewish family of the tribe of Benjamin. He was a Pharisee, rigorously trained in Jewish law under the renowned rabbi Gamaliel in Jerusalem, and held Roman citizenship by birth, which afforded him legal privileges throughout the empire.[10][11] Initially a fierce persecutor of early Christians, Paul's life transformed dramatically around 33-36 CE during a visionary encounter on the road to Damascus, as recounted in Acts 9, where he experienced a divine revelation of the risen Jesus, leading to his conversion and baptism.[11][12] Following a period of retreat and preparation, Paul embarked on three major missionary journeys between approximately 46 and 57 CE, commissioned by the church in Antioch and driven by his mission to proclaim the gospel to Gentiles. The first journey (c. 46-48 CE) took him through Cyprus and southern Asia Minor, including key sites in Galatia such as Antioch in Pisidia and Lystra, where he established early Christian communities.[13] His second journey (c. 49-52 CE) extended into Macedonia and Greece, founding churches in Philippi, Thessalonica, and Corinth after a vision calling him westward.[14] The third journey (c. 53-57 CE) focused on strengthening existing congregations, with an extended stay in Ephesus in Asia Minor for about three years, alongside visits to Macedonia and Greece, culminating in preparations for a journey to Rome.[15] These travels covered thousands of miles across the Roman provinces, relying on sea routes, Roman roads, and local hospitality to spread Christianity amid diverse cultural landscapes.[16] The Pauline epistles emerged within the socio-religious milieu of the mid-first-century Roman Empire, under emperors such as Claudius (r. 41-54 CE), who expelled Jews from Rome in 49 CE amid reports of disturbances linked to "Chrestus" (likely Christ), and Nero (r. 54-68 CE), whose reign intensified scrutiny on emerging religious groups.[17] Early Christianity navigated tensions between Jewish traditions and the inclusion of Gentiles, sparking debates over circumcision, dietary laws, and Torah observance, as Jewish leaders viewed the movement as a heretical sect threatening communal boundaries.[18] Persecution threats loomed from both Jewish authorities, who saw Christian proselytizing as apostasy, and Roman officials wary of any group disrupting social order, though systematic empire-wide persecution did not begin until Nero's era after the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE.[19] This context of imperial tolerance for registered cults juxtaposed with local hostilities shaped the epistles' addresses to mixed Jewish-Gentile assemblies. Paul composed his letters primarily during these itinerant missions and subsequent imprisonments, using them to guide distant churches remotely when unable to visit. Many epistles, such as those to the Corinthians and Galatians, were penned amid travels to address immediate crises reported by messengers or delegates.[20] Others, including the so-called Prison Epistles like Philippians and Philemon, were written during his house arrest in Rome around 60-62 CE, where he awaited trial before Caesar, reflecting on imprisonment as part of his apostolic calling while dispatching instructions via trusted companions.[21] This epistolary practice bridged the geographical gaps of his ministry, fostering unity in a fragmented early Christian movement.Authorship and Dating
Undisputed Epistles
The seven epistles widely regarded by scholars as authentically authored by Paul the Apostle are Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. These letters, composed between approximately 50 and 62 CE, reflect Paul's missionary activities and theological concerns during his travels in the eastern Mediterranean.[1][22]- Romans (c. 57 CE) presents a systematic theological exposition on salvation through faith in Christ, emphasizing justification apart from the law and the inclusion of Gentiles in God's covenant.[22][1]
- 1 Corinthians (c. 53–54 CE) addresses divisions within the Corinthian church, moral issues such as sexual immorality, and the resurrection of the body, urging unity and orderly worship.[22][1]
- 2 Corinthians (c. 55–56 CE) defends Paul's apostolic authority against critics, discussing suffering, reconciliation, and the collection for Jerusalem's poor.[22][1]
- Galatians (c. 48–55 CE) argues vehemently for justification by faith rather than adherence to Jewish law, recounting Paul's independent apostolic calling.[22][1]
- Philippians (c. 56–62 CE) encourages joy amid suffering and imprisonment, highlighting humility through the Christ hymn and partnership in the gospel.[22][1]
- 1 Thessalonians (c. 50–51 CE) comforts believers facing persecution, clarifying eschatological hopes like the return of Christ and the resurrection of the dead.[22][1]
- Philemon (c. 56–62 CE) is a personal appeal to Philemon to receive the slave Onesimus as a brother in Christ, promoting reconciliation over legal rights.[22][1]
Disputed and Deutero-Pauline Epistles
