Hubbry Logo
SamarraSamarraMain
Open search
Samarra
Community hub
Samarra
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Samarra
Samarra
Samarra
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Samarra (Arabic: سَامَرَّاء, Sāmarrāʾ) is a city in Iraq. It stands on the east bank of the Tigris in the Saladin Governorate, 125 kilometers (78 mi) north of Baghdad. The modern city of Samarra was founded in 836 by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim as a new administrative capital and military base.[1] In 2003 the city had an estimated population of 348,700.[citation needed] During the Iraqi Civil War (2006–08), Samarra was in the "Sunni Triangle" of resistance.

Key Information

The archeological site of Samarra still retains much of the historic city's original plan, architecture and artistic relics.[2] In 2007, UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site.[3]

History

[edit]
Main article: Timeline of Samarra

Prehistoric Samarra

[edit]
Main article: Samarra culture

The remains of prehistoric Samarra were first excavated between 1911 and 1914 by the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld and Friedrich Sarre. Samarra became the type site for the Samarra culture. Since 1946, the notebooks, letters, unpublished excavation reports and photographs have been in the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

The civilization flourished alongside the Ubaid period, as one of the first town states in the Near East. It lasted from 5,500 BCE and eventually collapsed in 3,900 BCE.

Neo-Assyrian period

[edit]

A city of Sur-marrati (refounded by Sennacherib in 690 BC according to a stele in the Walters Art Museum) is insecurely identified with a fortified Assyrian site at al-Huwaysh on the Tigris opposite modern Samarra. The State Archives of Assyria Online identifies Surimarrat as the modern site of Samarra.[4]

Ancient place names for Samarra noted by the Samarra Archaeological Survey are Greek Souma (Ptolemy V.19, Zosimus III, 30), Latin Sumere, a fort mentioned during the retreat of the army of Julian in 363 AD (Ammianus Marcellinus XXV, 6, 4), and Syriac Sumra (Hoffmann, Auszüge, 188; Michael the Syrian, III, 88), described as a village.

The possibility of a larger population was offered by the opening of the Qatul al-Kisrawi, the northern extension of the Nahrawan Canal which drew water from the Tigris in the region of Samarra, attributed by Yaqut al-Hamawi (Muʿjam, see under "Qatul") to Khosrau I (531–578). To celebrate the completion of this project, a commemorative tower (modern Burj al-Qa'im) was built at the southern inlet south of Samarra, and a palace with a "paradise" or walled hunting park was constructed at the northern inlet (modern Nahr ar-Rasasi) near ad-Dawr. A supplementary canal, the Qatul Abi al-Jund, excavated by the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, was commemorated by a planned city laid out in the form of a regular octagon (modern Husn al-Qadisiyya), called al-Mubarak and abandoned unfinished in 796.

Abbasid capital

[edit]
Main article: Abbasid Samarra
Dirham of Al-Muntasir minted in Samarra, 861/862 AD
The Abu Dulaf Mosque, built by Caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 859 CE,[6] features a spiral minaret similar to the Great Mosque of Samarra.
Abbasid Samarra Map

In 836 CE, the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mu'tasim founded a new capital at the banks of the Tigris. Here he built extensive palace complexes surrounded by garrison settlements for his guards, mostly drawn from Central Asia and Iran (most famously the Turks, as well as the Iranian Khurasani Ishtakhaniyya, Faraghina and Ushrusaniyya regiments) or North Africa (like the Maghariba). Although quite often called Mamluk slave soldiers, their status was quite elevated; some of their commanders bore Sogdian titles of nobility.[7]

Remains of a circular pool surrounded by reception halls in the Dar al-Khilafa (caliph's palace), built by Al-Mu῾tasim (r. 833–842)[8]

The city was further developed under Caliph al-Mutawakkil, who sponsored the construction of lavish palace complexes, such as al-Mutawakkiliyya, and the Great Mosque of Samarra with its famous spiral minaret or Malwiya, built-in 847.[9] For his son al-Mu'tazz he built the large palace Bulkuwara.

Qasr al-'Ashiq, an Abbasid-era palace near Samarra

The Nestorian patriarch Sargis (860–72) moved the patriarchal seat of the Church of the East from Baghdad to Samarra, and one or two of his immediate successors may also have sat in Samarra so as to be close to the seat of power.[10]

Samarra remained the residence of the caliph until 892, when al-Mu'tadid returned the capital to Baghdad.[11] Historical sources report that the city was looted around this time. Its population probably decreased and the city declined, but it remained an important market center.[11]

From the tenth century onward it turned into an important pilgrimage site. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the river's course to the south of the city shifted further east. As a result, the main road between Baghdad and Mosul was moved to the west bank and Samarra lost its importance as a trading town.[11]

Modern era

[edit]

In the eighteenth century, one of the most violent battles of the 1730–1735 Ottoman–Persian War, the Battle of Samarra, took place, where over 50,000 Turks and Persians became casualties. The engagement decided the fate of Ottoman Iraq and kept it under Istanbul's suzerainty until the First World War.

During the 1950s, Samarra gained new importance when a permanent lake, Lake Tharthar, was created through the construction of the Samarra Barrage, which was built in order to prevent the frequent flooding of Baghdad. Many local people were displaced by the dam, resulting in an increase in Samarra's population.[12]

Al-Askari Shrine

Samarra is a key city in Saladin Governorate, a major part of the so-called Sunni Triangle where insurgents were active during the Iraq War.[13] Though Samarra is famous for its Shi'i holy sites, including the tombs of several Shi'i Imams, the town was traditionally and until very recently, dominated by Sunni Arabs. Tensions arose between Sunnis and the Shi'a during the Iraq War. On February 22, 2006, the golden dome of the al-Askari Mosque was bombed by Al-Qaeda in Iraq, setting off a period of rioting and reprisal attacks across the country which claimed hundreds of lives. No organization claimed responsibility for the bombing. On June 13, 2007, Sunni insurgents attacked the mosque again and destroyed the two minarets that flanked the dome's ruins.[14] On July 12, 2007, the clock tower was blown up. No fatalities were reported. Shiʿi cleric Muqtada al-Sadr called for peaceful demonstrations and three days of mourning.[15] He stated that he believed no Sunni Arab could have been behind the attack, though according to the New York Times the attackers were probably Sunni militants linked to Al-Qaeda.[16] The mosque compound was closed after the 2006 bombing and a indefinite curfew was placed on the city by the Iraqi police at the time.[17][18] In 2009, the mosque reopened while restoration was ongoing.[19]

Ever since the end of Iraqi civil war in 2007, the Shia population of the holy city has increased exponentially. However, violence has continued, with bombings taking place in 2011 and 2013. In June 2014, the city was attacked by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as part of their Northern Iraq offensive. ISIL forces captured the municipality building and university, but were later repulsed by the Iraqi army and SWAT forces after capturing the city and holding it for two days.[20] The nearby Imam Dur Mausoleum, a historic mausoleum dedicated to Muslim ibn Quraysh, a Shi'i ruler, was destroyed by ISIL in 2014.[21]

Geography

[edit]

Climate

[edit]

Samarra has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). Most rain falls in the winter. The average annual temperature in Samarra is 22.7 °C (72.9 °F). About 171 mm (6.73 in) of precipitation falls annually.

