Hubbry Logo
Book of TobitBook of TobitMain
Open search
Book of Tobit
Community hub
Book of Tobit
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Book of Tobit
Book of Tobit
Book of Tobit
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Joshua 1:1 as recorded in the Aleppo Codex
Tanakh (Judaism)
Torah (Instruction)
GenesisBereshit
ExodusShemot
LeviticusWayiqra
NumbersBemidbar
DeuteronomyDevarim
Nevi'im (Prophets)
Former
JoshuaYehoshua
JudgesShofetim
SamuelShemuel
KingsMelakhim
Latter
IsaiahYeshayahu
JeremiahYirmeyahu
EzekielYekhezqel
Minor
Ketuvim (Writings)
Poetic
PsalmsTehillim
ProverbsMishlei
JobIyov
Five Megillot (Scrolls)
Song of SongsShir Hashirim
RuthRut
LamentationsEikhah
EcclesiastesQohelet
EstherEster
Historical
DanielDaniyyel
Ezra–NehemiahEzra
ChroniclesDivre Hayyamim
Old Testament (Christianity)
Pentateuch
Historical
Poetic
Prophetic
Major prophets
Minor prophets
Deuterocanonical
Orthodox only
Orthodox Tewahedo
Bible portal
Leaf from a vellum manuscript of Tobit, c. 1240
Rembrandt: Tobit Accusing Anna of Stealing the Kid (1626)

The Book of Tobit (/ˈtoʊbɪt/),[a][b] a work of Second Temple Jewish literature, is one of the deuterocanonical (or apocryphal) books of the Bible. It dates to the 3rd or early 2nd century BC. It emphasizes God’s testing of the faithful, His response to prayer, and His protection of the covenant people, the Israelites.[1] The narrative follows two Israelite families: the blind Tobit in Nineveh and Sarah, abandoned in Ecbatana.[2] Tobit’s son Tobias is sent to recover ten silver talents once deposited in Rhages in Media, and on his journey—guided by the angel Raphael—he meets Sarah.[2] Sarah is afflicted by the demon Asmodeus, who slays her prospective husbands, but with Raphael’s help the demon is exorcised and she marries Tobias.[1] They return together to Nineveh, where Tobit’s sight is miraculously restored.[2]

Since the 20th century, scholarly consensus has held that Tobit was originally composed in a Semitic language.[3] Five Aramaic and Hebrew fragments were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating to the 1st or 2nd century BC.[4] The book influenced the authors of the Testament of Job, the Testament of Solomon, and possibly (depending on dating) Sirach, Jubilees, and the Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children.[5] It was included in both the Jewish-originated Septuagint[6] and the Old Latin Bible, which preserves textual traditions of Hebrew or Jewish vorlage.[7][8] It is extant in major Christian codices such as Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, and Basiliano-Venetus. Multiple ancient recensions are preserved in Greek and Latin, along with translations into Arabic, Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Syriac.[9]

In the New Testament period, Tobit was cited or echoed by Jewish Christians including Matthew,[10][11][12][13] Luke,[14][15][16][17] John,[18][19][20][21] and the Didache.[22] Early patristic use appears in 2 Clement,[23] Polycarp,[24] and Origen, who after visiting 3rd-century Alexandria, Rome, Caesarea, and Athens, remarked that "the churches use Tobit".[25] Irenaeus further noted that the 2nd-century Gnostic Ophites included Tobit among the biblical prophets[26]

By contrast, explicit canonical rejection of Tobit by Rabbinic Judaism is recorded from the 2nd century onward. Rabbi Akiva declared "The books of Sirach and all other books written from then on do not defile the hands",[27] while a contemporary Talmudic baraita insisted that "our Rabbis taught" the present twenty-four book Masoretic canon.[28] Origen, though emphasizing Christian acceptance, acknowledged that "the Jews do not use [it]",[29] and Jerome likewise noted that the Bethlehem Jews had "excised" the book from their canon, relegating it to the non-canonical "agiografa", though still copying and reading it.[30] Fifteenth-century Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts attest to its continued transmission, as does the medieval Midrash Tanhuma, which attributes a probable Tobit allusion to 11th-century Moshe ha-Darshan.[31]

The book is regarded as deuterocanonical by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, though it continues to be absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text. The Protestant tradition similarly deems it Apocrypha, useful for teaching and liturgy but not canonical; in the historic Protestant traditions, the Book of Tobit is located in the intertestamental section straddling the Old Testament and New Testament.[32][33][34][35] Most scholars see the book as a didactic folktale or novella which inserted storytelling elements into a historical context, rather than a strictly literal narrative.[36][37]

Structure and summary

[edit]
Bouguereau: Tobias Saying Good-Bye to his Father (1860)

The book has 14 chapters, forming three major narrative sections framed by a prologue and epilogue:[38]

  • Prologue (1:1–2)
  • Situation in Nineveh and Ecbatana (1:3–3:17)
  • Tobias's journey (4:1–12:22)
  • Tobit's song of praise and his death (13:1–14:2)
  • Epilogue (14:3–15)

(Summarised from Benedikt Otzen, "Tobit and Judith").[39]

The prologue tells the reader that this is the story of Tobit of the tribe of Naphtali, deported from Tishbe in Galilee to Nineveh by the Assyrians. Tobit himself has always kept the laws of Moses, and brought offerings to the Temple in Jerusalem before the catastrophe of the Assyrian conquest. The narrative notes his marriage to Anna, and they have a son named Tobias.