The disputed Pauline epistles, also known as the deutero-Pauline or pseudepigraphic letters, consist of six New Testament documents whose authorship by the Apostle Paul is contested by the majority of contemporary scholars. These include Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus. Unlike the seven undisputed epistles (Romans, 1–2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon), which exhibit consistent linguistic, stylistic, and theological features attributable to Paul around 50–60 CE, the disputed ones show deviations suggesting composition by later followers or disciples writing in Paul's name to honor and extend his legacy. The term "deutero-Pauline" specifically denotes letters composed pseudonymously by Paul's successors, often in the late first or early second century CE, to address emerging church issues while invoking his authority.[27][28] Among these, Ephesians (dated c. 80–100 CE) emphasizes church unity and the cosmic scope of Christ's body, portraying the church as a harmonious entity without the personal anecdotes typical of Paul's writings. Colossians (c. 60–80 CE) focuses on advanced Christology, presenting Christ as the preexistent agent of creation and head of the church, with hymnic elements and warnings against philosophical teachings that differ from Paul's more imminent eschatological tone. 2 Thessalonians (c. 50–51 CE if authentic, but more likely late first century) addresses apocalyptic expectations, clarifying the sequence of events before Christ's return and urging perseverance amid persecution, which contrasts with the urgent parousia in 1 Thessalonians. The Pastoral Epistles—1 Timothy (c. 95–110 CE), stressing church order and combating false teachings; 2 Timothy (c. 95–110 CE), offering pastoral encouragement and reflections on suffering; and Titus (c. 95–110 CE), outlining qualifications for church leaders—collectively promote structured ecclesiology, ethical instructions, and hierarchical roles like bishops and elders.[28][27][29] Scholars argue against Pauline authorship primarily on linguistic, stylistic, and theological grounds. Vocabulary shifts are evident, such as the use of more Hellenistic terms and rare words in the disputed letters—The Pastoral Epistles introduce approximately 306 unique terms not found in Paul's undisputed corpus, many aligning with second-century Christian literature rather than first-century Pauline usage, while Ephesians features around 120 words not used in the undisputed letters. Stylistic differences include longer, more complex sentences in Ephesians (averaging around 38 words per sentence versus approximately 20 in the undisputed letters) and a polished, less personal tone lacking Paul's characteristic abrupt transitions or autobiographical details. Theologically, the letters reflect post-Pauline developments, such as a more institutionalized ecclesiology in the Pastorals (e.g., formalized clergy roles absent in undisputed epistles) and adjusted eschatology in 2 Thessalonians (emphasizing a delayed parousia with signs like the "man of lawlessness," contradicting 1 Thessalonians' immediacy). These features suggest composition 20–50 years after Paul's death (c. 64–67 CE), by authors familiar with his teachings but addressing later contexts. The scholarly consensus emerged in the 19th century with the Tübingen School, led by F.C. Baur, who applied historical-critical methods to question authenticity based on doctrinal evolution, a view reinforced by modern analysts like Bart Ehrman, who classifies them as forgeries due to their pseudonymous nature and theological inconsistencies. Approximately 80–90% of New Testament scholars, as confirmed by recent surveys such as the 2024 Longenecker-Hess study (over 90% for the Pastorals), reject direct Pauline authorship for these six epistles.[27][29][30][31] Arguments in favor of authenticity, though held by a minority, highlight traditional church acceptance from the second century (e.g., by Irenaeus and Tertullian) and thematic continuities, such as calls to imitate Christ and ethical exhortations echoing undisputed letters. Proponents suggest secretarial influence or co-authorship could explain stylistic variations, as Paul occasionally used amanuenses (e.g., Romans 16:22), and propose that evolving church needs prompted adaptations without forgery. For instance, Colossians' Christology builds on Paul's participationist soteriology (e.g., Romans 6:4–5), and 2 Thessalonians may complement 1 Thessalonians as a clarifying follow-up. However, these defenses are often critiqued for underplaying the cumulative linguistic and historical evidence. Despite the debates, the disputed epistles remain canonical, valued for their contributions to early Christian doctrine on unity, leadership, and perseverance.[29][28]Composition Practices
Role of Secretaries