Climate data for Samarra
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 15.3
(59.5) 		18.0
(64.4) 		22.1
(71.8) 		28.3
(82.9) 		35.7
(96.3) 		41.1
(106.0) 		43.9
(111.0) 		43.6
(110.5) 		39.7
(103.5) 		33.2
(91.8) 		24.4
(75.9) 		17.4
(63.3) 		30.2
(86.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 4.4
(39.9) 		5.9
(42.6) 		9.3
(48.7) 		14.2
(57.6) 		19.6
(67.3) 		23.5
(74.3) 		25.9
(78.6) 		25.4
(77.7) 		21.4
(70.5) 		16.4
(61.5) 		10.6
(51.1) 		5.8
(42.4) 		15.2
(59.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 25
(1.0) 		30
(1.2) 		29
(1.1) 		21
(0.8) 		8
(0.3) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		0
(0) 		4
(0.2) 		20
(0.8) 		34
(1.3) 		127
(5.0)
Source: climate-data.org

Religious significance

[edit]
See also: Iraq in the Quran
Al-Askari Shrine

The city is also home to al-Askari Shrine, containing the mausolea of the Imams Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari, the tenth and eleventh Shiʿi Imams, respectively, as well as the place from where Muhammad al-Mahdi, known as the "Hidden Imam", reportedly went into The Occultation in the belief of the Twelver or Shias. This has made it an important pilgrimage centre for the Imami Shias.[22] In addition, Hakimah and Narjis, female relatives of the Prophet Muhammad and the Imams, held in high esteem by Muslims, are buried there, making this mosque one of the most significant sites of worship.[22]

Sports

[edit]

Samarra is home to the Samarra SC, that plays in the second highest division of the Iraqi football league system, namely Iraqi Premier Division League. Its ground is the Samarra Stadium.

[edit]

The metaphor of "Having an appointment in Samarra", signifying death, is a literary reference to an ancient Babylonian myth recorded in the Babylonian Talmud and transcribed by W. Somerset Maugham,[23] in which Death narrates a man's futile attempt to escape him by fleeing from Baghdad to Samarra. The story "The Appointment in Samarra" subsequently formed the germ of a novel of the same name by John O'Hara.[24] The original story was retold in verse by F. L. Lucas in his poem "The Destined Hour" in From Many Times and Lands (1953).[25][26]

In the 1968 film Targets, Byron Orlok, an aging horror film star played by Boris Karloff, tells Maugham's version of the story to his younger colleagues.[27]

The story is told in "The Six Thatchers", a 2017 episode of Sherlock.

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Selected bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Samarra

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Samarra is a historic city in central Iraq's Salah al-Din Governorate, located on the east bank of the Tigris River about 130 kilometers north of Baghdad. Founded in 836 CE by Abbasid Caliph al-Mu'tasim bi-llah as a new administrative and military capital to escape Baghdad's factional strife, it served as the seat of the Abbasid Caliphate until 892 CE, when the court returned to Baghdad. The city's vast archaeological remains, spanning palaces, mosques, and urban planning reflective of Abbasid imperial power, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007 for exemplifying early Islamic architectural and artistic innovations, including distinctive carved stucco decorations and the unique spiral Malwiya minaret of the Great Mosque. Archaeological evidence reveals prehistoric occupation at the site dating to the (ca. 5500–4800 BCE), characterized by early irrigation-based , painted , and settled villages that represent a foundational phase in Mesopotamian development toward complex societies. In Islamic history, Samarra holds profound religious significance for Shia Muslims as the location of the , housing the tombs of the tenth and eleventh Imams, and , and traditionally associated with the of the twelfth Imam, , making it a major pilgrimage center. The city's Abbasid-era layout, preserved across 15,000 hectares with much unexcavated, underscores its role as the only extant example of an early Islamic capital's original urban design, influencing art and architecture across the Islamic world from to . Despite its cultural legacy, Samarra has endured modern conflicts, including damage to heritage sites amid post-2003 instability, highlighting ongoing challenges to conservation.

History

Ancient and Pre-Islamic Periods

The of Samarra preserves evidence of human occupation from the period, particularly associated with the , which spanned approximately 5500 to 4800 BCE in northern . This culture represented settled farming communities expanding into the alluvial fringes of the River valley, marking a transition toward more intensive in the region. Key sites like Tell es-Sawwan, located near modern Samarra, yielded remains of multi-room houses built from mud-brick, storage facilities, and tools indicative of agro-pastoral economies reliant on , , and . Characteristic artifacts include finely painted with geometric motifs, such as spirals and checkerboards, often on buff-colored wares, distinguishing Samarra material from contemporaneous Hassuna and Halaf traditions. Early evidence of small-scale canals at nearby transitional sites like Choga Mami suggests adaptive techniques that enhanced productivity in semi-arid conditions, predating larger Mesopotamian systems. These innovations supported population growth and denser settlements on tells, laying groundwork for subsequent developments. Following the Samarra phase, the site shows continuity into the (c. 6500–3800 BCE), with ceramic sequences and structural evidence indicating sustained but evolving occupation. Excavations by Ernst Herzfeld in 1911–1914 uncovered prehistoric layers, including Ubaid pottery and features linking to broader southern Mesopotamian networks. However, , , and imperial eras—encompassing Assyrian (c. 911–609 BCE), Babylonian (c. 626–539 BCE), Achaemenid, Parthian (247 BCE–224 CE), and Sasanian (224–651 CE) rule—yield limited specific data for Samarra itself, implying it functioned primarily as a peripheral agricultural outpost rather than a fortified or administrative hub, overshadowed by nearby centers like or .