Tobit, a pious man, buries dead Israelites, but one evening, while he sleeps, sparrows partially blind him by defecating in his eyes; he later becomes fully blind after physicians place ointment in his eyes.[40] He becomes dependent on his wife, but accuses her of stealing and prays for death. Meanwhile, his relative Sarah, living in far-off Ecbatana, also prays for death, for the demon Asmodeus has killed her suitors on their wedding-nights and she is accused of having caused their deaths.

God hears their prayers and dispatches the archangel Raphael to help them. Tobit sends Tobias to recover money from a relative, and Raphael, in human disguise, offers to accompany him (along with Tobias' dog). On the way they catch a fish in the Tigris, and Raphael tells Tobias that the burnt heart and liver can drive out demons and that the gall can cure blindness. They arrive in Ecbatana and meet Sarah; and as Raphael had predicted, the fish-offal drives out the demon.

Tobias and Sarah are married, Tobias grows wealthy, and they return to Nineveh (in Assyria) where Tobit and Anna await them. The gall cures Tobit's blindness, and Raphael departs after admonishing Tobit and Tobias to bless God and declare his deeds to the people (the Israelites), to pray and fast, and to give alms. Tobit praises God, who has punished his people with exile but who will show them mercy and rebuild the Temple if they turn to him.

In the epilogue Tobit tells Tobias that Nineveh will be destroyed as an example of wickedness; likewise Israel will be rendered desolate and the Temple will be destroyed, but Israel and the Temple will be restored; therefore Tobias should leave Nineveh, and he and his children should live in righteousness.

Significance

[edit]

Tobit is a work with some historical references, combining prayers, ethical exhortation, humour and adventure with elements drawn from folklore, wisdom tale, travel story, romance and comedy.[36][41] It offered the diaspora (the Jews in exile) guidance on how to retain Jewish identity, and its message was that God tests his people's faith, hears their prayers, and redeems the covenant community (i.e., the Jews).[41]

Readings from the book are used in the Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church. Because of the book's praise for the purity of marriage, it is often read during weddings in many rites. Doctrinally, the book is cited for its teachings on the intercession of angels, filial piety, tithing and almsgiving, and reverence for the dead.[42][43] Tobit is also made reference to in chapter 5 of 1 Meqabyan, a book considered canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[44]

Composition and manuscripts

[edit]

Tobit exists in two Greek versions, one (Sinaiticus) longer than the other (Vaticanus and Alexandrinus).[45] Aramaic and Hebrew fragments of Tobit (four Aramaic, one Hebrew – it is not clear which was the original language) found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran tend to align more closely with the longer or Sinaiticus version, which has formed the basis of most English translations in recent times.[45]

No scholarly consensus exists on the place of composition, but a Mesopotamian origin seems logical given that the story takes place in Assyria and Persia and it mentions the Persian demon "aeshma daeva", rendered "Asmodeus". However, the story contains significant errors in geographical detail (such as the distance from Ecbatana to Rhages and their topography), and arguments against and in favor of Judean or Egyptian composition also exist.[46] The story is set in the 8th century BC, but the book itself is thought to date from between 225 and 175 BC.[47]

The Vulgate places Tobit, Judith and Esther after the historical books (after Nehemiah). Some manuscripts of the Greek version place them after the wisdom writings.[48]

Canonical status

[edit]

Those books found in the Septuagint but not the Masoretic Text are called the deuterocanon, meaning "second canon".[49] Catholic and Orthodox Christianity include it in the Biblical canon. As Protestants came to follow the Masoretic canon, they therefore did not include Tobit in their canon, but do recognise it in the category of deuterocanonical books called the apocrypha.[49]

The Book of Tobit is listed as a canonical book by the Council of Rome (AD 382),[50] the Council of Hippo (AD 393),[51] the Council of Carthage (397)[52] and (AD 419),[53] the Council of Florence (1442)[54] and finally the Council of Trent (1546),[55] and is part of the canon of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. Catholics refer to it as deuterocanonical.[56]

Augustine[57] (c. AD 397) and Pope Innocent I[58] (AD 405) affirmed Tobit as part of the Old Testament Canon. Athanasius (AD 367) mentioned that certain other books, including the book of Tobit, while not being part of the Canon, "were appointed by the Fathers to be read".[59]

According to Rufinus of Aquileia (c. AD 400) the book of Tobit and other deuterocanonical books were not called Canonical but Ecclesiastical books.[60]

Protestant traditions place the book of Tobit in an intertestamental section called Apocrypha.[32] In Anabaptism, the book of Tobit is quoted liturgically during Amish weddings, with "the book of Tobit as the basis for the wedding sermon."[34] The Luther Bible holds Tobit as part of the "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not held equal to the sacred Scriptures, and nevertheless are useful to read".[35] Luther's personal view was that even if it were "all made up, then it is indeed a very beautiful, wholesome and useful fiction or drama by a gifted poet" and that "this book is useful and good for us Christians to read."[36] Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England lists it as a book of the "Apocrypha".[61] The first Methodist liturgical book, The Sunday Service of the Methodists, employs verses from Tobit in the Eucharistic liturgy.[33] Scripture readings from the Apocrypha are included in the lectionaries of the Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Churches, among other denominations using the Revised Common Lectionary, though alternate Old Testament readings are provided.[62][63] Liturgically, the Catholic and Anglican churches may use a scripture reading from the Book of Tobit in services of Holy Matrimony.[64]

