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Nikāya (निकाय) is a Pāli word meaning "volume". It is often used like the Sanskrit word āgama (आगम) to mean "collection", "assemblage", "class" or "group" in both Pāḷi and Sanskrit.[1] It is most commonly used in reference to the Pali Buddhist texts of the Tripitaka namely those found in the Sutta Piṭaka. It is also used to refer to monastic lineages, where it is sometimes translated as a 'monastic fraternity'.

The term Nikāya Buddhism is sometimes used in contemporary scholarship to refer to the Buddhism of the early Buddhist schools.

Text collections

[edit]
See also: Pali Canon and Sutta Piṭaka

In the Pāli Canon, particularly, the "Discourse Basket" or Sutta Piṭaka, the meaning of nikāya is roughly equivalent to the English collection and is used to describe groupings of discourses according to theme, length, or other categories. For example, the Sutta Piṭaka is broken up into five nikāyas:

In the other early Buddhist schools the alternate term āgama was used instead of nikāya to describe their Sutra Piṭakas. Thus the non-Mahāyāna portion of the Sanskrit-language Sutra Piṭaka is referred to as "the Āgamas" by Mahāyāna Buddhists. The Āgamas survive for the most part only in Classical Tibetan and Chinese translation. They correspond closely with the Pāḷi nikāyas.[2]

Monastic divisions

[edit]
See also: Theravada § Monastic orders
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Among the Theravāda nations of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, nikāya is also used as the term for a monastic division or lineage; these groupings are also sometimes called "monastic fraternities" or "frateries". Nikāyas may emerge among monastic groupings as a result of royal or government patronage (such as the Dhammayuttika Nikāya of Thailand), due to the national origin of their ordination lineage (the Siam Nikāya of Sri Lanka), because of differences in the interpretation of the monastic code, or due to other factors (such as the Amarapura Nikāya in Sri Lanka, which emerged as a reaction to caste restrictions within the Siam Nikāya). These divisions do not rise to the level of forming separate sects within the Theravāda tradition, because they do not typically follow different doctrines or monastic codes, nor do these divisions extend to the laity.

Ordained Buddhist monks by monastic order in Myanmar (2016).[3]
  1. Thudhamma 467,025 (87.3%)
  2. Shwegyin 50,692 (9.47%)
  3. Mahādvāra 6,066 (1.13%)
  4. Muladvāra 3,872 (0.72%)
  5. Veḷuvan 3,732 (0.70%)
  6. Hngettwin 1,445 (0.27%)
  7. Kuto 927 (0.17%)
  8. Mahayin 823 (0.15%)
  9. Anaukchaung 645 (0.12%)

In Burma, nikaya monastic orders have emerged in response to the relative conservativeness with which the Vinayas are interpreted, and the hierarchical structure within the nikaya. Since 1980, no new nikayas have been allowed, and there are a total of nine legally recognized monastic orders in Burma today under the 1990 Law Concerning Sangha Organizations.[4] The largest of these is the Thudhamma Nikaya, which was founded in the 1800s during the Konbaung dynasty.

Nikaya Buddhism

[edit]
Main article: Nikaya Buddhism

The term Nikāya Buddhism was coined by Masatoshi Nagatomifake as a non-derogatory substitute for Hinayana, meaning the early Buddhist schools.[5] Examples of these groups are pre-sectarian Buddhism and the early Buddhist schools. Some scholars exclude pre-sectarian Buddhism when using the term. The term Theravada refers to Buddhist practices based on these early teachings, as preserved in the Pāli Canon.