Abbasid Caliphate as Capital

Caliph al-Mu'tasim founded Samarra in 836 CE as the new Abbasid capital, shifting from Baghdad primarily to house and control his expanding corps of Turkish slave-soldiers (mamluks), whose presence had sparked violent clashes with Baghdad's residents. The site's selection along the Tigris River, approximately 130 kilometers north of Baghdad, facilitated a planned urban layout designed as a military base and administrative hub, with initial construction emphasizing palaces and barracks over dense civilian settlement. Successive caliphs, including (r. 842–847 CE) and (r. 847–861 CE), expanded the city, erecting monumental complexes such as the Dar al-Khilafa palace and the Great Mosque, commissioned by around 848 CE and completed by 851 CE, which at the time ranked among the world's largest mosques with walls enclosing over 10 hectares. The mosque's distinctive Malwiya , a spiraling tower rising 52 meters, exemplified Abbasid architectural innovation, potentially inspired by Mesopotamian ziggurats or symbolic of ascension motifs. Samarra's development reflected the caliphs' reliance on centralized authority amid factional strife, with the city accommodating up to several hundred thousand inhabitants at its peak, though precise figures remain debated due to varying estimates of occupied versus planned areas spanning roughly 40 square kilometers. The capital's role persisted through caliphs (r. 861–862 CE), (r. 862–866 CE), (r. 866–869 CE), (r. 869–870 CE), and (r. 870–892 CE), but escalating financial costs from lavish building projects and maintenance of the military elite, coupled with ongoing Turkish guard influence and provincial revolts, prompted al-Mu'tamid's return to Baghdad in 892 CE. This relocation marked Samarra's decline as a political center, though its archaeological remains, including imported artifacts like 9th–10th century Chinese pottery shards evidencing exchanges, underscore its brief era as a hub of Abbasid cultural and economic patronage.

Post-Abbasid to Ottoman Rule

Following the return of the Abbasid capital to by Caliph in 892 CE, Samarra experienced rapid depopulation and abandonment of its palatial districts, including al-Jawsaq and Dār al-Khilāfa, as administrative functions ceased and the city was reportedly looted during the transition. By the early , chroniclers described the site as a shrunken settlement consolidated around a single and judicial center, with surrounding areas largely ruined and sparsely inhabited amid ongoing raids that exposed its vulnerability. Under the in the mid-10th century, which exerted control over , Samarra's remaining caliphal palaces were systematically demolished for bricks starting around 961 CE, while the Shrine of the Imams (Marqad al-Imāmayn), housing the tombs of the 10th and 11th Shi'a Imams, received expansions initiated by Hamdanid ruler Nāṣir al-Dawla in 944–945 CE and continued under Buyid patronage. This shrine emerged as the focal point of a modest medieval town by the 11th–12th centuries, attracting pilgrims and sustaining limited occupation in peripheral areas like al-Karkh, which served as a base for local ʿUqaylid rulers until at least 1034 CE. Seljuk influence in the late 11th century included the removal of wooden elements from the congregational mosque to Baghdad in 1092 CE under Malikshāh, signaling further resource extraction from the decaying structures. Mongol invasions in the 13th century exacerbated the decline, contributing to the desertion of districts such as al-Maḍīra and al-Qādisiyya by the 14th century, with the city's population reduced to scattered communities amid agricultural collapse and the last recorded Nestorian bishopric in 1318 CE. Subsequent Turco-Mongol successor states, including the Ilkhanids and later Timurids, left minimal direct impact on Samarra, which persisted primarily as a center tied to the shrines rather than a political or economic hub. Under Ottoman rule from the 16th century onward, as part of the , the city remained a diminished town focused on religious sites, with a notable Ottoman victory over Persian forces led by Nāder Shāh at the Battle of Samarra on July 19, 1733 CE, which lifted the siege of and reaffirmed Turkish control over Iraqi territories. In the , Ottoman-era fortifications were constructed around the core settlement using salvaged Abbasid bricks circa 1834 CE, enclosing Shi'a heritage elements amid the ruins.

20th Century to Present Conflicts

Following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Samarra became a stronghold for Sunni insurgents resisting coalition forces, located in the so-called "" north of . On November 30, 2003, insurgents ambushed U.S. military convoys escorting Iraqi currency trucks through the city, leading to intense fighting; U.S. forces reported killing 54 insurgents, while local residents claimed significant civilian casualties among those gathered along the route. By mid-2004, insurgents had seized control of key civic buildings in Samarra, prompting a major U.S.-Iraqi offensive in to dislodge them; the operation involved hundreds of troops clearing insurgent positions, though the city remained volatile with ongoing attacks, including one on July 8, 2004, that killed five U.S. soldiers and two Iraqi guards. The most pivotal event occurred on February 22, 2006, when Sunni extremists affiliated with detonated explosives inside the (also known as the Golden Mosque), a key Shia holy site housing the tombs of two Twelver Shia imams, destroying its golden dome but causing no immediate fatalities. This attack, occurring in the predominantly Sunni city, ignited widespread sectarian reprisals, with Shia militias targeting Sunni communities and vice versa, contributing to an estimated 3,000-10,000 deaths in the ensuing weeks and escalating Iraq's slide into ; Iraqi officials and analysts later attributed the bombing to a deliberate provocation by jihadist groups to fracture national unity. A follow-up bombing on June 13, 2007, targeted the shrine's minarets, further damaging the structure and underscoring persistent vulnerabilities despite heightened security. During the 2014 ISIS offensive, the group advanced toward Samarra after capturing in June, threatening the as a symbolic target to provoke Shia mobilization, but and Shia-dominated Popular Mobilization Units (PMU) repelled the assault, preventing full occupation. In the aftermath, reports documented revenge killings by PMU-affiliated groups against suspected ISIS sympathizers in Samarra, including summary executions of over 100 individuals in September 2014, exacerbating local Sunni grievances amid the broader anti-ISIS campaign. By 2017, ISIS had been territorially defeated in the area, but Samarra's security perimeter was reinforced with a concrete wall to contain insurgent remnants and militia influences, reflecting ongoing sectarian tensions into the .

Geography

Location and Physical Features

Samarra lies in central 's Saladin Governorate, positioned on both banks of the River approximately 130 kilometers north of . The site's expansive archaeological zone stretches 41.5 kilometers north to south, with widths varying from 4 to 8 kilometers east to west, encompassing the river's course through the region. This positioning marks the point where the transitions from upper reaches into the broader alluvial plains of . The terrain surrounding Samarra consists of flat, low-lying floodplains formed by River sediments, with an average elevation of about 70 meters above . These plains feature fertile alluvial soils derived from deposits, including mixtures of sand, , , and clay that support agricultural activity through riverine . The river's meandering path influences local , contributing to periodic flooding that deposits nutrient-rich while shaping the landscape's gentle topography devoid of significant hills or elevations.