Tobit contains some interesting evidence of the early evolution of the canon, referring to two rather than three divisions, the Law of Moses (i.e. the torah) and the prophets.[65] For unknown reasons it is not included in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible, although four Aramaic and one Hebrew fragment were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, indicating an authoritative status among some sects.[66] Proposed explanations have included its age, literary quality, a supposed Samaritan origin, or an infringement of ritual law, in that it depicts the marriage contract between Tobias and his bride as written by her father rather than her groom.[67] Alternatively, allusions to fallen angels and its thematic connections with works such as 1 Enoch and Jubilees may have disqualified it from canonicity.[68] It is, however, found in the Greek text of the Septuagint, from which it was adopted into the Christian canon by the end of the 4th century.[67]

Influence

[edit]

Tobit's place in the Christian canon allowed it to influence theology, art and culture in Europe.[69] It was often dealt with by the early Church fathers, and the motif of Tobias and the fish (the fish being a symbol of Christ) was extremely popular in both art and theology;[69] this is normally called Tobias and the Angel in art. Particularly noteworthy in this connection are the works of Rembrandt, who, despite belonging to the Dutch Reformed Church, was responsible for a series of paintings and drawings illustrating episodes from the book.[69]

Scholarship on folkloristics (for instance, Stith Thompson, Dov Noy, Heda Jason and Gédeon Huet) recognizes the Book of Tobit as containing an early incarnation of the story of The Grateful Dead, albeit with an angel as the hero's helper, instead of the spirit of a dead man.[70][71][72][73][74]

The story of Tobit inspired also the oratorio Il ritorno di Tobia (1775) by Joseph Haydn.

[edit]
  • Departure of Tobias guided by the archangel Raphael; cutting from an initial I from a gradual by the Master of Noah's Ark: Cleveland Museum of Art
    Departure of Tobias guided by the archangel Raphael; cutting from an initial I from a gradual by the Master of Noah's Ark: Cleveland Museum of Art
  • Tobias heals the blindness of his father Tobit, by Domingos Sequeira
    Tobias heals the blindness of his father Tobit, by Domingos Sequeira
  • Illumination with Tobit, Tobias, and the archangel Raphael in an initial O. (14th century AD)
    Illumination with Tobit, Tobias, and the archangel Raphael in an initial O. (14th century AD)
  • Anna and the Blind Tobit, Rembrandt and Dou (1630)
    Anna and the Blind Tobit, Rembrandt and Dou (1630)
  • Tobias and the Angel, Filippino Lippi,  1472–1482
    Tobias and the Angel, Filippino Lippi, c. 1472–1482
  • The wedding of Tobias and Sarah: Raphael binds the demon. Jan Steen,  1660
    The wedding of Tobias and Sarah: Raphael binds the demon. Jan Steen, c. 1660
  • Tobit and Anna, Abraham De Pape,  1658 National Gallery of London
    Tobit and Anna, Abraham De Pape, c. 1658 National Gallery of London
  • Tobit comforts Anna, stained glass roundel, southern Netherlands,  1500
    Tobit comforts Anna, stained glass roundel, southern Netherlands, c. 1500
  • Tobit buries the dead, F. Bartolozzi after G.B. Castiglione, 1651.
    Tobit buries the dead, F. Bartolozzi after G.B. Castiglione, 1651.
  • The Blindness of Tobit: A Sketch, William James Smith, After Rembrandt, ca. 1825.
    The Blindness of Tobit: A Sketch, William James Smith, After Rembrandt, ca. 1825.

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Book of Tobit

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Book of Tobit (Hebrew: סֵפֶר טוֹבִיָּה, romanized: Sefer Ṭoviyyah; Ancient Greek: Τωβίτ, romanized: Tōbít) is a deuterocanonical book of the , recounting the story of a pious Jewish exile named Tobit and his son Tobias during the in the 8th century BCE, though the narrative contains geographical and historical inaccuracies, where themes of , prayer, and divine intervention play central roles through the guidance of the archangel Raphael, culminating in healings from blindness and demonic oppression. Composed likely between 225 and 175 BCE, the book originated in , as evidenced by fragments discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, with additional Hebrew versions also attested, though its original language remains debated due to the survival primarily of Greek and Latin translations in major codices like Sinaiticus. The narrative unfolds in two parallel stories: Tobit's faithfulness amid hardship in , including his burial of fellow exiles and subsequent blindness caused by bird droppings while sleeping outdoors after burying a corpse, and the trials of his kinswoman in , tormented by a that kills her seven bridegrooms on their nights. Tobias, sent by his father to retrieve money from Media, embarks on a journey accompanied by in the guise of a companion named Azarias; along the way, they encounter a great fish whose organs provide the means for both and healing, enabling Tobias to wed safely and restore Tobit's sight upon their return. The book's authorship is unknown, but it draws on Jewish folk tale traditions and reflects Hellenistic influences in its diaspora setting and moral didacticism, emphasizing almsgiving, family , and trust in God's providence as virtues that mitigate suffering. Scholarly analysis highlights its structure as a unified blending tales with romantic and adventure elements, possibly intended for edification during the Ptolemaic or Seleucid periods in or . In terms of canonical status, Tobit is accepted as inspired Scripture in the Roman Catholic Church, affirmed at the in 1546, and in Eastern Orthodox traditions, where it forms part of the broader canon; however, it is excluded from the Jewish Tanakh and Protestant Bibles, classified instead as apocryphal or deuterocanonical, suitable for moral instruction but not doctrinal authority. Early Christian reception, from the 2nd to 5th centuries CE, treated it favorably in Greek and Latin writings, with figures like and Augustine citing it, underscoring its role in shaping ethical teachings on , charity, and angelic .

