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Fasting in Islam
Fasting in Islam
Fasting in Islam
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Iftar, a meal consumed to break fast. It is a sunnah to break fast with dates.

In Islam, fasting (called ṣawm[1] in Arabic: صَوم [sˤɑwm], or ṣiyām صيام [sˤɪˈjæːm]) is the practice of abstaining from food, drink, sexual activity, and anything that substitutes food and drink. During the holy month of Ramadan, fasting is observed between dawn and sunset when the prayer call of the dawn prayer and the sunset prayer is called.[2] Ramadan is the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar and fasting is a requirement for able Muslims as it is the fourth of the five pillars of Islam.[3]

Origins

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Religious fasting is not a uniquely Muslim practice; it has been practiced for centuries by religions such as Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Judaism, and Taoism, among others.[4] It is stated in the Quran that Allah says:

O you who believe, fasting is prescribed for you as it was prescribed for those before you, that you may develop God-consciousness.

— Quran 2:183[4]

Some cultures in North America fasted to serve as penance for sin and avert catastrophes.[4] The official practices of the Inca Empire and many indigenous peoples of Mexico observed fasts to appease their gods. Former nations such as Assyrians and Babylonians observed fasting as a form of penance. Jews observe fasting as a form of purification and penitence on the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur annually.[4]

Early Christians associated fasting with purification and penitence in the first two centuries. The Christian church made fasting a voluntary preparation for receiving the sacraments of adult baptism and Holy Communion and for the ordination of priests.[4] Later, fasting became mandatory and other days were added. The Lenten fast was expanded in the 6th century to 40 days where one meal was allowed each day. According to historian Philip Jenkins, Ramadan was inspired by "the strict Lenten discipline of the Syrian Churches", a postulation corroborated by other scholars, such as the theologian Paul-Gordon Chandler.[5][6] Fasting was retained by most Protestant churches and was made optional in some cases after the Reformation. However, stricter Protestants condemned both the festivals of the church and their traditional fasts. Roman Catholics fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday; their fast may involve partial abstinence from food and drink or total abstinence.[4]

In the Quran

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In the Quran, the practice of fasting is mentioned. In verse 2:183,[3] the Quran expresses situations in which a Muslim is allowed to abstain from fasting and introduces alternative solutions such as feeding needy people. Also, it is emphasized in verse 2:183–185 that it is not necessary for people who are traveling or sick to be fasting, and can be postponed until "another equal number of days."[3] According to verse 5:95, among other things, fasting may be used to make up for certain sins, such as sacrificing an animal during a state of ihram. Verse 2:185 also states that the Quran was revealed in the month of Ramadan.[3] Another verse, 97:1, states that it was revealed "on the Night of Power," where Muslims observe in one of the last 10 nights of Ramadan.[3]

O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed for you, even as it was prescribed for those before you, that ye may ward off (evil); (Fast) a certain number of days; and (for) him who is sick among you, or on a journey, (the same) number of other days; and for those who can afford it there is a ransom: the feeding of a man in need – but whoso doeth good of his own accord, it is better for him: and that ye fast is better for you if ye did but know – The month of Ramadan in which was revealed the Qur'an, a guidance for mankind, and clear proofs of the guidance, and the Criterion (of right and wrong). And whosoever of you is present, let him fast the month, and whosoever of you is sick or on a journey, (let him fast the same) a number of other days. [...] It is made lawful for you to go in unto your wives on the night of the fast. [...] So hold intercourse with them and seek that which God hath ordained for you, and eat and drink until the white thread becometh distinct to you from the black thread of the dawn. Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall; and touch them not when at devotions in the mosques. These are the limits imposed by God, so approach them not. Thus God expoundeth His revelation to mankind that they may ward off (evil).

— Quran 2:183-187

Perform the pilgrimage and the visit for God. And if ye are prevented, then send such gifts as can be obtained with ease, and shave not your heads until the gifts have reached their destination. And whoever among you is sick or hath an ailment of the head must pay a ransom of fasting or almsgiving or offering. And if ye are in safety, then whosoever contenteth himself with the visit for the pilgrimage (shall give) such gifts as can be had with ease. And whosoever cannot find (such gifts), then a fast of three days while on the pilgrimage, and of seven when ye have returned that is, ten in all. That is for him whoso folk are not present at the Inviolable Place of Worship. Observe your duty to God, and know that God is severe in punishment.

—  Quran 2:196

O ye who believe! Kill no wild game while ye are on the pilgrimage. Whoso of you killeth it of set purpose he shall pay its forfeit in the equivalent of that which he hath killed, of domestic animals, the judge to be two men among you known for justice, (the forfeit) to be brought as an offering to the Ka'bah; or, for expiation, he shall feed poor persons, or the equivalent thereof in fasting, that he may taste the evil consequences of his deed. God forgiveth whatever (of this kind) may have happened in the past, but whoso relapseth, God will take retribution from him. God is Mighty, Able to Requite (the wrong).

— Quran 5:95

Such of you as put away your wives (by saying they are as their mothers) They are not their mothers; none are their mothers except those who gave them birth—they indeed utter an ill word and a lie. And lo! God is Forgiving, Merciful. Those who put away their wives (by saying they are as their mothers) and afterward would go back on that which they have said; (the penalty) in that case (is) the freeing of a slave before they touch one another. Unto this, ye are exhorted, and God is informed of what ye do. And he who findeth not (the wherewithal), let him fast for two successive months before they touch one another; and for him who is unable to do so (the penance is) the feeding of sixty needy ones. This, that ye may put trust in God and His messenger. Such are the limits (imposed by God); and for disbelievers is a painful doom.

— Quran 58:2-4

Definition

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Fasting is primarily an exercise of devotion to willingly renounce oneself, for a definite period of time, from all bodily appetites in order to form spiritual discipline and self-control.[7] Muslims are prohibited from eating or drinking from dawn (fajr) to sunset (maghrib) when the adhan is called. It is considered time to begin fasting when a person standing outside can tell a white thread from a black thread, i.e. the light of the dawn and the darkness of the night.[8]

Conditions

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Intention (niyyah)

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Main article: Niyyah

"The intention (niyyah) means resolving to fast. It is essential to have the intention the night before, night by night, in Ramadaan."[9] For fasting, making the intention to fast is necessary.[10]

General conditions

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Throughout the duration of the fast itself, Muslims will abstain from certain provisions that the Quran has otherwise allowed; namely eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse.[11][4][12] This is in addition to the standard obligation already observed by Muslims of avoiding that which is not permissible under Quranic or shari'a law (e.g. ignorant and indecent speech, arguing and fighting and lustful thoughts). Without observing this standard obligation, the sawm is rendered useless and is seen simply as an act of starvation. Fasting should be a motive to be more benevolent to fellow creatures. Charity to the poor and needy in this month is one of the most rewardable worships.