Climate and Environmental Conditions

Samarra experiences a hot classified as BSh under the Köppen-Geiger system, characterized by high temperatures, low , and minimal . Summers are sweltering and arid, with marking the hottest month at an average high of 109°F (43°C) and low of 84°F (29°C), while winters are cold and dry from late to early . Annual averages approximately 154 mm, concentrated in winter months with few rainy days overall and no distinct rainy beyond occasional winter showers. The region's environmental conditions are shaped by its position on the eastern bank of the River amid broad Mesopotamian plains, supporting limited through but prone to and . Dust storms have increased in frequency and intensity in recent years, exacerbating agricultural challenges and air quality issues due to the dry, windy conditions prevalent in spring and summer. The provides a vital water source, yet overall low river flows and upstream damming contribute to and stress in the surrounding semi-arid landscape.

Demographics

The population of Samarra experienced rapid growth in the mid-20th century, rising from 7,490 residents in 1947 to 16,524 in 1957, reflecting an increment rate of 120.61%, driven by urban development and regional migration. By 1977, the figure reached 37,234, with continued expansion linked to infrastructure improvements such as new industrial establishments. This trajectory aligns with broader Iraqi patterns, though precise data remains limited due to ongoing instability. In the early , estimates placed Samarra's population at approximately 348,700 in 2003, prior to intensified sectarian conflicts. The 2006 bombing of the triggered widespread displacement, including from surrounding areas, but city-level figures stabilized around 331,000 by 2023, with annual growth of about 2-3% thereafter. Current projections for 2024 and 2025 estimate 339,000 and 347,000 residents, respectively, indicating modest recovery amid reduced violence since the defeat of in 2017. These numbers represent metro area populations, potentially undercounting peripheral settlements affected by conflict-induced migration. Samarra's ethnic composition is overwhelmingly , consistent with central Iraq's demographics where constitute 75-80% of the populace. Religiously, the vast majority of residents are Sunni Muslims, distinguishing the city from Shia-majority southern regions despite its role as a pilgrimage site for Shia visitors to the . Sectarian tensions, exacerbated by events like the 2006 shrine attack, led to targeted displacements—predominantly affecting Shia minorities locally and prompting Sunni outflows during peak years (2006-2008)—yet the Sunni core persisted, reinforced by the city's position in the historically Sunni-dominated Salah ad-Din Governorate. Minor groups, including and , represent negligible shares, with no significant non- ethnic enclaves reported in recent assessments.

Economy

Agricultural and Industrial Base

Samarra's agricultural sector primarily relies on irrigation from the River, supporting cultivation of field crops such as and , which constitute major outputs in the Salah ad-Din Governorate. Vegetable production includes , melons, and watermelons, with recent harvests flooding local markets like Ishaqi despite challenges from pests such as wild boars causing significant crop losses estimated in millions of Iraqi dinars. Aquaculture contributes through fish farms stocking common carp, , and , fully dependent on submersible feeds, though overall yields remain constrained by poor farming practices leading to soil deterioration and salinization. Industrial activity in Samarra centers on pharmaceuticals, with the Samarra Drug Industry (SDI) historically prominent and recent developments including new construction by the General Company for Pharmaceutical Industry and Medical Supplies, involving steel column erection for expanded production. Other sectors remain underdeveloped, with limited modern beyond legacy facilities, hampered by historical disruptions and a focus on agricultural and service-based economic supports.

Impacts of Conflict and Recent Recovery Efforts

The conflicts engulfing Samarra, particularly the following the 2006 bombing of the and the ISIS offensive from 2014 to 2017, severely disrupted the city's agricultural economy, which relies on River irrigation for crops like , , and dates. The 2006 attacks triggered widespread displacement in Salah al-Din province, including Samarra, leading to the abandonment of farmlands and a sharp decline in local production as farmers fled ongoing militia clashes and insurgent activities. During the ISIS era, although Samarra itself remained under Iraqi government control as a Shia stronghold, adjacent areas faced deliberate destruction of irrigation canals, bridges, and grain storage, resulting in unharvested fields and losses estimated in the thousands across affected Iraqi agricultural zones. This contributed to broader provincial , with fears preventing market access and , exacerbating rates that spiked due to disrupted routes and labor shortages from internal displacement affecting over 100,000 in Salah al-Din by mid-2010s. ISIS tactics, including the 2014 destruction of the Aldolouiya Bridge near Samarra, isolated farming communities and severed supply lines for 80,000 residents, compounding damage to irrigation infrastructure and reducing productivity by up to 30-35% in vulnerable districts through neglect and . Overall, Iraq's agricultural sector, vital to non-oil GDP, suffered losses from , burning of harvests, and flight, with al-Din experiencing similar patterns of farmland that halted seasonal planting cycles. These impacts perpetuated cycles, as displaced farmers turned to informal urban labor, weakening the local industrial base tied to agro-processing. Post-ISIS recovery efforts since 2017 have focused on infrastructure rehabilitation and agricultural revival, with the Iraqi government allocating funds through the National Reconstruction Program and international partners like the World Bank supporting bridge reconstructions and canal repairs in Salah al-Din. Organizations such as the IOM have aided returnees by clearing landmines and restoring farmlands, enabling some families to resume cultivation in rural Samarra areas as of 2025, though persistent security issues and corruption hinder full productivity gains. Provincial projects, including billions in Sunni-majority area investments, aim to boost employment through farming subsidies and market linkages, yet agricultural output remains below pre-2014 levels due to ongoing tribal disputes and from conflict-era neglect.

Religious Significance

Shia Holy Sites and Pilgrimage Role

The primary Shia holy site in Samarra is the , also known as the Shrine of al-'Askariyyayn, which enshrines the tombs of the tenth Twelver , (d. 868 CE), and the eleventh , (d. 874 CE). These figures hold central theological importance in Twelver Shia doctrine as the father and grandfather, respectively, of the twelfth , , believed to be in . The shrine ranks among the four major Shia pilgrimage centers in , alongside those in , , and , underscoring its status as a focal point for veneration of the lineage. Associated with the main shrine are subsidiary sacred locations, including the Sardab (cellar), traditionally regarded as the site from which Imam al-Mahdi entered in 874 CE, and the tomb of Hakimah Khatun, aunt of Imam al-Askari, along with that of Narjis Khatun, purported mother of the twelfth Imam. These elements collectively reinforce Samarra's role in Shia eschatological narratives, drawing devotees seeking proximity to sites linked to the awaited savior figure. Samarra functions as a significant hub for Shia , attracting millions of visitors annually, particularly during commemorations of the Imams' martyrdoms. For instance, over four million pilgrims gathered in Samarra in September 2025 to mark the martyrdom anniversary of Hasan al-Askari, with similar large-scale events reported in prior years, such as 3.5 million in 2024. The shrine's appeal extends internationally, serving as a destination for rituals of and mourning, though access has historically been challenged by its location in a predominantly Sunni area.