Narrative and Structure

Plot Summary

The Book of Tobit opens with the protagonist, a devout named Tobit from the , who is exiled to following the Assyrian conquest of the Northern Kingdom in 722/721 B.C. Living among captives, Tobit maintains his piety by observing Jewish customs, giving alms, and burying fellow slain by the Assyrians, even at great personal risk. His wife Anna and son share in this life of faithfulness, though Tobit's good deeds lead to denunciation and loss of his position as a . One night, after burying a kinsman, Tobit sleeps outdoors and is blinded by sparrow droppings falling into his eyes, plunging him into and despair as his family struggles to support him. In his affliction, Tobit prays for , lamenting his suffering despite his righteousness: "You are just, O Lord, and just are all your works. Now command my spirit to be taken from me." Concurrently in the distant city of in Media, a young woman named , daughter of Raguel—a relative of Tobit—faces her own torment. Afflicted by the Asmodeus, who has killed her seven previous husbands on their wedding nights, Sarah is wrongly accused by her maids and prays desperately for or : "Command that I may be delivered from the earth." hears both prayers and dispatches the Raphael to intervene. Tobit, recalling a deposit of silver he left in Media with a kinsman named Gabael of Rages, instructs his son on moral living, including charity and , before sending him on the journey to retrieve it. Tobias hires a guide named Azarias, unknowingly the Raphael in disguise, who agrees to accompany him for the trip. During their journey along the River, a large fish attacks , but instructs him to catch it and preserve its heart, liver, and , explaining their future use in and : "As for the , anoint a man's eyes with it and he will be cured of every kind of mist." Arriving in Media, they stay with Raguel, who recognizes as a kinsman and offers his daughter in per custom. Though aware of Sarah's tragic , accepts, and on their wedding night, the couple prays together for protection. then burns the fish's heart and liver in the bridal chamber, producing a smoke that repels ; pursues and binds the demon in . Raguel, fearing another death, digs a but discovers Sarah alive the next morning, leading to joyful celebration. entrusts the retrieved silver to and sends and her possessions ahead while he buries Gabael. Anna, Tobias's mother, anxiously awaits their return in , rebuking Tobit for sending their only son away. Upon their arrival home, applies the fish's gall to Tobit's eyes as instructed by , restoring his sight instantly; Tobit falls prostrate in thanks, and the family reunites in happiness, with Anna embracing as a . then reveals his true identity as one of the seven angels before God's , recounting how he presented their prayers and acts of charity, before ascending to . Tobit and offer sacrifices and for His , with Tobit blessing the : "Blessed be who lives forever, because his kingdom endures for all ages." In his final days, Tobit prophesies the fall of and urges to flee to Media; after Tobit's peaceful death at age 112, buries him beside Anna and relocates to , where he and live prosperously, later confirming Nineveh's destruction as foretold. 's coming-of-age journey thus culminates in family restoration and faithful legacy.

Literary Form and Genre

The Book of Tobit is structured into 14 chapters, organized episodically to interweave parallel narratives of suffering and redemption. The story alternates between Tobit's experiences of piety, exile, and blindness in and Sarah's plight with demonic affliction and widowhood in , creating a dual storyline that converges through the journey of to Media. This episodic framework builds tension via simultaneity, as events unfold concurrently in separate locations, emphasizing themes of divine intervention without resolving the plots until their intersection. Scholars classify the book as a Jewish Hellenistic romance or didactic folktale, blending moral instruction with adventurous elements typical of ancient Near Eastern storytelling. It incorporates international motifs such as the "," where a proper leads to aid, alongside a perilous journey fraught with trials and a demon-slaying that resolves marital peril. These features align the with broader Hellenistic literary traditions while serving an edifying purpose for Jewish audiences. Stylistically, the text employs prayers, songs, and moral asides to punctuate the prose, enhancing its didactic tone; notable examples include Tobit's penitential (Tob 3:1-6), the wedding hymn (Tob 8:5-8), and his extended song of praise (Tob 13:1-18), which echo psalmic forms. Originally composed in , the work preserves poetic elements like rhythmic phrasing and elevated in its translations, contributing to a lyrical quality amid the flow. Folkloristic analysis identifies the book as a composite of tale types cataloged in the Aarne-Thompson-Uther index, particularly ATU 505 ("") for the burial motif rewarding Tobias and ATU 507 ("The Monster's Bride") for the demon Asmodeus's defeat in Sarah's chamber. These classifications, highlighted in Stith Thompson's motif-index, underscore Tobit's roots in oral traditions adapted for religious instruction.