If one is sick, pregnant, menstruating, nursing, or traveling, one is considered exempt from fasting. Any fasts broken or missed due to sickness, pregnancy, menstruation, nursing, or traveling are made up whenever the person is able before the next month of Ramadan. According to the Quran, for all other cases, not fasting is only permitted when the act is potentially dangerous to one's health – for example, those who are sick, elderly, or on a journey, and women who are menstruating, pregnant, or nursing are permitted to break the fast, but this must be made up by paying a fidyah, which is essentially the iftar and suhur for a fasting person who requires such financial help.[13]

Muslim scholars have stated that observing the fast is forbidden for menstruating women. However, when a woman's period has ceased, she must bathe and continue fasting. Any fasts broken or missed due to menstruation must be made up whenever she can before the next month of Ramadan (not all Muslims believe missing fasts due to menstruation must be made up). Women must fast at times when not menstruating, as the Quran indicates that all religious duties are ordained for both men and women. The reason for this is because the Quran refers to menstruation as "Say: It is a discomfort (Menstruation)".[clarification needed] According to Nouman Ali Khan, an Islamic speaker in the United States, the reason for this prohibition is because of the pain associated with it. A Muslim woman may still do dhikr (remembrance of Allah) and make dua (supplication to Allah) during this time.[a][2]

Fasting is obligatory for a person if they fulfill five conditions:[2]

  1. They are Muslims;
  2. They are accountable (past the age of puberty);
  3. They are able to fast;
  4. They are settled (not traveling);
  5. There are no impediments to fasting such as sickness, extreme pain from injury, breastfeeding, or pregnancy.

Breaking the fast and the consequences

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During Ramadan, if one unintentionally breaks the fast by eating or drinking, then they must continue fasting for the rest of the day and the fast remains valid. Those who intentionally break the fast by eating or drinking, they have to make up for that and also repent. For breaking fast by having sexual intercourse, the consequences are:

  1. Free a slave, and if that is not possible,
  2. Fast for two consecutive Hijri (moon) months, and if that is not possible,
  3. Feed or clothe sixty people in need.

During voluntary fasts, if one unintentionally breaks the fast then they may continue for the rest of the day and the fast remains valid. If one intentionally breaks the fast there is no sin on them, because it is only voluntary.[14][15]

Breaking oaths and consequences

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If an oath is given and circumstances dictate that it must be broken (or if the one giving the oath deliberately breaks it), one must offer expiation (kaffara) by freeing a slave, or feeding or clothing ten needy people with the average of what is needed for one's own family, or if neither of those can be done then a fast for three days is prescribed instead.[16]

Beginning and ending

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Ending the fast at a mosque

In accordance with traditions handed down from Muhammad, Muslims eat a pre-dawn meal called suhur. All eating and drinking must be finished before the adhan for fajr, the pre-dawn call to prayer. Unlike the zuhr and the maghrib prayer, which have clear astronomical definitions (afternoon and after sunset), there are several definitions used in practice for the timing of "true dawn" (al-fajr al-ṣādiq), as mentioned in the hadith. These range from when the center of the Sun is 12 to 21 degrees below the horizon[17] which equates to about 40 to 60 minutes before civil dawn. There are no restrictions on the morning meal other than those of Islamic dietary laws. After completing the suhur, Muslims recite the fajr prayer. No food or beverage can be taken after suhur. Water can enter the mouth, but not be swallowed, during wudu.

The meal eaten to end the fast is known as iftar. Muslims break the fast with dates and water before the maghrib prayer, after which they might eat a more wholesome meal.

Spiritual aspect

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Fasting has been prescribed to all Muslims as a form of religious obligation for overcoming their lust and desires within a reasonable limit so that one can control oneself and prevent becoming a slave to their appetites. The Qur'an states that if humans cannot prevent themselves from desires then they cannot achieve salvation:

As for him who fears to stand before his Lord and restrains himself from low desires, Paradise is surely the abode.

— Quran; 79:40–41[18])

Muslims abstain from a permissible norm of daily life due to the command of Allah so it strengthens one's self-control and increases consciousness of the Lord. It is not prescribed as a punishment for people or to inflict burdensome practices. It is a moral and spiritual training whose underlying idea is to teach moderation and spiritual discipline so that human temptations do not surpass the moral disciplines implemented in Islam. Furthermore, fasting is mandatory for only a definite period of time and does not promote total renunciation from the appetite of the flesh. Eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse become permissible for a human at the end of the fast. Therefore, Islamic fasting aims at promoting proper limits within its natural bounds.

Health effects

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See also: Health effects of fasting

Islamic fasting, as a time-restricted eating habit that inverts the normal human day-night routine for observance, can have deleterious health effects on sleep patterns and general health. Fasting in Ramadan has been shown to alter the sleep patterns[19] and the associated hormone production.

Statistical comparison of thousands of school children, part of whom was born without the month of Ramadan during pregnancy and part of whom where Ramadan coincided with the pregnancy, has revealed lower cognitive capability, and lower growth in adolescence if the mother observed Ramadan fasting during pregnancy. Children whose mothers fasted during Ramadan also have a higher incidence of several chronic diseases, e.g. Type 2 diabetes[20] (see the ruling regarding fasting pregnant women).

Fasting is one of the alternatives proved to reduce the DPP-4 level and activate the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and so, prevent osteoporosis. On the other hand, the circadian rhythm has a direct relationship with osteoporosis. This has been found by the biochemical markers, indicating that fasting at certain hours of the day, especially during those hours of the day which are recommended as part of the Muslim tradition (Islamic fasting), is very effective in reducing the effects of osteoporosis.[21]

The education departments of Berlin and the United Kingdom have tried to discourage students from fasting during Ramadan, as they claim that not eating or drinking can lead to concentration problems and bad grades.[22][23] Ramadan fasting has also been associated with loss of workplace productivity by 35 to 50%.[24][25]

Many of the purported health benefits associated with Ramadan fasting only take into account abstinence from food while ignoring the lack of water intake, which can have a harmful impact even in healthy individuals.[26] In many cultures, it is associated with heavy food and water intake during Suhur and Iftar times, which may do more harm than good.

Ramadan fasting is safe for healthy people provided that overall food and water intake is adequate, but those with medical conditions should seek medical advice if they encounter health problems before or during fasting.[27] The fasting period is usually associated with modest weight loss, but weight can return afterward.[28]

A review of the literature by an Iranian group suggested fasting during Ramadan might produce renal injury in patients with moderate (GFR <60 ml/min) or severe kidney disease but was not injurious to renal transplant patients with good function or most stone-forming patients.[29] However, since sick and/or at-risk individuals are exempted from the obligation of fasting, Ramadan fasting may be skipped instead.