See also

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Notes

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Nikāya

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In , a nikāya (Pāli: निकाय; Sanskrit: निकाय) refers to a "collection" or "group," a term with broad applications including divisions of discourses (suttas) attributed to and his close disciples, as well as and monastic lineages. The nikāyas form the core divisions of the —the "Basket of Discourses"—within the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka), the foundational scriptural corpus of Theravāda . The term derives etymologically from Pāli ni- ("down" or "out") and kāya ("group" or "body"), signifying an organized assemblage of teachings preserved orally before being committed to writing around the first century BCE in . The Sutta Piṭaka comprises five principal nikāyas, each categorized by the length, thematic connections, or numerical structure of its suttas, encompassing thousands of texts that articulate the Buddha's doctrines on , , , and liberation from . The Dīgha Nikāya ("Long Collection") contains 34 extended discourses, often addressing philosophical debates, cosmology, and the Buddha's life, such as the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta on his final days. The Majjhima Nikāya ("Middle-Length Collection") includes 152 suttas of moderate size, exploring core teachings like the and dependent origination through dialogues with various interlocutors. The Saṃyutta Nikāya ("Connected Collection") organizes over 2,900 shorter suttas into 56 thematic chapters (saṃyuttas), grouping them by topics such as the five aggregates or the senses. The Aṅguttara Nikāya ("Numerical Collection") arranges approximately 2,300 suttas progressively by numerical lists—from ones to elevens—covering practical aspects of the path, including precepts and mental factors. Finally, the Khuddaka Nikāya ("Minor Collection") is a diverse of 15 to 18 texts (varying by tradition), including poetic works like the Dhammapada (verses on dhamma) and narrative compilations such as the Jātaka tales of the Buddha's past lives. These nikāyas represent the earliest strata of Buddhist literature, transmitted through communal recitations at councils following the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, traditionally dated to around 483 BCE (scholarly estimates range from c. 486–360 BCE), and they parallel the Āgamas in other ' canons, underscoring shared doctrinal foundations across traditions. While the Pāli versions are the most complete surviving collection, they provide essential insights into the historical Buddha's teachings, influencing Theravāda practice, , and ethics to the present day. For the term's use in reference to Buddhist schools and monastic groups, see the relevant sections below.

Etymology and General Meaning

Linguistic Origins

The term nikāya in Pāli, rendered as निकाय in Devanāgarī script, originates from the Sanskrit compound ni-kāya, composed of the prefix ni-, which conveys intensification, "down into," or "together," and kāya, derived from the verbal √ci meaning "to heap," "to pile," or "to ." This etymological structure imbues nikāya with connotations of a "heap," "assemblage," "group," "class," or "collection," often applied to organized volumes or groupings of material. In parallel usage, the Sanskrit term āgama serves as a comparable designation for scriptural collections, stemming from the prefix ā- combined with the root √gam ("to go" or "to come"), thus signifying "arrival," "approach," or "tradition that has come down," emphasizing transmitted teachings or doctrines. Both terms highlight the accumulative nature of early religious texts, with nikāya favoring the imagery of a gathered pile and āgama evoking authoritative transmission. The evolution of nikāya reflects broader linguistic transitions from Old Indo-Aryan , where root-derived forms denoted physical or conceptual heaps, to Middle Indo-Aryan Pāli, which adapted such vocabulary for doctrinal purposes. Pāli emerged as a in the region around the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE, facilitating the oral composition of early Buddhist discourses that were later formalized in written form by the 1st century BCE. This shift accommodated the phonetic simplifications and grammatical streamlining characteristic of languages, while retaining core semantic roots to preserve conceptual continuity in Buddhist terminology.

Broader Usage in Buddhism

In Buddhist contexts, the term nikāya primarily denotes a "group," "collection," or "assemblage," extending to assemblies of teachings, monastic communities, or doctrinal schools that arose from the oral and preservation practices instituted shortly after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa around the BCE. This usage reflects the early Sangha's reliance on memorized recitations to maintain doctrinal integrity amid growing numbers of followers, where nikāya captured both physical gatherings of practitioners and conceptual clusters of instructions. For instance, it encompassed groups of who shared mutual recognition of ordinations (upasampadā) and monastic acts (vinayakamma), fostering unity within defined boundaries (sīmā). The concept evolved from , where nikāya referred to informal gatherings of disciples reciting suttas and rules in the immediate post-Buddha era, to more structured categories during the oral compilation of the teachings. This formalization occurred at key events such as the First Buddhist Council, traditionally held circa 483 BCE in Rājagṛha under Mahākassapa's leadership, where the Dhamma and were recited and grouped thematically to prevent fragmentation. Subsequent assemblies, such as the Second Buddhist Council circa 383 BCE, addressed early disputes like the dasavatthu (ten points of contention), which contributed to the emergence of distinct nikāyas as social and doctrinal units passed down orally across generations. The term's influence persisted into later traditions, shaping terminology in Mahāyāna texts where nikāya or its Sanskrit equivalents denote early schools and their doctrinal assemblies, often translated as "bu" (部) in Chinese renderings to convey grouped lineages or teachings. Such usages appear in translations and commentaries referencing non-Mahāyāna groups, highlighting continuities in conceptual framing despite doctrinal divergences.