In the Greco-Roman world, the use of amanuenses, or secretaries, was a widespread practice among authors who were illiterate, time-constrained, or simply seeking efficiency in composition, allowing dictation or collaboration while the principal maintained oversight.[9] Although Paul, trained as a Pharisee, likely possessed literacy and formal education in Jewish and Hellenistic traditions, his extensive travels and apostolic duties made reliance on scribes practical for producing letters quickly.[32] This convention enabled busy figures like Paul to compose correspondence without personally handling the physical writing, often through verbatim recording or stylistic refinement by the secretary. Direct evidence of scribal involvement appears in several Pauline epistles, where the process is explicitly noted. In Romans 16:22, Tertius identifies himself as the one who wrote the letter in the Lord, indicating his role in transcribing the text for the Roman church. Similarly, Galatians 6:11 records Paul commenting on his shift to larger handwriting, suggesting he took over from a scribe to add a personal conclusion. Other instances include 1 Corinthians 16:21, where Paul greets in his own hand, and an autograph ending in Philemon 19, confirming the body was scribed while Paul authenticated the end. These references demonstrate that such practices were normative and transparent in Paul's correspondence. Secretaries' involvement varied, ranging from simple dictation—where Paul exercised full verbal control—to co-authorship, as seen with Sosthenes named alongside Paul in 1 Corinthians 1:1, or even potential editing that influenced phrasing. This flexibility could account for variations in Greek style and vocabulary across the epistles, such as differences in sentence length or word choice, without implying foreign authorship. Scholarly analysis, including Harry Y. Gamble's examination in the Anchor Bible Dictionary, supports that these amanuenses contributed to linguistic diversity while preserving Paul's theological intent and authenticity. Likewise, E. Randolph Richards' study highlights how such mediation explains stylistic shifts as extensions of Paul's voice rather than contradictions. However, the amanuensis hypothesis has faced critiques for lacking sufficient historical evidence to defend traditional authorship claims in disputed epistles.[33][34]Epistolary Style and Structure
The Pauline epistles generally follow a conventional Greco-Roman epistolary form adapted to Christian purposes, consisting of a prescript, a body, and a closing. The prescript typically identifies the sender—often Paul alone or with co-senders like Silas or Timothy—describes his apostolic authority, names the recipients (e.g., "to the saints in Christ Jesus who are in Philippi"), and offers a greeting such as "Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ."[5] This opening is followed by a thanksgiving section in most letters (absent only in Galatians), where Paul expresses gratitude to God for the recipients' faith, recalling shared experiences or prayers to build rapport and transition to the main concerns.[35] The body develops the core message through theological arguments, ethical exhortations, and practical instructions tailored to the community's situation, while the closing includes final admonitions, a peace wish (e.g., "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit"), greetings, and an autograph note authenticating the letter as Paul's own hand.[5][36] Pauline rhetoric draws on both Greco-Roman and Jewish traditions, employing techniques to persuade and edify diverse audiences. Influenced by Hellenistic practices, Paul uses diatribe-style elements in Romans, such as rhetorical questions and imagined objections from an interlocutor (e.g., "What then shall we say to this?"), to engage readers dialogically and counter misunderstandings.[37] Jewish interpretive methods like midrash appear in passages such as Galatians 4:21-31, where Paul allegorizes Old Testament figures (Hagar and Sarah) to expound scriptural promises.[38] Vivid metaphors, including the "body of Christ" in 1 Corinthians 12 and Romans 12, illustrate communal unity and interdependence, portraying the church as an organic whole with diverse members functioning harmoniously.[39] Embedded hymns, such as the Christological poem in Philippians 2:6-11, likely pre-existing liturgical pieces, underscore themes of humility and exaltation through rhythmic, hymnic language.[40] While sharing this framework, the epistles vary in form and emphasis to suit their purposes, from intimate personal appeals to broader communal addresses. Shorter, more personal letters like Philemon (25 verses) focus on individual relationships, urging reconciliation without extensive argumentation, whereas longer communal ones like Romans (16 chapters) present systematic expositions.[41] Ephesians exemplifies a more encyclical style, with generalized exhortations applicable to multiple churches, contrasting the situation-specific tone of letters like 1 Corinthians. The role of secretaries may have facilitated such stylistic adaptations by allowing Paul to dictate content while incorporating polished rhetorical features. Over time, the epistles show a progression from occasional, reactive writings to more structured and thematic treatments in later compositions, reflecting evolving pastoral needs.[42]Canonical Arrangement