Ramadan fasting can be potentially hazardous for pregnant women as it is associated with risks of inducing labor and causing gestational diabetes, although it does not appear to affect the child's weight. it is permissible to not fast if it threatens the woman's or the child's lives, however, in many instances, pregnant women are normal before the development of complications.[30][31][32][33][34] Thus, it may be advisable for pregnant women to skip fasting and pay fidyah instead (if the women are able to pay; poor people may be exempted fully).[20]

If one is at risk of dehydration or other medical risks, which may lead to serious consequences, then it is permitted to break one's fast.[35] It has been advised to span the water intake throughout the night (instead of drinking heavily at a single time) and not to overeat upon the breaking of the fast as a solution of the usually reported excessive water and food intake on the sunset (excessive eating and drinking is actually prohibited in Islam). One can break their fast and substitute it on other months or pay fidyah if they are an obvious risk of health concerns, breastfeeding or pregnant (fidyah in this case) or in a work requiring hard physical labor according to Muhammad Abduh.[35]

It is permissible to skip fasting for a healthy person upon obvious risk, even if he has not fallen the risk yet, and the author of Al-Mughni (Ibn Qudamah) stated in his book that some scholars even permitted skipping fast upon very light harm such as toothache or bruises on skin and if a traveling person is permitted to skip fast even if he is able to, then these types of "sickness" should be permitted. This position is said to be held by Bukhari, 'Ata and the Zahiris.[35]

Days

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Month of Ramadan

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Main article: Fasting during Ramadan

Fasting in the month of Ramadan is considered Fard. Ibn Qudamah said that there is consensus of the Muslims that fasting is compulsory in the month of Ramadan.[36]

Days of oath

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If someone swears or makes an oath, for example: "If I graduate with a good mark, I will fast for three days for Allah" then common belief dictates that one should fulfil this. This type of fasting is considered obligatory. Breaking such an oath is considered sinful.

Days for voluntary fasting

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Muslims are encouraged, although not obliged, such as:

  • Fasting on Mondays and Thursdays.[37]
  • Any 6 days in the lunar or "Islamic" month of Shawwal is desirable if possible.[38]
  • The White Days, the 13th, 14th, and 15th day of each lunar month (Hijri).
  • The Day of Arafah (9th of Dhu'I-Hijja in the Islamic (Hijri) calendar).
  • As often as possible in the months of Rajab and Sha'aban before Ramadan.
  • First 9 days of Dhu al-Hijjah in the Islamic calendar (but not for any who are performing Hajj (the pilgrimage).
  • Tasua (9th day) and Ashura (10th day) of Muharram.[39]

Days when fasting is forbidden

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Although fasting is considered a pious act in Islam, there are times when fasting is considered prohibited or discouraged according to the majority of the Sunni scholars:

  • Eid al-Adha and three days following it, because Muhammad said "You are not to fast these days. They are days of eating and drinking and remembering Allah", reported by Abu Hurairah.
  • Eid al-Fitr
  • It is also forbidden to single out Fridays and only fast every Friday, as 'Abdullah b. 'Amr b. al-'As said that he heard Muhammad say "Verily, Friday is an eid (holiday) for you, so do not fast on it unless you fast the day before or after it."
  • Fasting every day of the year is considered non-rewarding; Muhammad said: "There is no reward for fasting for the one who perpetually fasts." This Hadith is considered authentic by Sunni scholars.[40]

The Quran contains no other prohibition regarding the days of fasting.

In polar regions

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Map showing the dates of midnight sun at various latitudes (left) and the total number of nights
Main article: Islam in the Arctic § Fasting during Ramadan

Nothing in the Quran states directly any instruction in the polar regions of Earth and fasting; according to the opinion of the Council of senior scholars in Saudi Arabia. At polar latitudes, June solstices feature the midnight sun and December solstices have polar night. These natural phenomena occur because the Earth's axis tilts toward the Sun in summer and away from the Sun in winter, causing the poles to be exposed to the Sun's rays for six months each nonstop. The reason most of the earliest Muslims did not experience these phenomena during Islam's early days is that they did not live in polar regions but in the subtropics, where the sun can be directly overhead and does set at night.

In the Ma'ariful Qur'an it is said that the Quran states:[citation needed]

(During Ramadan) eat and drink until the white thread of dawn appears to you distinct from its black thread.

— Qur'an, 2:187

This results that fasting is a duty for Muslims only when days and nights exist, otherwise fasting is not necessary.[41]

The Muslims of Svalbard in Norway have to fast only when a night occurs within one 24-hour period. If Ramadan comes in June or December, they may leave fasting and then complete their fasting in the March or September equinox, when days and nights are equalised by the sun in Svalbard. In Islamic law it is called qaḍē.

God intends every facility for you; He does not want to put you in difficulties. (He wants you) to complete the prescribed period, and to glorify Him in that He has guided you, and perchance ye shall be grateful.

— Qur'an, 2:184

See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Fasting in Islam

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from Grokipedia
Fasting in Islam, known as sawm, is one of the five pillars of and entails the complete from food, drink, sexual intercourse, and certain other physical indulgences from dawn (fajr) until sunset (maghrib) during the month of , the ninth month of the Islamic . This obligatory practice, prescribed in the (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:183), is mandated for all sane, adult Muslims capable of observing it, fostering spiritual discipline, self-control, and consciousness of God (). The month of holds special significance as it commemorates the revelation of the to Prophet , serving as a time for heightened worship, reflection, and community solidarity among Muslims worldwide. Beyond its obligatory nature, fasting in Islam extends to voluntary ( and nafl) observances on other days, such as Mondays and Thursdays or the , to earn additional rewards and purify the soul. Exemptions from fasting are granted to those who are ill, traveling, pregnant, , menstruating, or elderly and unable to endure it, with provisions to make up missed fasts later or provide fidyah (feeding the needy) in cases of permanent inability. Through these practices, fasting cultivates empathy for the less fortunate, restraint from sinful actions, and a deeper connection to divine guidance, as emphasized in prophetic traditions recorded in .

Scriptural and Historical Foundations

Quranic Injunctions

The primary Quranic injunctions establishing as an obligation in Islam are detailed in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:183–187), which prescribe sawm during the month of for capable believers to cultivate piety, or . Verse 183 states: "O you who have believed, decreed upon you is as it was decreed upon those before you that you may become righteous," highlighting fasting's continuity with prior Abrahamic traditions observed by Jews and Christians, such as or Lenten fasts. This revelation occurred in the second year after the Prophet Muhammad's to , marking the formal institution of fasting as a communal pillar shortly after the establishment of the Muslim community. These verses outline the purpose and structure of fasting, with verse 185 specifying Ramadan—the month in which the Quran was revealed—as the designated period: "So whoever sights [the new moon of] the month, let him fast it; and whoever is ill or on a journey—then an equal number of other days." The injunction aims at spiritual discipline and gratitude, as "intends for you ease and does not intend for you hardship," allowing flexibility while encouraging completion of the fast. Interpretations emphasize that arises from self-restraint, fostering mindfulness of through abstinence from not only food and drink but also sinful actions. Specific rulings address exemptions and alternatives to ensure accessibility. For those who are ill or traveling, the fast may be postponed and compensated by observing an equivalent number of days later; alternatively, for those with chronic conditions where fasting poses undue hardship, a form of expiation (fidya) involves feeding a poor person for each missed day. Verse 184 clarifies: "And upon those who are able [to fast, but with hardship]—a ransom [as substitute] of feeding a poor person [each day]," underscoring mercy and equity in the obligation. These provisions reflect the Quran's balanced approach, prioritizing devotion without imposing impossible burdens. Linguistically, the term "sawm" (صَوْم) in the derives from the triliteral root ṣād-wāw-mīm (ص-و-م), connoting abstinence, restraint, or holding back, as exemplified by a that refrains from food or movement being termed sa'im. In the religious context, it encompasses comprehensive beyond physical acts, aligning with the goal of through moral and spiritual discipline.