Textual Origins

Authorship and Composition Date

The Book of Tobit is traditionally attributed to an anonymous Jewish author, with no specific name or identity preserved in ancient sources or manuscripts. Scholarly consensus holds that it was composed by a single author, likely from a Judean background, drawing on experiences of the to craft a of and faithfulness. The work's integration of wisdom traditions and prophetic elements suggests an author familiar with biblical literature and broader Near Eastern motifs, though debates persist on whether redactional layers indicate multiple contributors, particularly in chapters 13–14, which some view as later additions. Linguistic evidence points to a Semitic original language, most probably , as supported by the four Aramaic fragments (4Q196–199) discovered among the scrolls, which align closely with the shorter Greek version (GI). A single Hebrew fragment (4Q200) exists, but the prevalence of Aramaic idioms in the Greek translations—such as unusual phrasing and Semitic syntax—indicates a non-Greek composition, with favored over Hebrew due to the fragments' quantity and the book's eastern setting. The text was subsequently translated into Greek, likely in the 2nd century BCE, yielding multiple recensions that reflect interpretive expansions. The composition date is placed in the 3rd to early BCE, during the Persian or early , with a commonly proposed range of 225–175 BCE based on allusions to the Books of Chronicles (post-400 BCE) and the absence of references to the (167 BCE onward). Earlier estimates around 300 BCE stem from linguistic archaisms, while later ones near 100 BCE arise from perceived Hellenistic influences, though the fragments provide a terminus ante quem of the mid-2nd century BCE. The work draws from Mesopotamian folklore, notably the Ahiqar wisdom tale explicitly referenced in Tobit 1:22 and 2:10, which circulated in and influenced the narrative's themes of and divine intervention; it also echoes biblical motifs like the suffering of Job (e.g., Tobit's trials) and endogamous marriages from Genesis. These elements reflect Jewish adaptations of experiences, possibly composed in Antioch () or , centers of .

Manuscripts and Textual Variants

The earliest surviving manuscripts of the Book of Tobit are five fragments discovered in Cave 4 among the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. These consist of four fragments (4Q196–4Q199) and one Hebrew fragment (4Q200), preserving portions of the text across chapters 1–7 and 12–14, which collectively confirm the book's Semitic origins in , with possible Hebrew elements in later transmission. The fragments, in particular, represent the oldest witnesses and suggest an original composition in that language, as their phrasing aligns closely with reconstructed Semitic forms rather than Greek influences. The major surviving versions of Tobit derive primarily from the Greek , which exists in two principal recensions: a longer form (Greek II) preserved in (4th century CE) and a shorter form (Greek I) in (4th century CE). The longer recension adds approximately 1,700 words compared to the shorter one, including expanded narrative details. Additional versions include the () translation from the 2nd–4th centuries CE, which follows the longer Greek closely and served as the basis for Jerome's (late 4th century CE), a Latin edition based on a Hebrew or source but ultimately revised from the Old Latin. Later translations appear in Syriac (, 5th–6th centuries CE) and Ethiopic (Ge'ez, 6th–7th centuries CE), both drawing from Greek prototypes but incorporating local interpretive adjustments. Key textual variants across these versions highlight differences in length and content. The longer Greek includes additions such as an expanded of in Tobit 13, which elaborates on themes of and Jerusalem's restoration, absent or abbreviated in the shorter . The , aligned with the shorter form, omits certain demonological details, such as specific references to the demon Asmodeus's binding location (e.g., "upper " in Greek versions is simplified), potentially softening supernatural elements. Medieval Hebrew fragments from the Cairo (10th–15th centuries CE), including two incomplete manuscripts, provide retroversions that align variably with , offering insights into Jewish s but showing influences from Greek intermediaries. Modern textual criticism has focused on reconstructing the putative original Aramaic text using these witnesses. Joseph A. Fitzmyer's 2003 commentary integrates the Qumran fragments with Greek and Latin variants to propose an Aramaic Vorlage, arguing that discrepancies arise from translational expansions rather than authorial intent. These efforts reveal how variants affect minor interpretive elements, such as the precise properties of the fish gall used for healing in Tobit 6 and 11, where Greek versions emphasize its miraculous efficacy more vividly than shorter Aramaic-aligned forms. Overall, such reconstructions underscore the book's fluid transmission across linguistic traditions without altering its core narrative framework.

Theological Content

Core Themes and Motifs

The Book of Tobit emphasizes piety as a central virtue, particularly through the protagonist Tobit's unwavering adherence to Jewish law while living in exile in Nineveh, where he observes dietary restrictions, tithes, and festivals despite surrounding Assyrian influences. Tobit's acts of burying the dead and giving alms to the poor are portrayed as expressions of righteousness that invite divine reward, as instructed in his advice to his son Tobias, with teachings echoed in the book such as: "Prayer is good when accompanied by fasting, almsgiving, and righteousness... Almsgiving saves from death and purges away every sin" (Tobit 12:8–9). Scholars note that this motif elevates almsgiving not merely as charity but as a redemptive practice akin to atonement, reinforcing Jewish ethical identity in diaspora settings. Divine providence forms another key theme, illustrated by the parallel narratives of Tobit in and Sarah in , which converge through 's unseen orchestration to resolve their afflictions. The story employs motifs of faith-testing, reminiscent of Abraham's sacrifice, as Tobit and Sarah endure blindness, despair, and apparent abandonment before providence restores them, underscoring that guides the faithful even in hidden ways. emerges as a conduit for this providence, with simultaneous supplications from Tobit and Sarah prompting angelic intervention to align human actions with divine will. The narrative also highlights marriage and family as covenantal blessings, exemplified by the endogamous union of and , both descendants of the , which ensures the continuity of Jewish lineage amid exile. This marriage restores household stability, portraying women like as integral to familial piety through her prayers and endurance, while the couple's union symbolizes broader restoration of Israel's covenant promises. Tobit's instructions to Tobias on selecting a from their kin further emphasize as a safeguard for religious fidelity (Tobit 4:12-13). Exile and diaspora shape the book's exploration of , contrasting Assyrian oppression with the faithfulness of Tobit and his family, who maintain rituals like observance and burial rites to preserve communal bonds in foreign lands. The setting in serves as a for ongoing dispersion, urging diaspora Jews to embody as resistance to assimilation and a pathway to eventual return and redemption. Recent scholarship, such as Ruth Henderson's 2024 analysis, interprets in Tobit—particularly Tobit's restored sight and Sarah's deliverance—as a motif of holistic restoration, linking physical recovery to God's and the renewal of in line with broader biblical themes of compassion.