Sunni Heritage and Broader Islamic Context

Samarra was established in 836 CE by Abbasid Caliph as the new capital of the , relocating from to create a secure base for his predominantly Sunni Turkish military forces and to mitigate urban unrest in the previous capital. This move underscored the caliphate's Sunni orientation, as the Abbasids, successors to the Umayyads, consolidated Sunni doctrinal authority following the initial fitna and the rise of heterodox movements like the and early Shi'a factions. The city's rapid development into a sprawling metropolis of over 20 square kilometers reflected the empire's administrative efficiency and military prowess under Sunni leadership, housing palaces, mosques, and infrastructure that supported governance over territories from to . The , constructed between 848 and 851 CE under Caliph —a ruler known for enforcing Sunni orthodoxy by abolishing the Mu'tazilite doctrine of the created —serves as the preeminent symbol of the city's Sunni heritage. Spanning approximately 10 hectares and accommodating up to 100,000 worshippers, it was the largest mosque in the world at the time, featuring baked-brick walls, expansive courtyards, and the iconic 52-meter-high Malwiya minaret with its helical ramp, which influenced subsequent from to . Al-Mutawakkil's patronage extended to suppressing Shi'a revolts and promoting scholarship, aligning Samarra with the consolidation of Sunni legal and theological schools during the 9th century. In the broader Islamic context, Samarra exemplified the Abbasid synthesis of Persian, Byzantine, and Central Asian elements under Sunni hegemony, fostering advancements in ceramics, decoration, and that disseminated across the dar al-Islam. Artifacts like Chinese-influenced shards unearthed in the city highlight trade networks that enriched Abbasid without diluting its Sunni religious framework. The caliphate's tenure in Samarra until 892 CE marked a of centralized Sunni before internal strife and the rise of autonomous dynasties like the Buyids shifted power dynamics, yet the site's architectural legacy endures as a testament to that era's imperial and doctrinal achievements.

Architecture and Archaeology

Great Mosque and Malwiya Minaret

The Great Mosque of Samarra, also known as the Great Mosque of al-Mutawakkil, was commissioned in 848 CE by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil and completed around 851-852 CE. At the time of its construction, it was the largest mosque in the world, spanning approximately 17 hectares with outer walls measuring 444 meters by 376 meters and standing about 10 meters high, constructed primarily from baked bricks. The mosque featured 17 gates and an expansive prayer hall supported by columns, reflecting the scale and engineering capabilities of Abbasid architecture during Samarra's tenure as the caliphal capital from 836 to 892 CE. The Malwiya Minaret, named after its term for "snail shell" due to its distinctive spiral form, rises 52 meters high and 33 meters wide at the base, built on a square pedestal with a counter-clockwise spiraling ramp allowing ascent to the summit. This unique design, possibly inspired by earlier Mesopotamian ziggurats or symbolic of ascension, served for the call to prayer and remains one of the most iconic features of early Islamic monumental architecture. The mosque complex suffered extensive destruction during the Mongol invasion of 1258 CE, though the endured, and further damage occurred in 2005 from insurgent attacks targeting perceived sniper positions atop the structure. As part of the Samarra Archaeological City designated a in 2007, the site retains about 80% unexcavated potential, with ongoing preservation efforts focusing on structural stabilization amid environmental and conflict-related threats.

Al-Askari Shrine and Associated Structures

The , located in , , houses the tombs of , the tenth Twelver Shia who died in 868 CE, and his son , the eleventh who died in 874 CE, both buried in their residence on what is now Abi Ahmad Street. The site also contains the graves of Hakimah Khatoon, sister of , and , purported mother of the twelfth . Construction of a dome over the graves began in 939–940 CE, with subsequent renovations including a major reconstruction between 1209 and 1212 CE under Nasir al-Din Allah. The complex exemplifies early , featuring a golden dome, tiled minarets, and intricate tilework incorporating Persian and Abbasid influences, though much of the original structure has been altered through repeated repairs. As one of Shia Islam's holiest sites, the shrine serves as a major pilgrimage destination, drawing millions annually before security disruptions, due to its association with the of the twelfth , believed by Twelver Shia to have entered ghaybah (hidden state) from Samarra. Associated structures include the adjacent Al-Askari Mosque, which expanded the complex and facilitated ritual practices, and courtyard areas used for communal prayers and (visitation). The site's sanctity stems from attributing prophetic endorsements to the Imams' burial location, positioning it as a focal point for Shia eschatological beliefs. The endured severe damage from two bombings attributed to Sunni extremist groups. On February 22, 2006, explosives detonated around 7 a.m. destroyed the golden dome, triggering widespread sectarian reprisals that escalated Iraq's civil conflict, with over 1,000 deaths reported in the immediate aftermath from retaliatory attacks on Sunni mosques. A second attack on June 13, 2007, at approximately 9 a.m., collapsed the two remaining minarets using planted explosives, further straining communal relations. Reconstruction efforts commenced shortly after, involving Iraqi engineers and joint Shia-Sunni labor teams by 2009, restoring the dome with and rebuilding minarets to original specifications using traditional materials like and glazed tiles. provided technical assistance starting in 2007, emphasizing preservation of authentic Islamic construction techniques amid concerns over hasty postwar repairs potentially compromising structural integrity. By 2011, partial reopening allowed limited pilgrimages, though field assessments revealed ongoing vulnerabilities in load-bearing elements from blast-induced cracks and material fatigue. These initiatives highlight causal links between targeted destruction and broader instability, with rebuilds serving as tentative stabilizers for sectarian tensions.

UNESCO-Designated Sites and Preservation Challenges

The Samarra Archaeological City, spanning 15,058 hectares and preserving about 80% of the Abbasid capital's original urban layout from 836 to 892 CE, was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007 under criteria (ii), (iii), and (iv) for its exceptional testimony to Abbasid architecture, urban planning, and artistic achievements. Key components include the Great Mosque with its distinctive Malwiya spiral minaret, remnants of over ten palaces such as the Dar al-Khilafa, and the Al-Askari Shrine complex, which together illustrate the caliphate's monumental scale and cultural synthesis. No other UNESCO-designated sites exist within Samarra beyond this comprehensive property. The site was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger upon inscription in 2007, primarily due to Iraq's post-2003 instability and direct attacks on religious structures. Bombings in 2006 destroyed the shrine's golden dome, followed by 2007 explosions that toppled its two minarets, causing structural damage and scattering debris across adjacent areas, which intensified but also highlighted vulnerabilities in heritage protection. These incidents, attributed to insurgent groups, preceded 's assessment but underscored the immediate threats from armed conflict. Ongoing preservation challenges include armed conflict, encroaching on the through illegal construction and bulldozing, and the absence of an updated management plan to coordinate conservation and . During 2014–2017, ISIS forces threatened the area without achieving full control—Samarra remained defended by Iraqi security—but their operations involved occupying parts of the site for military use, resulting in smashed glass elements and risks of looting or deliberate vandalism akin to destructions elsewhere in . As of the 2024 State of Conservation report, the property stays endangered, with urging reinforced security, site monitoring via satellite, and international aid for restoration to mitigate erosion, pollution, and inadequate maintenance.