Prophetic Guidance and Hadith

The Prophet Muhammad emphasized the centrality of intention (niyyah) in the validity of fasting, declaring, "Actions are (judged) by intentions, so each man will have what he intended." This foundational principle from Sahih al-Bukhari applies directly to sawm, requiring the intention to fast for Ramadan or other obligatory fasts to be formed before the break of dawn (fajr) each night. In Sahih Muslim, narrations further clarify that without this prior resolve, the fast holds no merit, underscoring how the Prophet's teachings transformed the Quranic command into a deliberate act of worship rooted in conscious devotion. The 's provided practical guidance on the timing of meals during fasting. He instructed believers to delay the pre-dawn meal (suhoor) until as close as possible to dawn, as evidenced by his own practice of eating shortly before fajr, which ibn Thabit observed during a meal taken in the early morning light. Conversely, hastening to break the fast () immediately upon sunset was a key prophetic recommendation, with the stating, "The people will remain on the right path as long as they hasten the breaking of the fast," highlighting this as a marker of adherence to authentic . Regarding exemptions, the explicitly exempted women from during and (nifas), equating these periods with the suspension of . In a narration from , he affirmed to a group of women, "Isn't it true that a can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" to which they agreed, illustrating the mercy in these rulings. , the 's wife, further reported in that women were required to make up missed fasts from these exemptions after their periods ended but were not obligated to compensate for omitted prayers, ensuring the obligation of sawm remains intact without undue burden. The also encouraged voluntary (nafl) fasts beyond to enhance spiritual rewards. He regularly observed fasts on Mondays and Thursdays, explaining that deeds are presented to on these days, making fasting then particularly meritorious, as narrated in authentic collections. Additionally, in , he taught that fasting three days each lunar month equates to the reward of fasting an entire year, promoting consistent supererogatory observance as a means to draw closer to divine favor.

Historical Evolution

In , fasting practices were observed among Arab tribes, particularly on the day of (the 10th of ), which coincided with Jewish commemorations of events like the parting of the by . These Arab fasts, known among the , were likely influenced by the significant Jewish communities in and other regions, where fasting served as a form of atonement and spiritual purification. Upon the Prophet Muhammad's arrival in in 622 CE, he encountered Jews fasting on and instructed Muslims to emulate this practice as an act of piety, initially making it obligatory before the revelation of fasting in 624 CE (2 AH). The transition to as the primary fast occurred shortly after the Qibla's change from to in of the same year, aligning prayer and fasting orientations more distinctly with Islamic identity. During the in 2 AH, the Prophet permitted companions to break their fasts to maintain strength for combat, establishing early precedents for exemptions in times of necessity. Following the Prophet's death in 632 CE, fasting practices were systematically codified during the early caliphates and the formation of Islamic legal schools. The Hijri , formalized under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab around 638 CE, provided a unified framework for determining Ramadan's timing across the growing Muslim community. As the (661–750 CE) expanded Islamic rule from to , this calendar's use became standardized, ensuring consistent observance of fasting amid diverse regional influences. By the 8th and 9th centuries, the four major Sunni schools of jurisprudence—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali—emerged, drawing on Quranic injunctions and prophetic traditions to formalize 's structure, including its obligatory nature in and voluntary aspects like . In parallel, Shia traditions, particularly the attributed to Imam (d. 765 CE), developed their own codifications, emphasizing similar foundations but with interpretive nuances on timing and exemptions. These schools collectively solidified as a pillar of Islamic practice, adapting pre-Islamic elements into a distinctly monotheistic framework.

Core Concepts and Obligations

Definition of Sawm

Sawm, derived from the root ṣ-w-m meaning "to abstain" or "to refrain," encompasses a form of self-restraint that extends beyond mere physical deprivation to include moral and behavioral discipline. In Islamic (fiqh), this linguistic connotation underscores the intentional withholding from certain acts as an act of devotion. The core definition of sawm is the complete abstinence from food, drink, sexual intercourse, and other acts that reach the throat or stomach (such as or intentional ), observed from the appearance of dawn (fajr) until sunset (maghrib). This abstinence must be undertaken with conscious intent, distinguishing it as a ritual worship () rather than mere dietary restriction. Unlike fasting practices in other religions—such as the partial during Christian , which often permits liquids and focuses primarily on reflection, or the intensive but singular-day fast of in , centered on —sawm in integrates a holistic restraint that combines physical, ethical, and spiritual elements into a structured daily . It also differs from non-religious fasts, like for health, by its obligatory religious framework aimed at rather than personal wellness. As the fourth of the Five Pillars of , sawm represents a fundamental obligation for adult Muslims who are sane and physically capable, prescribed in the to cultivate God-consciousness ().

Intention and Validity Conditions

In Islamic jurisprudence, the validity of fasting (sawm) fundamentally hinges on the presence of , or intention, which must be formed sincerely for the sake of before the onset of dawn (Fajr). This intention distinguishes the act of from mere or , rendering it an act of worship, and it can be formulated either mentally in the heart or verbally, though verbal expression is not obligatory. The must be specific to the fasting obligation, such as intending to observe the fast or a voluntary fast, and it applies to all obligatory fasts, including makeup fasts for missed days. For a fast to be considered valid, the individual must meet several general prerequisites rooted in the principles of taklif (religious accountability). These include being a Muslim, as non-Muslims are not bound by Islamic ritual obligations; possessing sound intellect (sanity), excluding those with mental incapacity; having reached (post-pubescent), as pre-pubescent children are not obligated though they may be encouraged to practice; and, for women, being free from menstrual or , during which fasting is prohibited and must be compensated later. These conditions ensure that the worshipper is fully accountable and capable of fulfilling the spiritual and physical demands of sawm. The major schools of fiqh (madhabs) exhibit variations regarding the renewal of niyyah, particularly if it is forgotten for a specific day. In the Hanafi and Maliki schools, a single intention made at the beginning of Ramadan suffices for the entire month, so forgetting to renew it daily does not invalidate the fasts, provided no interrupting factors like travel arise. Conversely, the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools require the niyyah to be renewed each night before dawn for every day of fasting; if forgotten for a particular day, that day's fast is invalid and must be made up, emphasizing the daily specificity of the obligation. These differences stem from interpretations of prophetic traditions on the timing of intention. Insincerity in niyyah, such as performing the fast for worldly gain, show, or without the aim of drawing closer to , undermines the spiritual validity of the act, as worship in is contingent on ikhlas (pure sincerity) directed solely to God; such a fast may fulfill the external form but lacks divine acceptance and reward. However, mixed intentions—combining an obligatory fast with a voluntary one, like fasting a missed day alongside a recommended fast—are permissible and even rewarded doubly, provided the primary obligatory intent remains intact and sincere. This allowance reflects the flexibility in supererogatory worship while upholding the core requirement of devotion to .