Nikāyas as Textual Collections

The Five Nikāyas of the

The Sutta Piṭaka, known as the "Basket of Discourses," forms the second division of the Pāli Canon (Tipiṭaka) in Theravāda Buddhism and comprises the Buddha's teachings delivered as sermons, dialogues, and instructions to various audiences. It contains over 10,000 suttas, preserved initially through oral recitation by monastic communities following the Buddha's death around the fifth century BCE, and systematically organized into five nikāyas during the early Buddhist councils. These collections emphasize core doctrines such as the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and ethical conduct, serving as the primary scriptural basis for Theravāda practice. The Dīgha Nikāya, or "Long Collection," includes 34 extended discourses that address cosmology, ethics, philosophy, and critiques of other religious views, often presented in narrative form with detailed dialogues. Key suttas, such as the (DN 1), enumerate 62 speculative views to illustrate the futility of metaphysical debates, while the (DN 16) recounts the Buddha's final days and instructions. These texts, averaging several thousand lines each, were likely compiled to appeal to lay audiences and rival traditions. The , or "Middle-Length Collection," consists of 152 suttas of moderate length, covering practices, doctrinal expositions, and debates with contemporaries, organized into three divisions (paṇṇāsa) of fifty suttas each, with the final one containing 52. Prominent examples include the (MN 10), which outlines the foundations of as a path to awakening, and the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (MN 22), expounding the doctrine of not-self (). This nikāya balances theoretical insight with practical guidance, making it a central resource for monastic training. The , or "Connected Collection," groups 2,889 short suttas into 56 thematic chapters (saṃyuttas), facilitating memorization and study by linking related teachings. Sections focus on topics like the Five Aggregates (khandhas) in the Khandha Saṃyutta (SN 22), dependent origination in the Saṃyutta (SN 12), or the across multiple discourses, with repetitive structures to reinforce key concepts. This arrangement underscores interconnectedness in , prioritizing doctrinal clusters over chronological or narrative order. The , or "Numerical Collection," arranges approximately 2,300 suttas progressively by numerical lists from one to eleven, emphasizing graduated teachings on , , and wisdom. It highlights sets like the 37 Factors of Enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya dhammā), distributed across its eleven books (nipātas), and includes practical advice on daily conduct, such as the Ovāda Pātimokkha Sutta (AN 8.54) on moral precepts for rulers. The numerical scheme aids recall and illustrates the incremental path to liberation. The Khuddaka Nikāya, or "Miscellaneous Collection," is a diverse anthology of 15 to 18 texts (varying by edition, such as the Thai or Burmese recensions), encompassing poetry, narratives, and doctrinal summaries not fitting the other nikāyas. It features the Dhammapada, a 423-verse ethical compendium; the Sutta Nipāta, with early poetic discourses like the Atthakavagga; and the Jātaka tales, 547 stories of the Buddha's past lives illustrating moral lessons. Other works include the Udāna (solemn utterances) and Theragāthā/Therīgāthā (verses of elder monks and nuns), showcasing literary variety from verse to prose. Historically, the Sutta Piṭaka's contents were transmitted orally at the First Buddhist Council shortly after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa and refined at subsequent councils, including the Third Council under Emperor Aśoka around 250 BCE, before being committed to writing in Sri Lanka during the reign of King Vaṭṭagāmiṇī Abhaya in the first century BCE to preserve the tradition amid political instability. Modern critical editions began with the Pali Text Society's publications from the 1880s, edited by scholars like T.W. Rhys Davids, providing Romanized texts and translations. Contemporary access has been enhanced by digital initiatives, such as SuttaCentral's ongoing project since the 2010s, offering parallel texts in multiple languages and updated translations as of the 2020s.