Security and Modern Developments

Sectarian Violence and Terrorist Attacks

The in Samarra became a focal point for following the U.S.-led invasion of in 2003, as Sunni extremist groups, particularly (AQI), targeted the Shia holy site to provoke reprisals and deepen communal divides. On February 22, 2006, insurgents detonated explosives that collapsed the shrine's golden dome, an attack attributed to AQI operatives aiming to incite Shia-Sunni strife amid the ongoing . The bombing triggered immediate retaliatory killings, with over 1,000 Iraqis reported dead in the ensuing days from sectarian clashes, mosque attacks, and assassinations nationwide, transforming sporadic violence into near-civil war conditions. In Samarra itself, the incident escalated local confrontations between Shia pilgrims and Sunni militants, contributing to the city's role as a persistent flashpoint. A second major assault occurred on June 13, 2007, when bombers destroyed the shrine's two minarets, again linked to AQI-affiliated Sunni militants seeking to exploit religious fault lines. and Shia militias responded with heightened patrols in Samarra, limiting immediate widespread escalation compared to 2006, though the attack displaced additional families and strained inter-sectarian relations. Coalition forces subsequently targeted AQI leaders in the Samarra region, including a August 2007 airstrike that killed Haitham Sabah al-Badri, a key figure in both shrine bombings. These incidents exemplified a pattern of terrorist tactics designed to undermine national unity, with AQI's hierarchical operations prioritizing high-profile strikes on Shia symbols to elicit disproportionate Shia responses and portray Iraq's government as sectarian. Beyond the shrine bombings, Samarra endured recurrent terrorist attacks, including suicide bombings and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) amid the broader , often tied to AQI's efforts to control supply routes along the River. Sectarian clashes intensified in the city during 2006-2008, involving Shia militias like the clashing with Sunni insurgents, resulting in civilian casualties and population shifts that reinforced Shia majorities in formerly mixed areas. By design, such violence amplified displacement, with the 2006 Samarra attack alone contributing to surges in internally displaced persons, many fleeing to Shia-dominated southern regions. Despite Iraqi forces' containment efforts, isolated attempts to reignite strife persisted into later years, underscoring the enduring vulnerability of Samarra's religious sites to exploitation by extremists.

ISIS Incursions and Defensive Measures

In June 2014, forces advanced to the outskirts of Samarra after capturing , positioning themselves within striking distance of the city's Shia holy sites, including the . (ISF), facing collapse elsewhere, held the line with rapid reinforcement from Iranian advisors and Shia militias, preventing a full breach and halting 's southward push toward . This defense was bolstered by Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani's June 13 calling for popular mobilization, which spurred the formation of the Hashd al-Shaabi (, or PMF), recruiting over 100,000 volunteers primarily from Shia communities to safeguard sites like Samarra. A notable ISIS incursion occurred on September 11, 2014, when militants infiltrated parts of Samarra, sparking urban clashes that killed dozens before PMF and ISF units expelled them. Iranian support intensified, with Quds Force personnel training local fighters; one such commander, Brigadier General Hassan al-Sari, was killed by an ISIS sniper near Samarra in December 2014 while coordinating defenses. Fortifications around the Al-Askari Shrine and key access routes, combined with PMF checkpoints and Iranian-supplied weaponry, formed a layered barrier that ISIS repeatedly tested but failed to overcome, preserving Samarra as a Shia stronghold amid surrounding Sunni-majority areas under threat. From 2015 to 2017, launched sporadic assaults on Samarra's periphery, including suicide bombings and raids on PMF outposts in Salah al-Din province, aiming to disrupt supply lines and provoke sectarian retaliation. Defensive measures evolved with U.S.-led airstrikes providing to PMF and ISF operations, such as the 2016 clearing of pockets north of the city during the broader campaign. PMF brigades, including , maintained vigilant patrols and embedded intelligence networks, repelling incursions through rapid response tactics and denying territorial footholds. By mid-2017, sustained joint operations had reduced capabilities in the area, though low-level attacks persisted as the group shifted to guerrilla tactics.

Post-2017 Reconstruction and Heritage Initiatives

Following the territorial defeat of in by December 2017, reconstruction and heritage preservation in Samarra shifted toward systematic conservation of its Abbasid-era archaeological sites, coordinated by the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage (SBAH) in partnership with . These initiatives emphasized emergency repairs, site management enhancements, and international technical assistance to mitigate ongoing threats from urban encroachment, environmental degradation, and residual conflict damage, such as projectile impacts on structures like Qubbat al-Sulaybiyya. Efforts prioritized the UNESCO-listed Samarra Archaeological City, encompassing the Great Mosque, Caliphal Palace, and related monuments, while integrating training programs to build local capacity for long-term sustainability. In 2024, the SBAH established a dedicated Management Unit for the site in June to oversee boundary delineation and protection measures, complemented by a UNESCO-supported workshop on November 5–7 focusing on legal and technical frameworks for safeguarding. Specific restoration works included refurbishment of the Great Mosque's floor and wall coverings, fountain restoration, and perimeter fencing; façade repairs and gypsum decoration reinstatement at the Caliphal , alongside completion of a visitor reception hall; and preliminary interventions at Al-Hir and Bab Al-’Amma gate. Emergency conservation planning advanced for the Abu Dulaf , involving short-term structural repairs and fencing, with full restoration slated for subsequent phases; similar assessments targeted the damaged Qubbat al-Sulaybiyya . An comprehensive emergency conservation plan for vulnerable components was projected for early 2025 implementation. Funding for these post-2017 activities drew from UNESCO's extra-budgetary contributions, including USD 100,000 from the Nordic World Heritage Fund allocated through 2025 for training, , and capacity-building. Broader support exceeded USD 1.8 million from donors such as , , and , enabling technical expertise in and risk mitigation aligned with international standards. These initiatives have progressed amid persistent constraints, with no major setbacks reported since 2018, though full site remains limited due to militarized zones. For the adjacent , primarily damaged in pre-2017 bombings, minor post-2017 assessments and reinforcements were noted by heritage NGOs, but major reconstruction concluded by 2015 under prior SBAH oversight.