Commencement and Conclusion of Fast

The daily fast in Islam commences at the true dawn, known as fajr al-sadiq, which is the second and true appearance of dawn as a horizontal white light spreading along the horizon, distinguishing it from the false dawn (fajr kadhib) that rises vertically like a tail. This timing is prescribed in the , where it states: "eat and drink until the white thread of dawn becomes distinct to you from the black thread [of night]. Then complete your fast until the night." The Quranic of the white and black threads refers to the visible at this true dawn, marking the on eating, drinking, and other invalidating acts. The fast concludes at sunset (maghrib), precisely when the sun disappears below the horizon, allowing the immediate breaking of the fast with iftar. This endpoint aligns with the Quranic directive to "complete your fast until the night," interpreted by scholars as the onset of nightfall immediately following sunset, emphasizing the hastening of iftar without delay. A hadith reinforces this by instructing: "When the sun sets and night comes from the east, then the fast is broken." Communal timing for the daily fast is facilitated by the (call to prayer), with the Fajr signaling the start of the fast and the Maghrib announcing its end, serving as audible indicators for the community to align with these astronomical events. According to the Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency of Religious Affairs of Turkey), it is necessary to cease eating and drinking at the beginning of the Fajr adhan; consuming food or drink after the adhan has started invalidates the fast. However, swallowing any food or drink already present in the mouth when the adhan begins does not invalidate the fast. Moon sighting plays a role in communal coordination for the overall Ramadan period, but daily observance relies on local dawn and sunset determinations. In cases of cloudy weather obscuring visibility, the times are determined through astronomical calculations to estimate true dawn and sunset, ensuring the fast adheres to the prescribed periods without reliance on direct alone. For disputes regarding sighting, are required to follow the local community's determination of dawn and sunset in their region, rather than a global standard, to maintain unity in practice.

Rules for Observance

Eligible Participants and Exemptions

is obligatory upon every sane, adult Muslim who has reached the age of , is healthy, and is not traveling, as established by the Qur'anic injunction in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:183), which decrees on believers to attain righteousness. This obligation applies specifically to resident Muslims capable of observing the fast without undue hardship, reflecting the foundational principle that religious duties are imposed only on those with the physical and mental capacity to fulfill them. Several categories of individuals are exempt from to prevent or overburdening, categorized as temporary or permanent based on Islamic . Pre-pubescent children are not required to fast, though they are encouraged to practice gradually to build habit, as derived from prophetic traditions indicating that religious obligations commence at . Once puberty is reached, the obligation to fast during Ramadan becomes binding, and ignorance of this obligation does not waive the duty to perform qada' (make-up fasts) and repent, though scholarly opinions vary on additional expiations such as feeding the poor per missed day (especially if delayed); for details, refer to the Penalties and Expiations section. Women experiencing or postnatal bleeding are temporarily exempt, as fasting is invalid during these periods, requiring makeup fasts (qada') afterward, per narrated by . Similarly, travelers, the ill (if fasting poses ), and pregnant or nursing women fearing for their or the child's are granted temporary exemptions, mandating qada' later to compensate for missed days. Pregnant or nursing women fearing may break the fast; scholarly views differ on compensation, with some, including a narration from , prescribing fidya, while others require qada'. Permanent exemptions apply to those with enduring conditions, such as the elderly or chronically ill unable to fast even with compensation, who instead offer fidya by feeding a poor person for each missed day, as per Qur'an 2:184's provision for those facing hardship. This substitution underscores Islam's emphasis on , ensuring the vulnerable are not burdened beyond their capacity, a principle echoed in prophetic guidance that eases obligations during difficulty. Variations exist across schools of fiqh regarding exemptions for pregnant and nursing women. In the (Sunni), if no harm is feared, fasting remains obligatory, but breaking it due to potential risk requires only qada' without additional penalty. In contrast, Shia holds that if harm to the child is reasonably anticipated, breaking the fast is obligatory, followed by qada', prioritizing the infant's welfare over strict observance. These differences highlight interpretive flexibility while upholding the ethical core of protecting the vulnerable from undue strain.

Acts Invalidating the Fast

In Islamic , acts that invalidate the fast (known as mubtilat al-siyam) are those deliberate or inadvertent actions that contradict the core requirements of abstaining from certain physical indulgences during the fasting hours, rendering the day's fast null and void, requiring it to be made up later. These nullifiers are primarily derived from Quranic injunctions and Prophetic traditions emphasizing restraint from intake and emission that simulate nourishment or sexual gratification. The four major Sunni schools of (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali) largely agree on the primary invalidators but differ on secondary ones, such as certain medical interventions.

Major Invalidators

The most consensus-driven nullifiers involve intentional breaches that directly oppose the fast's purpose of self-discipline. These include:
  • Eating or drinking: Consuming any food or beverage, even in small amounts, intentionally during fasting hours nullifies the fast, as it violates the explicit prohibition in the (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:187). Specifically, intentional consumption after the Fajr adhan begins invalidates the fast, as one must cease eating and drinking upon the start of the adhan. However, swallowing food or drink already in the mouth at the precise moment the adhan begins does not break the fast. Unintentional intake, such as forgetting one is fasting, does not invalidate it, but the person must stop immediately upon remembrance.
  • Sexual intercourse: Engaging in vaginal intercourse with a spouse, regardless of emission, breaks the fast according to unanimous agreement among Sunni scholars, based on narrations from Abu Hurairah. The fast is invalidated even if unintended does not occur, and both parties' fasts are affected.
  • Smoking or inhaling substances: Inhaling smoke from cigarettes, cigars, or similar, or using like snuff, invalidates the fast because it reaches the stomach or throat in a manner akin to eating or drinking, as ruled by contemporary fatwas interpreting traditional principles. This applies to both intentional and habitual use during fasting hours.
  • Intentional vomiting: Willfully inducing or expelling a mouthful of vomit breaks the fast, as it removes ingested substances deliberately, per hadith in . If vomiting occurs involuntarily (e.g., due to illness), the fast remains valid provided no further intake follows.
These major acts immediately nullify the fast for that day across all Sunni madhabs, necessitating qada' (make-up fasting) afterward.