Supernatural Elements

The angel plays a central role in the Book of Tobit as a disguised guide, healer, and . Appearing as a human companion named to , accompanies him on a journey from to , providing protection, counsel, and instruction throughout the narrative. His name derives from the rapha ("to heal") and 'el (""), meaning "God heals," which aligns with his functions of restoring Tobit's sight and delivering Sarah from demonic affliction. In Tobit 12, reveals his true identity as one of the seven angels who stand before 's glory, emphasizing his role as a mediator of prayers and divine agent acting solely by 's command. The serves as the primary antagonist, embodying jealousy and destructive chaos by slaying 's seven successive husbands on their wedding nights to prevent her marriage. Depicted as the "king of demons" in some versions, is driven by obsessive lust for , disrupting human relationships and familial continuity. binds using the heart, liver, and gall of a caught by , forcing the demon to flee to the region where he is restrained, symbolizing the triumph of divine order over malevolent forces. Several miraculous events underscore the supernatural intervention in the story, including the multifunctional properties of the river fish encountered by and . The fish's heart and liver, burned as during Tobias and Sarah's wedding, expel , while its gall serves as an ointment that miraculously restores Tobit's blindness when applied to his eyes. 's ascension at the narrative's close, where he declares his return to the one who sent him and vanishes in a vision of glory, parallels biblical accounts of angelic visitations, such as the angels in Genesis 19 who depart after aiding Lot, though Raphael notably pretends to eat and drink to maintain his disguise. Scholars identify these elements as drawing on folkloristic demon-slaying tropes common in ancient Near Eastern and Hellenistic narratives, where a divine or heroic figure uses items to bind and banish spirits afflicting the innocent. A 2020 study on early Christian interpretations highlights Tobit's angelology, particularly Raphael's multifaceted interventions, as influencing views of angels as guardians and healers, potentially serving as proto-hagiographic models for later saintly narratives.

Canonical and Historical Context

Canonical Acceptance

The Book of Tobit is regarded as deuterocanonical in the , where it was formally affirmed as part of the at the in 1546, alongside other books from the tradition. This status reflects its inclusion in early Greek translations of the Hebrew Scriptures, which formed the basis for the in the Latin and subsequent Catholic Bibles. Similarly, the Orthodox Church accepts Tobit as , drawing from the and affirming its authority in ecumenical councils and liturgical traditions. In contrast, the book was excluded from the Jewish Tanakh following the standardization of the Hebrew canon around the 1st or 2nd century CE, as it was composed in Aramaic or Hebrew during the Second Temple period but not incorporated into the rabbinic collection of sacred texts. Protestant traditions, emerging from the Reformation, classified Tobit as part of the Apocrypha—valuable for moral edification but not divinely inspired or authoritative for doctrine—with Martin Luther explicitly describing such books as useful for reading but secondary to the protocanonical Scriptures. Early Christian reception indicates broad acceptance of Tobit prior to these divergences; fragments in and Hebrew discovered among the (dating to the 2nd century BCE) suggest its circulation and use within pre-Christian Jewish communities. frequently quoted it as scriptural, with citing Tobit 4:15 in his Stromata to emphasize ethical teachings on charity and , alongside references by and for themes of prayer and almsgiving. Modern variations persist, particularly in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, where Tobit is fully integrated into the broader canon of 81 books, reflecting ancient Ge'ez translations and unique scriptural traditions. In Anglicanism, as articulated in Article VI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion (1571), Tobit falls under the Apocrypha, suitable for "example of life and instruction of manners" but not for establishing doctrine.