Order in the New Testament
In the New Testament canon, the thirteen Pauline epistles are positioned immediately following the Acts of the Apostles and preceding the general epistles, forming a distinct corpus that bridges narrative history and broader apostolic instruction. This placement underscores their role in elaborating on the early church's development after Pentecost. The epistles are traditionally divided into two main categories: the nine "church epistles" addressed to congregations—Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, and 2 Thessalonians—followed by the four "pastoral" epistles directed to individuals in leadership roles—1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. This structure reflects a deliberate organization prioritizing communal and then personal guidance within the emerging Christian communities.[43] The rationale for this specific sequence traces back to early Christian manuscript traditions, where the epistles were arranged in descending order of length, starting with the expansive Romans and concluding with the brief Philemon, to facilitate practical use in worship and study. This length-based ordering became standardized in 4th-century codices, such as Codex Vaticanus, which preserves the uniform progression from Romans through the church epistles to the pastorals. An earlier influence was Marcion's canon circa 140 CE, which compiled ten Pauline epistles (excluding the pastorals except Philemon) and promoted their authoritative collection, though in a theological sequence emphasizing anti-Jewish themes; this effort contributed to the broader recognition and eventual canonical fixation of Paul's writings.[44][45] Thematically, the canonical order allows for interpretive groupings that highlight theological emphases: the initial soteriological cluster (Romans through Galatians) centers on doctrines of salvation, justification by faith, and freedom from the law.[46] These divisions, though not explicit in the text, aid in understanding Paul's multifaceted contributions to Christian doctrine. Contemporary editions of the Bible, including critical Greek texts like Nestle-Aland, adhere to this traditional arrangement to preserve liturgical familiarity and canonical integrity across denominations, despite its lack of correspondence to the historical order of composition.[47]Chronological Sequence
The chronological sequence of the Pauline epistles is reconstructed through a synthesis of internal textual clues, alignments with the Book of Acts, and corroborative historical and archaeological data, providing a framework for understanding the development of Paul's theology and missionary efforts. Scholarly consensus prioritizes the undisputed epistles—Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon—as the core of this timeline, with relative ordering derived from references to events like church foundings, visits, and crises. Absolute dates are approximate, often anchored to Paul's conversion around 33–36 CE and his execution circa 64–67 CE, but uncertainties arise from gaps in the record and debates over Acts' historicity. This sequence contrasts with the canonical arrangement, which follows length rather than composition order. The generally accepted timeline places 1 Thessalonians as Paul's earliest surviving letter, composed around 50 CE from Corinth during his second missionary journey, addressing eschatological concerns in a recently founded church. Galatians follows shortly after, circa 50–55 CE, likely written in response to Judaizing influences shortly before or after the Jerusalem Council, emphasizing justification by faith (date subject to debate between the early South Galatian theory placing it ~48–49 CE before the Council and the later North Galatian theory placing it ~53–55 CE after). The mid-50s CE saw the Corinthian letters: 1 Corinthians around 54–55 CE, tackling divisions and moral issues reported to Paul, and 2 Corinthians circa 55–56 CE, reconciling after a painful visit and severe letter. Romans, dated to about 57 CE, serves as a mature theological summary written from Corinth en route to Jerusalem with a collection for the poor. The prison epistles—Philippians and Philemon—emerge during Paul's captivity, around 60–62 CE, possibly in Rome, focusing on joy amid suffering and personal intercession. The disputed Deutero-Pauline epistles, including Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, and the Pastorals (1–2 Timothy, Titus), are placed later, roughly 80–110 CE, reflecting post-Pauline church structures and vocabulary shifts indicative of subsequent authorship.[22]- c. 50 CE: 1 Thessalonians (earliest, from Corinth)
- c. 50–55 CE: Galatians (post-conversion travels; debated between South Galatian theory ~48–49 CE before Jerusalem Council and North Galatian theory ~53–55 CE after)[48]
- c. 54–56 CE: 1 Corinthians (from Ephesus), 2 Corinthians (from Macedonia)
- c. 57 CE: Romans (from Corinth)
- c. 60–62 CE: Philippians, Philemon (prison epistles, likely Rome)