Minor and Debated Acts

Certain lesser actions are subject to scholarly debate, particularly regarding whether they constitute nourishment or entry into the digestive system. These often depend on intent and the madhab followed:
  • Intentional emission of semen: Masturbation or other deliberate acts leading to ejaculation invalidate the fast according to all major Sunni schools (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Maliki), based on analogies to sexual intercourse, though the Hanafi school holds that emission without physical contact (e.g., by thought alone) does not invalidate. Unintentional emissions, such as nocturnal ones, do not affect the fast.
  • Brushing teeth with toothpaste: Using a with is permissible and does not break the fast if care is taken not to any paste or water, according to the in Sunni fiqh; however, some strict views in the consider swallowing even a trace as invalidating. Traditional siwak () is unanimously allowed without concern.
  • Injections and medications: Non-nutritive injections (e.g., intramuscular or intravenous for or vaccines) do not invalidate the fast in the Shafi'i and Hanafi schools, as they bypass the oral intake prohibition, but nutritive IV drips are considered breaking by Hanbali and some Maliki scholars if they provide sustenance equivalent to eating. Oral medications, pills, tablets, and capsules—including nutritional supplements such as fish oil omega-3 capsules—do not invalidate the Ramadan fast according to the predominant scholarly opinion, as they are not considered eating or drinking in the conventional sense that invalidates the fast, provided they are swallowed whole without being chewed or dissolved in the mouth. This is analogous to taking medicine. Some scholars may hold stricter views, particularly if the substance is nutritive and not medically necessary.
Unintentional minor acts, like accidental swallowing of mixed with , typically do not nullify the fast, but intentional repetition does. Exemptions for medical necessities allow such interventions without invalidation, provided they are not alternatives to eating. These nuances highlight the fiqh's emphasis on () and avoidance of doubt in preserving fast validity.

Penalties and Expiations

In Islamic , unintentional breaches of the fast during , such as those due to forgetfulness or external factors, require only qada', whereby the individual must make up the missed day by fasting on a subsequent non- day, preferably before the next arrives. This provision reflects the faith's emphasis on mercy, allowing the obligation to be fulfilled without additional penalty as long as the makeup is completed promptly. If a person reaches puberty and becomes obligated to fast but misses entire Ramadan fasts due to ignorance of the obligation (jahala) without a valid excuse, scholarly opinions vary. In many authoritative Sunni views, including those of Shaykh Saalih al-Fawzaan, the individual must sincerely repent (tawbah), estimate the number of missed days to the best of their ability—particularly relevant for multiple years of omission—and make them up (qada') by fasting an equivalent number of days later. Additionally, many scholars require feeding one poor person per missed day (fidya, typically 1.5–2 kg of staple food per person) as a precautionary expiation or precaution, especially if delay has caused additional Ramadans to pass without makeup. While some minority opinions may mitigate the requirement for qada' in cases of true excusable ignorance (such as no access to knowledge), negligence in seeking religious knowledge generally does not waive the duty to perform qada'. For deliberate violations of the Ramadan fast, particularly through acts like , kaffara (expiation) becomes obligatory in Sunni schools, consisting of either for 60 consecutive days, feeding 60 poor individuals (typically 1.5-2 kg of per person), or freeing a slave if available—though the latter is obsolete in modern contexts. Some Sunni scholars extend kaffara to other intentional nullifications like eating or drinking, but the majority limit it to intercourse, with qada' and sufficing otherwise. In contrast, kaffara for breaking a vowed (nadhr) fast differs, requiring either feeding 10 poor persons, 10 poor persons, or three days, without the severity of Ramadan's expiation. Shia jurisprudence offers multiple kaffara options for any intentional breaking of a Ramadan fast, including freeing a slave, fasting two consecutive months (with at least 31 days continuous), or feeding 60 poor persons to their fill, allowing flexibility based on the individual's capacity. These remedies underscore the restorative nature of Islamic law, aiming to atone for the spiritual lapse while supporting the community. Throughout these rulings, sincere repentance (tawbah)—involving regret, cessation of the act, and resolve not to repeat it—remains essential, as it purifies the soul and invites divine , complementing any prescribed penalties. Tawbah is not merely procedural but a core theological response, emphasizing Allah's boundless mercy for those who return to Him.

Types and Timing of Fasts

Obligatory Fasting in Ramadan

Ramadan fasting, known as Sawm, constitutes the fourth pillar of Islam and is obligatory for all eligible adult Muslims. It involves complete abstinence from food, drink, smoking, and sexual relations from dawn until sunset each day throughout the lunar month of Ramadan. This practice commemorates the revelation of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad and fosters spiritual discipline, self-reflection, and empathy for the less fortunate. The month of Ramadan spans 29 or 30 days, commencing upon the sighting of the new crescent moon after the preceding month of and concluding similarly with the sighting for . Islamic tradition mandates visual confirmation of the moon by reliable witnesses rather than astronomical calculations alone, as emphasized in narrations where the instructed, "Do not fast until you see the new moon, and do not break the fast until you see it." If clouds obscure the sky on the 29th night, the month extends to 30 days by default. This lunar basis aligns the fast with the Hijri calendar, causing Ramadan to shift approximately 10-12 days earlier each Gregorian year. A typical daily routine begins with Suhoor, a pre-dawn meal recommended to be delayed until just before the Fajr prayer to sustain energy throughout the day, as it carries special blessings according to prophetic tradition. Fasting then endures from the call to Fajr until Maghrib, with durations varying by geographic location—averaging 12 hours near the , up to 18 hours in temperate zones, and over 20 hours in polar regions during summer. The fast concludes at sunset with , traditionally opened by consuming dates and water, emulating the Prophet's practice to immediately replenish the body while expressing gratitude. Communal observance enhances the month's significance, particularly through prayers—voluntary night prayers performed after Isha, typically consisting of 8 or 20 rak'ahs in congregation at mosques, where portions of the are recited to complete its reading by month's end. These gatherings foster unity and devotion. The last ten nights hold heightened importance, with believers seeking Laylat al-Qadr (), believed to fall on an odd night such as the 21st, 23rd, or 27th, when the Quran's first occurred; worship on this night is deemed superior to a thousand months. Global Muslim communities experience variations in Ramadan's start and end dates due to differing moon-sighting methodologies; some nations, like , announce sightings for broader adoption across the , while others, including , , and the , rely on local observations, potentially resulting in one- or two-day discrepancies. This diversity reflects adaptations to regional contexts while upholding the core lunar principle. In Islam, voluntary and recommended fasts, known as sunnah or mustahabb fasts, are non-obligatory acts of worship encouraged to earn additional spiritual rewards and emulate the practices of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). These fasts supplement the obligatory fasting of Ramadan and are performed on specific days throughout the lunar calendar, each associated with particular virtues derived from authentic hadiths. They emphasize devotion, self-discipline, and seeking Allah's forgiveness without imposing the same strict requirements as Ramadan. One of the most emphasized voluntary fasts is observing six days in the month of Shawwal immediately following Ramadan. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) stated, "Whoever fasts Ramadan and then follows it with six days of Shawwal, it will be as if he fasted for the entire year," highlighting the multiplied reward equivalent to a lifetime of fasting due to the principle that good deeds are rewarded tenfold. This practice is supported by narrations in Sahih Muslim and is recommended consecutively after Eid al-Fitr, provided it does not cause harm. Fasting on Mondays and Thursdays each week is another highly recommended sunnah, as the Prophet (peace be upon him) regularly observed these days. Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet said, "Deeds are presented on Monday and Thursday, so I like my deeds to be presented while I am fasting," linking the practice to the timing of divine accounting for actions. This weekly fast fosters consistent piety and is permissible even if it coincides with other voluntary days, as long as one avoids overexertion. The , the 9th of Dhul-Hijjah, holds immense virtue for non-pilgrims, with recommended to expiate sins. The (peace be upon him) said, " on the expiates the sins of the previous year and the coming year," as narrated by Abu Qatadah in . This fast is particularly meritorious, second only to in reward, and underscores the day's role in seeking forgiveness ahead of . on the , the 10th of Muharram, commemorates significant historical events and offers expiation for minor sins. The (peace be upon him) encouraged this day and the preceding 9th, stating, " the day of , I hope that Allah will accept it as expiation for the year that came before," according to a narration in . Initially observed upon the 's arrival in , it was later paired with the 9th to differentiate from Jewish practices. The white days, or ayyam al-beed, refer to the 13th, 14th, and 15th of each , when the is at its fullest, symbolizing purity. The (peace be upon him) advised, "If you fast any days, then fast these three days of each month," as reported by Abu Dharr in , equating such to a year's worth of rewards due to multiplication. These days are ideal for monthly voluntary , promoting ongoing spiritual renewal. Voluntary fasts must avoid certain prohibited days to maintain their validity, such as the two Eids ( and ) and the three days following , as the Prophet (peace be upon him) explicitly forbade fasting on these occasions of celebration and gratitude. Overall, these recommended fasts are limited by the principle of avoiding harm to one's , ensuring they enhance rather than burden the observer's well-being.