Historical Background and Setting

The Book of Tobit is set in the context of the Assyrian exile following the fall of the Northern Kingdom of in 722 BCE, when the Assyrians under conquered and deported many to various regions of their empire—though historically, while Shalmaneser V initiated the siege, it was his successor who completed the conquest and oversaw the mass deportation. The protagonist, Tobit, a member of the from the town of Thisbe in , is among those taken captive to , the Assyrian capital. There, he serves the king loyally while adhering to Jewish customs, such as and burying the dead, amid the hardships of life. The narrative references specific Assyrian rulers, including , under whom Tobit is exiled, and his supposed son , during whose reign Tobit faces persecution for burying executed Jews. However, this genealogy is historically inaccurate, as was actually the son of , not , highlighting a of Assyrian royal succession in the text. Geographically, the story mentions locations like , Rages (Rhages) in Media, and (the Median capital), with Tobit's son traveling from to Rages via the River. Scholarly analysis points to inaccuracies here, such as the Tigris not lying on the direct route from to , the distance from Ecbatana to Rages being described as a two-day journey (Tobit 5:6) despite the cities being approximately 325 kilometers apart, and the use of place names or descriptions blending Assyrian, Persian, and possibly later Hellenistic elements. Further scrutiny reveals anachronisms in the depicted Jewish practices and social conditions, which align more closely with post-exilic experiences than with 8th-century BCE . For instance, elements like formalized almsgiving, endogamous marriage customs, and demonological beliefs reflect , suggesting the story mirrors 3rd-century BCE Jewish life in the Eastern under Persian or early Hellenistic rule rather than the earlier Assyrian period. Biblical scholar notes that the book incorporates an admixture of Persian and Greek cultural influences, underscoring its fictional nature despite the historical veneer. Archaeologically, there is no direct evidence corroborating the specific events or figures in Tobit, such as the characters or their journeys. Nonetheless, fragments of the book in and Hebrew from Cave 4 (manuscripts 4Q196–4Q200) attest to its popularity and integration within Jewish literature, dating to the 2nd century BCE or earlier. These discoveries align the text with broader traditions of piety and exile narratives.

Legacy and Reception

Influence in Judaism and Christianity

In Jewish tradition, the Book of Tobit, while not included in the Tanakh, exerted limited influence post-composition, primarily through echoes in rabbinic literature emphasizing ethical practices such as almsgiving. Tobit's instructions on almsgiving as a form of righteousness, particularly in Tobit 4:7-11 and 12:8-9, parallel and likely contributed to rabbinic teachings on tzedakah as a meritorious act that atones for sins and stores heavenly treasure, as seen in later texts like the Mishnah (e.g., Peah 1:1) and Talmudic discussions. This ethical motif from Tobit reinforced the idea of charity as a paradigmatic commandment in Second Temple and early rabbinic Judaism, bridging piety with practical observance. In some medieval Jewish communities, fragments of Tobit in Hebrew and Aramaic translations were incorporated into lectionary readings or moral instruction, though its non-canonical status restricted broader liturgical use. The book's influence expanded significantly in , where it holds deuterocanonical status in Catholic and Orthodox traditions, shaping , , and devotion. Early patristic writers frequently cited Tobit for moral guidance on , , and family life; for instance, Augustine referenced Tobit 8:4-9 in his De bono coniugali (On the Good of Marriage, ch. 7) to underscore chaste marital union as a reflection of divine love, influencing Western Christian views on sacramental . Similarly, ante-Nicene Fathers like and drew on Greek versions of Tobit to interpret themes of and angelic intervention, as explored in recent scholarship examining its reception from the 2nd to 5th centuries CE. This early integration extended to , where Tobit's narrative of Raphael's protective role modeled saintly and angel veneration, inspiring later vitae that emphasized and guidance as marks of holiness. Parallels between Tobit's healing miracles—such as Raphael's restoration of Tobit's sight (Tobit 11:7-15) and of the afflicting (Tobit 8:1-3)—appear in accounts, particularly healings in Luke-Acts, where divine agents facilitate physical and spiritual recovery amid and , suggesting Tobit's influence on early Christian typology. In Catholic liturgy, Tobit 12:6-10 is prescribed for the Feast of Saints Michael, , and on September 29, highlighting Raphael's revelation and the efficacy of almsgiving and , a practice rooted in the book's emphasis on angelic mediation. Ongoing theological use persists in the , which invokes Tobit's portrayal of familial piety and mutual support (e.g., Tobit 4:3-4) to illustrate Christian as a covenant of love and procreation, promoting virtues like and parental instruction. In Eastern Orthodox tradition, Tobit's legacy endures in , where depictions of Archangel guiding —often holding a fish or staff symbolizing healing—adorn churches and emphasize divine companionship, as seen in 19th-century and contemporary liturgical art.

Depictions in Art and Literature

The Book of Tobit has inspired numerous visual representations in medieval illuminated manuscripts, particularly those from , where cycles of illustrations often depict key episodes such as Tobias's journey with the archangel and the healing of Tobit's blindness. For instance, a mid-14th-century Bolognese features an initial "O" containing Tobit, bedridden and blind, advising his son on righteous living, with present as their unseen guardian, emphasizing themes of obedience, , and divine protection. These manuscripts, produced in monastic and lay workshops, integrated Tobit's narrative into liturgical books to reinforce moral instruction through vivid, gold-embellished scenes of familial devotion and supernatural intervention. In the , the archangel emerged as a central figure in paintings inspired by Tobit, symbolizing and guidance amid growing devotion to archangels in . A prominent example is the workshop of del Verrocchio's (c. 1470–1475), an egg tempera panel showing the young Tobias, accompanied by his dog and Raphael, carrying a whose organs would cure his father's blindness, reflecting the era's interest in naturalism and biblical typology. This work, likely involving in details like the fish and dog, became influential in commissions and exemplified the shift toward humanistic portrayals of scriptural journeys. Literary adaptations of Tobit have appeared in musical and prose forms, drawing on its motifs of exile, healing, and angelic companionship. Charles Gounod's Tobie (1854), a petit with by , dramatizes Tobias's travels and the restoration of his family, blending choral and solo elements to evoke the story's piety and . In 20th-century , Salley Vickers's Miss Garnet's Angel (2000) parallels the protagonist's transformative Venetian sojourn with a modern retelling of Tobias's redemption through Raphael's aid, exploring themes of personal awakening and spiritual solace. In , Tobit's narrative has been adapted into animated formats that highlight its adventurous and miraculous elements for contemporary audiences. The Project's animated overview (2025) summarizes the book's themes of and , using stylized visuals to depict Tobias's quest and Raphael's role in familial restoration. Recent discussions in 2025 media, such as podcasts linking Tobit's lore to prophetic dreams and healing motifs in and , underscore Raphael's enduring appeal in speculative . Post-2020 folkloristic studies have examined Tobit's motifs—such as the journey with a divine companion, demon expulsion, and restorative —as parallels to global myths and legends, revealing its roots in ancient Near Eastern and Hellenistic traditions. Giancarlo Toloni's The Story of Tobit: A Comparative Literary Analysis (2022) analyzes these elements against Homer's and folktale archetypes, arguing that Tobit's blend of narrative and supernatural aid influenced cross-cultural storytelling patterns beyond its Jewish context.