Notable Individuals

Historical Figures from Abbasid Era

Al-Mu'taṣim bi-Llāh (r. 833–842 CE), the eighth Abbasid caliph and third son of Hārūn al-Rashīd, founded Samarra in 836 CE (221 AH) as a new capital on the Tigris River, approximately 130 kilometers north of Baghdad, to house his expanding Turkish slave soldiery and avert conflicts with Baghdad's civilian population. Initially named Surra man ra'a ("He who sees it rejoices"), the city was conceived as a fortified military encampment that rapidly evolved into a sprawling urban complex covering over 150 square kilometers, incorporating palaces, mosques, and administrative structures reflective of Abbasid imperial ambitions. Al-Mu'taṣim's relocation centralized power under his Turkish guard, whom he favored for their loyalty, but sowed seeds of future instability by elevating military elites over traditional Arab elites. Al-Wāthiq (r. 842–847 CE), al-Mu'taṣim's brother and successor, continued governance from Samarra, maintaining the city's role as the caliphal seat during a period of relative stability marked by continued patronage of scholars and enforcement of Mu'tazilite doctrines through the miḥna. His brief reign focused on consolidating the new capital's infrastructure amid ongoing fiscal strains from military expenditures. Al- (r. 847–861 CE), the tenth caliph, oversaw Samarra's architectural zenith, commissioning expansive projects including the Great Mosque (Jāmiʿ al-) in 848 CE, which measured 444 by 376 meters and accommodated up to 100,000 worshippers, symbolizing Abbasid orthodoxy after he abolished the miḥna in 849 CE and promoted Hanbali-influenced Sunni revivalism. His policies curtailed Shiʿi influences and targeted non-Arab elements, yet relied heavily on Turkish troops; this tension culminated in his assassination on 11 December 861 CE (247 AH) in Samarra's palace by those same guards, an event that triggered at Samarra and exposed the caliphate's vulnerability to praetorian intrigue. The Anarchy at Samarra (861–870 CE) featured a tumultuous succession of short-reigned caliphs dominated by Turkish factions: al-Muntaṣir (r. 861 CE, six months), who orchestrated his father's murder but died amid suspicions of poisoning; al-Mustaʿīn (r. 862–866 CE), a grandson of al-Mu'taṣim elevated as a and later executed; al-Muʿtazz (r. 866–869 CE), who attempted reforms but was deposed and killed; and al-Muhtadī (r. 869–870 CE), briefly asserting autonomy before his overthrow. This era eroded caliphal authority, with Samarra's palaces becoming arenas for factional violence, culminating in al-Muʿtamid's (r. 870–892 CE) return to in 892 CE, abandoning the city as an unsustainable outpost of Abbasid power. Among non-caliphal figures, al-Buḥturī (821–897 CE), a leading Abbasid poet, frequented Samarra's courts, composing panegyrics for and elegies on his that shaped historical narratives of the event, highlighting the city's cultural vibrancy amid political decay. Similarly, al-Fatḥ ibn Khāqān (d. 861 CE), 's trusted chamberlain and bibliophile, amassed a renowned in his Samarra palace, patronizing scholars and underscoring the intellectual pursuits sustained by court elites despite mounting turmoil.

Modern Political and Religious Leaders

Ahmed Abdul-Ghafoor al-Samarra'i, an Iraqi jurist and Islamic scholar originating from Samarra, served as head of the Sunni Endowment Office from 2005 to 2013 with ministerial rank, managing Sunni religious endowments (waqfs), mosques, and scholarly institutions during a period of heightened sectarian strife following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion. In this capacity, he advocated for Sunni interests in government dialogues and heritage preservation efforts, including coordination with on sites al-Din Governorate, while navigating accusations of political alignment amid Iraq's fragile post-Saddam power-sharing. Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim al-Badri, better known as , was born in Samarra in 1971 to a Sunni Arab family and emerged as a prominent religious and political figure through his leadership of jihadist groups. Initially involved in insurgent networks post-2003, he assumed control of the in 2010, rebranding it as the (IS) by 2013 and declaring a self-proclaimed in June 2014 over captured territories spanning and , where he imposed sharia-based governance, religious edicts, and administrative structures until U.S. forces killed him in a raid on October 27, 2019. His rule emphasized Salafi-jihadist doctrine, including fatwas on warfare and , drawing global condemnation for atrocities documented by entities like the , though supporters viewed it as restorative Islamic authority.