Prohibited and Expiatory Fasts

In Islamic jurisprudence, fasting is explicitly prohibited on certain days to emphasize celebration, communal joy, and the avoidance of excessive asceticism that could lead to social isolation. The two major festivals, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, are unanimously forbidden for fasting, whether the fast is obligatory or voluntary, as established by prophetic traditions. This ruling stems from hadiths where the Prophet Muhammad stated that fasting is not permissible on the day of Eid al-Fitr—the day marking the end of Ramadan fasting—and Eid al-Adha—the day of sacrifice—nor on the subsequent days of Tashriq, which are the 11th, 12th, and 13th of Dhul-Hijjah. These days are designated for feasting, gratitude, and participation in rituals like animal sacrifice and communal prayers, promoting balance between devotion and enjoyment rather than prolonged abstinence. The prohibition extends to the three Tashriq days following , during which pilgrims at Mina traditionally stone the devil and consume sacrificial meat, reinforcing themes of abundance and festivity. Scholars across major schools of , including Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali, agree on this interdiction to prevent the transformation of joyous occasions into periods of restraint, which could undermine the spiritual and social objectives of these festivals. While some opinions debate fasting on Fridays or Saturdays outside obligatory contexts, the core consensus remains firmly on the Eid and Tashriq days, with the rationale rooted in maintaining equilibrium in worship and averting extremes of that characterized pre-Islamic or overly ascetic practices. Expiatory fasts, or kaffara, serve as compensatory acts for specific transgressions, such as violating an oath or intentionally breaking an obligatory fast during Ramadan, and must adhere to strict fiqh guidelines including avoidance of prohibited days. For breaking an oath (yamin), the Quran mandates expiation through feeding ten needy persons, clothing ten, freeing a believing slave, or—should these be infeasible—fasting three consecutive days, highlighting fasting as a merciful alternative for the less affluent. In cases of deliberate invalidation of a Ramadan fast without excuse, kaffara requires freeing a slave, fasting sixty consecutive days, or feeding sixty needy persons, with the fasting option prioritized for its penitential value but only if uninterrupted by illness, menstruation, or prohibited dates like the Eids. Fiqh scholars emphasize that kaffara fasts, even for grave sins like intentional fast-breaking, are permissible as atonement but cannot commence or continue on prohibited days; interruption by an Eid, for instance, necessitates restarting the sequence to preserve consecutiveness and validity. This rule underscores the religion's holistic approach, allowing redemptive fasting for major infractions while safeguarding celebratory periods from obligatory abstinence. Historically, such regulations trace to prophetic guidance aimed at curbing ascetic overindulgence, ensuring that expiation fosters without conflicting with communal rites of joy.

Spiritual Dimensions

Personal and Communal Benefits

Fasting in Islam fosters taqwa, or God-consciousness, by encouraging believers to exercise self-control over their physical desires, thereby deepening their awareness of divine commands and ethical living. This practice, as outlined in the Quran (Surah Al-Baqarah 2:183), prescribes fasting to attain righteousness, where abstaining from food, drink, and other impulses during daylight hours builds spiritual discipline and protects the heart from worldly distractions. Scholars emphasize that this self-restraint transforms routine hardships into opportunities for moral growth, balancing fear of divine accountability with hope for spiritual elevation. On a personal level, fasting cultivates for the less fortunate by simulating the pangs of and , prompting reflection on the struggles of the impoverished and encouraging gratitude for sustenance. It serves as a purification of the soul, acting like a spiritual cleanse that removes impurities and sins accumulated through daily lapses, allowing for renewed focus on devotion. Additionally, the of heightens concentration during prayers, enabling deeper engagement with and a stronger connection to the divine. Communally, fasting strengthens bonds through shared experiences, such as collective prayers in mosques that unite diverse members of the ummah in synchronized devotion and reinforce a sense of belonging. The tradition of zakat al-fitr, an obligatory charity given at the end of the fasting period, ensures that even the needy can celebrate, promoting social equity and generosity within the community. Family iftars, the evening meals breaking the fast, further nurture interpersonal ties by bringing households together in rituals of patience and joy, enhancing emotional solidarity. In Sufi traditions, fasting extends to mystical dimensions, where it disciplines not only the body but also the senses—such as guarding the eyes and tongue from excess—to purify the inner self and draw nearer to . Early Sufi literature portrays this abstinence as a pathway to spiritual ecstasy and union with God, emphasizing its role in transcending material attachments for profound intimacy with the Divine.