References

  1. https://www.math.cmu.edu/~rw1k/Tobit.pdf
  2. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0184.xml
  3. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tobit-biblical-literature
  4. https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14422-tobit-book-of
  5. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/tobit/1
  6. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/tobit/3
  7. https://www.mtso.edu/site/assets/files/1980/tobit.pdf
  8. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/tobit/13
  9. https://academic.oup.com/book/1888/chapter/141643276
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41304203
  11. https://www.academia.edu/44967773/To_what_extent_can_the_genre_of_the_book_of_Tobit_best_be_characterised_as_a_folktale_fairytale_The_Transition_of_the_genre_of_Tobit_from_Fairy_tale_to_Novella_
  12. https://sites.pitt.edu/~dash/type0505.html
  13. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004344532/B9789004344532_020.pdf
  14. https://scholarship.shu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3396&context=dissertations
  15. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14749c.htm
  16. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43717762
  17. https://bibliotekanauki.pl/articles/1178986.pdf
  18. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110275896/html
  19. https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/OutputFile/1644485
  20. https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004366770/BP000013.xml
  21. https://czasopisma.kul.pl/index.php/ba/article/view/2133
  22. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/THBO/COM-0214010000.xml
  23. https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/19-tobit-nets.pdf
  24. https://openscholar.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/he_bible_project/files/gregory_b.pdf
  25. https://brill.com/view/journals/dsd/13/2/article-p256_7.pdf
  26. https://www.academia.edu/7985499/Exile_as_Metaphor_in_the_Book_of_Tobit
  27. https://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/6136/15968
  28. https://www.academia.edu/39980397/Charity_and_Cult_in_the_Book_of_Tobit
  29. https://academic.oup.com/book/57955/chapter/475816740
  30. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09518207231166877
  31. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/15/3/324
  32. https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/306725
  33. https://revistabiblica.com/ojs/index.php/RB/article/download/363/410
  34. https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789047415329/B9789047415329_s006.pdf
  35. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09518207241289940
  36. https://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/6138/16616
  37. https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Raphael.html
  38. https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004324749/B9789004324749_074.xml
  39. https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2019-asmodeus
  40. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004518148/BP000012.pdf
  41. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm
  42. https://czasopisma.kul.pl/index.php/ba/article/view/485
  43. https://learn.ligonier.org/podcasts/simply-put/apocrypha
  44. https://www.ancientjewreview.com/read/2017/3/22/aramaic-tobit-at-qumran
  45. https://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html
  46. https://www.anglicancommunion.org/media/109014/Thirty-Nine-Articles-of-Religion.pdf
  47. https://www.internationalstandardbible.com/T/tobit-book-of.html
  48. https://www.jjmjs.org/uploads/1/1/9/0/11908749/hicks-keeton.pdf
  49. https://evidenceunseen.com/world-religions/roman-catholicism/the-apocrypha/tobit
  50. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43722492
  51. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/according-to-the-commandment-did-15-lexical-reflections-on-almsgiving-as-the-commandment/00FC123D6FBB074E514B0F4D928DEBD2
  52. https://www.academia.edu/39153824/The_Wisdom_Discourse_of_Tobit_as_Instruction_in_Torah
  53. https://www.academia.edu/3080281/The_Medieval_Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Texts_of_Tobit_2004_
  54. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347379653_The_Book_of_Tobit_in_early_Christianity_Greek_and_Latin_interpretations_from_the_2nd_to_the_5th_century_CE
  55. https://brill.com/downloadpdf/book/edcoll/9789004247727/B9789004247727_007.pdf
  56. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/tobit/12
  57. https://catholicexchange.com/tobit-teaches-truth-on-marriage-family/
  58. https://legacyicons.com/archangel-raphael-icon-s421/
  59. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/467418
  60. https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/workshop-of-andrea-del-verrocchio-tobias-and-the-angel
  61. https://imslp.org/wiki/Tobie%2C_CG_31_%28Gounod%2C_Charles%29
  62. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/574220.Miss_Garnet_s_Angel
  63. https://bibleproject.com/videos/tobit/
  64. https://www.spreaker.com/episode/we-talk-about-revelations-9-the-book-of-tobit-archangel-raphael-and-prophetic-dreams--68307155
  65. https://brill.com/view/title/57058
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.