References

  1. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/276/
  2. https://smarthistory.org/samarra/
  3. https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesMiddEast/MesopotamiaPrehistory03.htm
  4. https://al-islam.org/holy-city-samarra-abbas-jaffer/holy-city-samarra
  5. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4739444.stm
  6. http://www.unm.edu/~gbawden/328-neo3/328-neo3.htm
  7. https://www.academia.edu/13029719/Hakemi_Use_A_Newly_Established_Site_Dating_to_the_Hassuna_Samarra_Period_in_Southeastern_Anatolia
  8. https://journals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu/arizanthro/article/386/galley/380/download/
  9. https://www.academia.edu/43180519/Culture_Chronology_and_Change_in_the_Later_Neolithic_of_North_Mesopotamia
  10. https://iraqhistory.org/en/samarra-discoveries/
  11. https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc63.pdf
  12. https://www.archnet.org/authorities/8276
  13. https://archeologie.culture.gouv.fr/en/samarra-abbasid-capital
  14. https://www.archnet.org/sites/3828
  15. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-art-of-the-abbasid-period-750-1258
  16. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004525245/BP000012.xml
  17. https://www.worldheritagesite.org/list/samarra/
  18. https://www.bisi.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/publications/The%20Historical%20Topography%20of%20Samarra_1.pdf
  19. https://www.archnet.org/sites/5525
  20. https://islamic-art.smb.museum/en/story/from-samarra-to-berlin
  21. https://rashid-international.org/samarra/
  22. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/battle-in-samarra-iraq
  23. https://time.com/archive/6670311/samarra-what-really-happened/
  24. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/oct/24/samarra-baton-rouge-civilian-deaths
  25. https://www.rferl.org/a/1077105.html
  26. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-feb-13-fg-samarra13-story.html
  27. https://time.com/2920692/iraq-isis-samarra-al-askari-mosque/
  28. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2009/8/12/iraqis-rebuild-al-askari-mosque
  29. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/6/12/web-exclusive-isil-threatens-samarra-shrine
  30. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/10/world/middleeast/iraq-samarra-shiite-militias-isis.html
  31. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/09/revenge-attacks-and-killings-sprees-in-samarra-iraq/
  32. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/01/years-after-civil-war-security-wall-holds-back-iraqi-city
  33. https://www.britannica.com/place/Tigris-Euphrates-river-system/Physiography-of-the-Tigris
  34. https://weatherspark.com/y/102745/Average-Weather-in-S%25C4%2581marr%25C4%2581%25E2%2580%2599-Iraq-Year-Round
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336743254_Study_Of_Some_Physical_And_Chemical_Properties_Of_The_Soil_From_Selected_Sites_Of_The_City_Of_Samarra_Middle_Iraq
  36. https://nomadseason.com/climate/iraq/salah-ad-din/samarra-.html
  37. https://www.nearweather.com/location/91597
  38. https://jtuh.org/index.php/jtuh/article/view/1871
  39. https://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Iraq/Samarra/climate-profile.aspx
  40. https://ijg.journals.publicknowledgeproject.org/index.php/journal/article/view/3237
  41. https://populationstat.com/iraq/samarra
  42. https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/cities/23326/samarra/population
  43. https://www.rjtravelagency.com/iraq-people/
  44. https://tcf.org/content/report/social-engineering-samarra/
  45. https://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/activities/countries/docs/iraq_post_samarra_displacement.pdf
  46. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/DOC_0001252308.pdf
  47. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/1262/8/082031
  48. https://shafaq.com/en/Report/Millions-lost-Wild-boars-devastate-Samarra-lettuce-farms
  49. https://en.964media.com/36273/
  50. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/1371/7/072012
  51. https://www.iraq-businessnews.com/tag/samarra/
  52. https://www.actizapharma.com/current-trend-in-the-iraq-pharmaceutical-sector/
  53. https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/impact-isis-iraq-s-agricultural-sector
  54. https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/MDE1495102018ENGLISH.pdf
  55. https://euaa.europa.eu/country-guidance-iraq-2022/salah-al-din
  56. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/09/20/engaging-women-on-the-frontlines-of-reconstruction-efforts-in-iraq
  57. http://iraqieconomists.net/en/2017/09/17/iraq-agriculture-damage-loss-needs-assessment/
  58. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/846201597292562703/pdf/Iraq-Reconstruction-and-Investment.pdf
  59. https://iraq.iom.int/stories/restoring-homes-land-and-hope-return-displaced-families-salah-al-din
  60. https://themedialine.org/top-stories/prosperity-comes-to-sunni-provinces-of-iraq/
  61. https://www.reuters.com/article/economy/factbox-golden-mosque-in-iraqs-samarra-idUSYAT228196/
  62. https://en.abna24.com/news/1722714/Four-million-pilgrims-mark-anniversary-of-Imam-Hasan-al-Askari-s
  63. https://shiawaves.com/english/ahlulbayt-occasions/110944-over-3-5m-pilgrims-commemorate-sorrowful-martyrdom-anniversary-of-imam-al-askari-in-holy-samarra/
  64. https://www.britannica.com/place/Samarra
  65. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/chronological-periods-islamic/islamic-art-early/a/samarra-a-palatial-city
  66. https://koryogroup.com/blog/the-mosque-of-samarra-and-its-spiralling-minaret
  67. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/architecture/the-great-mosque-of-samarra-architecture-and-religion.php
  68. https://archeyes.com/the-great-mosque-of-samarra-the-abu-dulaf-mosque/
  69. https://www.youngpioneertours.com/malwiya-minaret-samarra/
  70. https://www.arthistoryproject.com/timeline/middle-ages/islamic-dynastic-art/malwiya-minaret/
  71. https://study.com/learn/lesson/great-mosque-samarra-history-architecture.html
  72. https://rockyroadtravel.com/travel-to-the-great-mosque-of-samarra/
  73. https://al-islam.org/history-shrines/history-shrine-imam-ali-al-naqi-imam-hasan-al-askari-peace-be-upon-them
  74. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277331767_Restoration_of_Historical_Al-Askari_Shrine_I_Field_Observations_Damage_Detection_and_Material_Properties
  75. https://www.rferl.org/a/1077098.html
  76. https://news.un.org/en/story/2007/06/223562
  77. https://www.npr.org/2011/03/24/134800570/shrines-rebuilding-renews-sectarian-tension-in-iraq
  78. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3856/
  79. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/4540/
  80. https://whc.unesco.org/document/171734
  81. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/iraq-and-the-global-war-on-terrorism/
  82. https://www.npr.org/transcripts/5235512
  83. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/03/20060313-3.html
  84. https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2007/90211.htm
  85. https://news.un.org/en/story/2007/06/222272
  86. https://www.army.mil/article/4373/coalition_successes_mount_against_al_qaeda_in_iraq
  87. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.7312/hoff16898-018/html
  88. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Sectarianism-governance-and-Iraqs-future_English.pdf
  89. https://www.gao.gov/assets/a312948.html
  90. https://www.dvidshub.net/news/539636/iraqi-security-forces-show-unity-despite-sectarian-violence
  91. https://understandingwar.org/research/middle-east/the-leadership-and-purpose-of-iraqs-popular-mobilization-forces/
  92. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/12/28/373610757/iranian-general-reportedly-killed-by-isis-sniper-in-northern-iraq
  93. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/02/isis-mount-deadly-assault-on-iraqi-militia-members-near-samarra
  94. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/NCO-Journal/Archives/2019/January/Defeating-ISIS-in-Iraq/
  95. https://en.wikishia.net/view/Popular_Mobilization_Forces
  96. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/4703/
  97. https://rashid-international.org/samarra/al-askari_mosque_1/
  98. https://www.archnet.org/authorities/3929
  99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/612000
  100. https://medieval-islamic-history.com/6-decade-of-anarchy/
  101. https://www.foreignexchanges.news/p/the-anarchy-at-samarra-part-iii-decline
  102. https://www.academia.edu/188130/Singing_Samarra_861_956_Poetry_and_the_Burgeoning_of_Historiography_upon_the_Murder_of_al_Mutawakkil
  103. https://www.academia.edu/74387549/The_Palaces_of_the_Abbasids_at_Samarra
  104. https://www.deseret.com/2011/8/28/20212310/officials-29-dead-in-suicide-bomb-in-iraq-mosque/
  105. https://www.unesco-hist.org/index.php?r=en/article/info&id=1265
  106. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/handoutfinal.pdf
  107. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50200392
  108. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/who-was-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.