Comparison with Āgamas

The Āgamas represent the and counterparts to the Pāli Nikāyas in the textual traditions of non-Mahāyāna Buddhist schools, such as the and , primarily preserved through Chinese translations dating from the 2nd to 5th centuries CE, with some elements also appearing in Tibetan canons. These collections form the Sūtra-piṭaka equivalents in , reflecting parallel oral recensions that diverged from a common pre-sectarian core. Structurally, the Āgamas mirror the organization of the Pāli Nikāyas to a significant extent: the Dīrgha Āgama corresponds to the with 30 long discourses; the Madhyama Āgama parallels the in its middle-length suttas; the Saṃyukta Āgama aligns with the through thematically connected groupings; the Ekottara Āgama approximates the by enumerating topics in ascending numerical order, though without a perfect one-to-one match; and elements of the appear scattered in various Āgama miscellanies or supplementary texts. This parallelism underscores a shared framework for discourse classification across schools, likely originating in early communal recitations. Key differences arise in length, arrangement, and phrasing due to regional recensions and transmission variations. For instance, the Chinese Saṃyukta Āgama contains 1,342 suttas, compared to the 2,889 in the Pāli Saṃyutta Nikāya, often with shorter texts or rearranged sequences reflecting school-specific emphases. Wording variations occur frequently, such as in doctrinal explanations or narrative settings, attributed to oral adaptations by reciters in different lineages. Historically, both Nikāyas and Āgamas trace to a shared pre-sectarian origin around the BCE, with divergences emerging after the circa 383 BCE, which marked the initial split between Sthavira and traditions. Modern scholarship, particularly Bhikkhu Analāyo's studies from 2012 onward, employs to reveal 70-90% correspondence in core content across parallels, highlighting mutual reliability despite variations. Recent comparative analyses in the , facilitated by digital corpora like SuttaCentral, further enable detailed alignments of thousands of discourses, confirming high fidelity in essential teachings while illuminating sectarian evolutions.

Monastic Nikāyas

In Theravāda Tradition

In the Theravāda tradition, nikāyas refer to formal lineages or fraternal orders within the monastic saṅgha, representing divisions that trace their origins to the post-schism developments following the Third Buddhist Council around 250 BCE, when Aśoka's support helped establish the Sthavira lineage in as the precursor to modern Theravāda orthodoxy. These nikāyas function as organized monastic communities adhering to shared doctrinal interpretations and disciplinary codes, distinguishing them from the broader sense of nikāya as a simple "group" in . The core Theravāda nikāya is the Mahāvihāra lineage, an ancient Sri Lankan order founded in the late 3rd century BCE at the Mahāvihāra monastery in Anurādhapura, which served as the institutional basis for preserving the Pāli Canon and upholding orthodox Theravāda teachings against rival sects like the Abhayagiri and nikāyas. This lineage and its offshoots, such as the later Siyam Nikāya established in 1753 through Thai ordination lineages, emphasize strict adherence to the , the monastic code, including fortnightly ceremonies where monks recite the Pātimokkha—a set of 227 rules for bhikkhus—to confess infractions and reinforce communal discipline. Such practices underscore the nikāyas' role in maintaining ethical purity and doctrinal continuity, with variations in recitation procedures sometimes reflecting specific nikāya customs. Historically, Theravāda nikāyas evolved through key reforms, beginning with 11th- and 12th-century initiatives in under kings like Parākramabāhu I (r. 1153–1186), who unified the fragmented saṅgha under Mahāvihāra orthodoxy to purify monastic practices amid political instability. These efforts continued into the 18th and 19th centuries with revivals, including the founding of the Siyam Nikāya in 1753 by Weliwita Saranankara Thera to restore higher amid colonial disruptions, and the emergence of the Amarapura Nikāya in 1800, which opened to lower castes and spread across and beyond. As of 2024, the Siyam Nikāya remains the largest, accounting for an estimated majority (over 18,000) of Sri Lanka's approximately 42,000 registered monks, reflecting its enduring dominance in the island's Theravāda landscape. In modern times, Theravāda nikāyas face challenges related to internal reforms, particularly in enhancing monastic education through structured curricula in Pāli and studies to counter secular influences, as seen in initiatives in and since the mid-20th century. Gender inclusion debates persist, with ongoing discussions about reviving full ordination—discontinued in Theravāda lineages since the 11th–12th centuries—amid calls for equality in monastic roles, though conservative nikāyas like the Siyam resist such changes due to concerns over authenticity.

Regional Variations

In , the monastic landscape is dominated by two major nikāyas within the Theravāda tradition, reflecting historical responses to social and colonial influences. Prior to the 2019 merger, there were three major orders: the Siyam Nikāya, the Amarapura Nikāya, and the Rāmañña Nikāya. The Siyam Nikāya, established in 1753 under the Kandyan Kingdom, initially restricted ordination to members of the aristocratic , functioning as a monastic tied to royal . The Amarapura–Rāmañña Nikāya, formed on 16 August 2019 by the merger of the Amarapura Nikāya (founded in 1800 with influences from Burmese Amarapura, adopting a more inclusive approach by disregarding barriers and attracting lower-caste aspirants) and the Rāmañña Nikāya (founded in 1864 by Ambagahawatte Saranankara, who returned to Sri Lanka after being ordained by the Neyyadhamma Munivara Sangharaja of Ratnapunna Vihara in Burma, originating from an unrecognized Mon branch in Burma by the Burmese government, and emphasizing a forest-based ascetic tradition with stricter observance and minimal institutional hierarchy), now represents the second major lineage and the largest Buddhist fraternity in Sri Lanka. As of 2024, these nikāyas collectively support approximately 42,000 monks, with the 2019 merger aiming to streamline administration and reduce fragmentation. Thailand's Theravāda monastic system features two primary nikāyas, shaped by 19th-century reforms amid modernization and colonial pressures. The Mahā Nikāya, the older and dominant fraternity, encompasses about 90% of the country's roughly 250,000–300,000 monks and novices as of the early , maintaining traditional practices with flexibility in interpretation and widespread temple affiliations. The Dhammayuttika Nikāya, founded in 1833 by Prince (later King Rama IV), emerged as a reformist movement to purify monastic discipline, emphasizing textual fidelity, stricter routines, and uniform robes to distinguish from the Mahā Nikāya's varied tones. These differences extend to pedagogical approaches, with Dhammayuttika monks often prioritizing vipassanā in centralized training centers, while Mahā Nikāya communities integrate diverse local customs. In , the Thudhamma Nikāya holds sway as the largest monastic order, accounting for 467,025 monks or approximately 87% of the national total as of 2016, per official records from the State Saṅgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee. This pragmatic fraternity allows looser adherence and hierarchical flexibility, contrasting with stricter sects like the Shwegyin Nikāya, which enforces rigorous discipline and attracted 50,692 monks (9.47%), and the Dvāra Nikāya (also known as Mahādvāra), with 6,166 members (1.15%) focused on ascetic purity. Following the 1980 reorganization under military rule, Myanmar legally recognized nine gaings (orders), including these, to consolidate authority and suppress unofficial factions, though this led to ongoing debates over doctrinal orthodoxy. Recent estimates suggest around 500,000 monks nationwide as of the early 2020s, amid political instability. Theravāda adaptations in and largely mirror Thai models, with the Mahā Nikāya predominant and the Dhammayuttika Nikāya present as a minority reformist branch introduced via royal ties in the 19th and 20th centuries. In , these two orders coexist, with the Mahā Nikāya aligning with indigenous Khmer traditions and the Dhammayuttika emphasizing Thai-influenced reforms, though inter-order collaborations have grown since the revival post-Khmer Rouge. follows a similar binary structure, influenced by Thai monastic networks across the , with recent post-COVID reorganizations involving digital training and temple consolidations to address declining ordinations amid urbanization. Inter-nikāya relations in these regions blend cooperation through ecumenical saṅgha councils—such as Sri Lanka's All Island Council and Myanmar's State Saṅgha Mahā Nāyaka Committee—with persistent tensions over , inclusivity, and reformist purity. In , joint rituals occur, but Dhammayuttika's perceived elitism sparks occasional disputes; similarly, Sri Lankan nikāyas convene for national events yet face frictions from historical divides. Myanmar's nine gaings participate in unified congresses, though stricter orders like Shwegyin criticize Thudhamma's leniency, exacerbating divisions during political upheavals.

Nikāya Buddhism

Definition and Origins of the Term

is a modern scholarly term used to refer to the diverse pre-Mahāyāna Buddhist traditions and schools that emerged in the centuries following the Buddha's death, encompassing the doctrinal and monastic lineages collectively known as the eighteen early schools or nikāyas. The term was coined in the by Masatoshi Nagatomi, a professor of and Indian studies at , as a neutral and descriptive alternative to the derogatory label "Hīnayāna" (often translated as "lesser vehicle"), which had been imposed by Mahāyāna proponents to denigrate these earlier traditions. This highlights the of these schools into nikāyas, or "collections" or "groups," reflecting their sectarian divisions without implying inferiority. The conceptual basis of traces back to the initial schisms in the Buddhist saṅgha, beginning around 383 BCE at Buddhist in Vaiśālī, where disputes over monastic led to the first major split between the conservative Sthavira (elders) and the more liberal branches. Over subsequent centuries, these divisions proliferated into eighteen recognized schools, each developing distinct interpretations of doctrine, (monastic rules), and (systematic philosophy), though the exact number eighteen is likely symbolic rather than literal. A pivotal was the Third Buddhist , convened around 250 BCE under the patronage of Emperor Aśoka at Pāṭaliputra, aimed at purifying the saṅgha from heretical influences and standardizing teachings, which inadvertently contributed to further schisms, including the formation of sub-schools like Abhayagiri and in during the 1st century BCE. The term gained traction in 20th-century Western scholarship, notably through Erich Frauwallner's influential 1956 work Die Philosophie des Buddhismus, which provided a systematic historical analysis of early Buddhist philosophical developments and school formations, laying groundwork for non-sectarian studies of these traditions. In the 2020s, Nikāya Buddhism has seen renewed academic interest through digital archives, such as the Buddhist Digital Resource Center's BUDA platform, which facilitates access to digitized manuscripts and texts from these extinct schools for comparative, non-sectarian research. Unlike Theravāda, which represents a surviving lineage primarily based in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, Nikāya Buddhism broadly includes long-extinct schools like Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika, emphasizing the pluralistic origins of Buddhist thought before Mahāyāna's dominance.

Relation to Early Buddhist Schools

The early Buddhist community underwent significant schisms following Buddhist around the 4th century BCE, resulting in two primary branches: the Sthavira (Elders) and the (Great Community). The Sthavira branch emphasized conservative interpretations of the and early doctrines, evolving into sub-schools such as the , which adopted an analytical approach to conditional relations in teachings like the Paṭṭhāna of the . This lineage ultimately led to the Theravāda tradition, which preserved the Pāli Nikāyas as its canonical textual collections and focused on the ideal as the path to liberation. In contrast, the Mahāsāṃghika school advocated more liberal interpretations and exalted the supramundane nature of , influencing the development of through doctrines emphasizing the Buddha's eternal qualities and ideals. Doctrinal variations among these nikāyas centered on key concepts such as , observance, and systematization. Debates on highlighted differences in the arhats' stability: (a Sthavira offshoot) posited that arhats could retrogress due to lingering defiled seeds in past factors, categorizing six arhat types based on liberation modes, while allowed for arhat fallibility and even ordinary persons attaining advanced states. interpretations diverged early, with Sthavira schools enforcing stricter monastic rules—such as linking contaminants to discrete elements—against 's emphasis on communal harmony and provisional present-only factors. development further differentiated the schools; advanced a comprehensive system in its seven treatises, including the Jñānaprasthāna, positing 75 dharmas across three time periods with a momentariness theory where factors arise and cease instantaneously yet possess intrinsic nature (svabhāva) through possession streams and four characteristics (birth, continuance, decay, extinction). This contrasted with critiques within , which viewed such entities as provisional, and Theravāda's present-focused impermanence without tri-temporal existence. Institutionally, the nikāyas spread through Emperor Aśoka's missions in the BCE, following the Third Council at Pāṭaliputra, where he expelled heretical monks and dispatched emissaries to consolidate orthodox teachings. Missions targeted regions like and Gandhāra, with Majjhantika sent to (part of the where Aśoka built 500 monasteries) and similar efforts to Gandhāra's center, promoting piety among border tribes like the Gandhāras via appointed censors as inscribed in Rock Edict V. These initiatives fostered schools such as and in northwestern India. By the 7th century CE, most non-Theravāda nikāyas had declined due to the rise of Mahāyāna, which absorbed elements from and others, alongside destructive Islamic invasions that targeted monastic centers in and beyond starting from 711 CE, plundering wealth and disrupting transmission. Theravāda remains the primary surviving nikāya tradition, maintaining its Pāli canon in and . Modern scholarship in the continues reconstructing lost nikāyas through comparative analysis of Āgama texts and inscriptions, as in Peter Skilling's examinations of scriptural authenticity across schools, which highlight shared early doctrines despite sectarian divisions. Recent archaeological evidence, such as 2020–2022 excavations at Telhara revealing pre-Nalanda Buddhist layers linked to early sects, and studies of inscriptions identifying active nikāyas like Kaurukullā under the Sātavāhanas, provides material corroboration for these institutional histories.

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  32. https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-progression-of-womens-education-in-buddhism-from-historical-texts-to-modern-revival/
  33. https://sundaytimes.lk/online/news-online/amalgamation-of-the-sri-lanka-amarapura-and-ramanna-nikayas/2-1099006
  34. http://karava.org/religious/amarapura_nikaya
  35. https://ramannanikaya.org/history/
  36. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0282.xml
  37. https://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/wat_m5/
  38. https://www.abhayagiri.org/reflections/770-the-mahanikaya-and-dhammayut-nikaya
  39. https://www.ibcworld.org/home/diaspora/Thailand
  40. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325494728_Formation_of_Mon_Sangha_Orders_in_Myanmar_after_the_1980s_The_Pan-ethnicist_Movement_Concerning_Buddhist_Learning_and_the_Vernacular_--jiaoxuetosuyuwomeguruchujiazhenofanminzuzhuyiyundong
  41. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392111108_The_Two_Faces_of_Buddha_-_The_Role_of_Buddhist_Monks_in_Recent_Events_in_Burmese_Society
  42. https://dharmafolk.wordpress.com/2008/12/16/dhammayuttika-nikaya-of-cambodia/
  43. https://hoavouu.com/images/file/Jii1gmAx0QgQAOtt/the-sangha-and-its-relation-to-the-peace-process-in-sri-lanka.pdf
  44. https://mandalas.life/list/early-buddhist-schools-the-buddhist-monastic-sangha/nikaya-buddhism-the-early-buddhist-schools/
  45. https://www.patheos.com/blogs/thebuddhasaid/2020/09/what-is-nikaya-buddhism/
  46. https://www.buddhistdoor.net/features/the-story-of-the-buddhas-mahaparinibba%25E1%25B9%2587a-the-sa%25E1%25B9%2585ghas-schism-and-the-first-two-buddhist-councils/
  47. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/492/a-short-history-of-the-buddhist-schools/
  48. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/third-buddhist-council
  49. https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/Institute/IKGA/PDF/digitales/steinkellner_preface_frauwallner_2010.pdf
  50. https://library.bdrc.io/
  51. https://www.academia.edu/99646447/A_History_of_Indian_Buddhism_From_Sakyamuni_to_Early_Mahayana_Akira
  52. https://ahandfulofleaves.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/disputed-dharmas_early-buddhist-theories-on-existence_cox_19951.pdf
  53. https://archive.org/details/asokabuddhistemp00smituoft
  54. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305045170_Buddhist-Muslim_Encounter_in_Sind_during_the_Eighth_Century
  55. https://buddhistuniversity.net/exclusive_01/Scriptural%20Authenticity%20and%20the%20Sravaka%20Schools_An%20Essay%20towards%20an%20Indian%20Perspective%20-%20Peter%20Skilling.pdf
  56. https://bhds.in/wp-content/uploads/Telhara-Excavation-2020-2022.pdf
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