Theological Significance

Fasting, known as sawm in Arabic, constitutes the third pillar of Islam, embodying a profound act of worship that reinforces —the absolute oneness of —and fosters complete submission () to His divine commands. This pillar, alongside the testimony of faith, , charity, and pilgrimage, structures the Muslim's devotional life, with fasting specifically cultivating (God-consciousness or piety), as stated in the : "O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you, that you may become righteous" ( 2:183). Through abstaining from food, drink, and other physical indulgences from dawn to sunset during , believers actively demonstrate reliance on God's sustenance, aligning their will with divine authority and affirming God's singular sovereignty over all creation. The theological significance of fasting is further illuminated by its continuity with the practices of earlier prophets, underscoring Islam's role as the culmination of monotheistic traditions. The Quranic prescription of fasting explicitly links it to the communities of prophets such as and , who engaged in similar acts of devotion and self-denial to draw closer to God. For instance, fasted for forty days and nights in preparation for receiving the on , an event echoed in Islamic tradition as a model of prophetic (Quran 7:142, interpreted in hadith literature). Likewise, is revered in Islam as a prophet who advocated fasting, with the affirming that such practices were ordained for the to attain spiritual purification and divine favor (Quran 2:183). This prophetic emulation positions sawm not merely as a but as a timeless means of emulating the submission exemplified by God's messengers across history. Eschatologically, fasting holds immense rewards, promising forgiveness of sins and ultimate entry into paradise for those who observe it with sincere intention. A well-authenticated hadith narrates the Prophet Muhammad stating, "Whoever fasts Ramadan with faith and seeking [Allah's] reward will have whatever preceded of his sin forgiven," highlighting its role in spiritual atonement and preparation for the afterlife. On the Day of Judgment, the fasted deeds are said to intercede for the believer, shielding them from the Fire and securing paradise, as fasting is uniquely "for Allah" and recompensed directly by Him without measure (Sahih al-Bukhari 1894). These promises underscore fasting's salvific dimension, transforming it into a pathway for eternal redemption. In Islamic theological discourse (), fasting is interpreted as a form of jihad al-nafs—the greater struggle against the lower self ()—involving the disciplined conquest of base desires to elevate the soul toward divine proximity. Theologians emphasize that this inner jihad purifies the heart from egoism and worldly attachments, aligning with the Quranic goal of and representing the most profound battle for spiritual mastery. By subduing hunger, thirst, and impulses, the faster wages war on the self's inclinations, achieving a state of moral and spiritual triumph that theologians like describe as essential for true faith.

Health and Physiological Impacts

Potential Health Benefits

Islamic fasting, particularly during Ramadan, aligns with practices and has been associated with several potential benefits supported by scientific research. As a form of time-restricted , it promotes by creating a and enhancing fat , with a reported a significant weight loss of approximately 1.24 kg (95% CI -1.60 to -0.88 kg) during Ramadan fasting among participants. However, meta-analyses indicate that most of this weight is regained within a few weeks after Ramadan. Improved insulin sensitivity is another key benefit, as fasting lowers postprandial glucose excursions and enhances beta-cell function, potentially reducing the risk of ; studies indicate improvements in insulin sensitivity during Ramadan fasting. Cellular repair through is also upregulated, where fasting induces lysosomal degradation of damaged components, supporting metabolic and pathways in and models. Further evidence from meta-analyses highlights reductions in and improvements in profiles. Ramadan fasting decreases pro-inflammatory cytokines like , contributing to reduced and lowers LDL cholesterol while raising HDL, contributing to cardiovascular protection; these effects are more pronounced in individuals with . On the mental health front, fasting fosters enhanced self-discipline through structured abstinence, which strengthens willpower and cognitive control as per psychological assessments. It also aids in stress reduction via regulation, with studies reporting lowered evening levels and decreased anxiety scores post-fasting, alongside reduced depressive symptoms in meta-analyses of healthy adults. To maximize these benefits, nutritional strategies for suhoor and iftar emphasize balanced intake. Suhoor should include complex carbohydrates (e.g., oats or whole grains), proteins (e.g., eggs or ), and healthy fats (e.g., nuts) to sustain and stabilize throughout the day, as recommended by health organizations. Iftar meals benefit from starting with dates and water for hydration, followed by fiber-rich vegetables, lean proteins, and moderate portions to avoid while supporting repletion and gut health. These practices help mitigate potential energy dips and enhance overall physiological adaptations during the fast.

Risks and Medical Considerations

Fasting during Ramadan carries potential health risks, primarily and , which can be intensified in hot climates where fluid loss through accelerates. arises from the abstinence from and fluids during daylight hours, potentially leading to symptoms like , , and impaired cognitive function if not managed properly. , characterized by low blood sugar levels, poses a particular threat to individuals with , as irregular meal patterns can disrupt glucose control and increase the likelihood of severe episodes. For those with diabetes, additional complications may include , , and , with studies showing a 4.7-fold increase in severe risk among patients with and a 7.5-fold increase for who fast. These risks are compounded by factors such as timing and environmental heat, necessitating pre-Ramadan medical evaluation to assess suitability. In hot climates, the combination of fasting and elevated temperatures further heightens and imbalances, potentially straining cardiovascular and renal systems. Recent 2025 guidance from the World Health Organization's Regional Office highlights the importance of monitoring chronic conditions like and respiratory diseases during , urging adherence to tailored guidelines to prevent exacerbations. The British Islamic Medical Association's Ramadan Compendium similarly stresses vigilant health oversight for those with ongoing illnesses, recommending individualized risk assessments to avoid adverse outcomes. These updates emphasize proactive consultation with healthcare providers to balance spiritual observance with medical safety. To mitigate , experts advise consuming 8 to 12 cups of lukewarm water between and Suhoor, prioritizing gradual rehydration to restore without overwhelming the body. Breaking the fast is recommended immediately upon experiencing severe symptoms, such as blood glucose below 70 mg/dL, , disorientation, or fainting, to avert complications like seizures or falls; compensatory fasts can be observed later under medical guidance. Interactions between fasting and medications require careful adjustment, with chronic therapies like antihypertensives or antidiabetics ideally timed for non-fasting periods between and Suhoor to maintain efficacy and minimize disruptions. For vulnerable groups such as the elderly and pregnant individuals—who are often exempt from due to frailty or fetal concerns— may lead to maternal , , and reduced , warranting physician consultation and potential exemptions. Elderly patients with chronic conditions should prioritize hydration and symptom monitoring, while pregnant women are advised to avoid if it risks complications like preterm labor.

Special and Contemporary Contexts

Challenges in Polar Regions

Observing the fast of in polar regions presents unique logistical and religious challenges due to extreme variations in daylight, where the traditional markers of dawn (fajr) and sunset (maghrib) become unreliable or absent. In the and , the midnight sun during summer months results in continuous daylight for periods lasting up to six months, preventing the natural onset of twilight that signals the end of the fast. Conversely, polar nights bring prolonged darkness, complicating the identification of dawn for the pre-dawn meal (suhoor). These phenomena disrupt the Quranic prescription for fasting from dawn until sunset, as outlined in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:187), forcing to seek scholarly guidance to maintain the obligation without compromising its spiritual intent. Islamic scholars have issued fatwas to address these issues, emphasizing adaptability through (independent reasoning) while preserving the fast's core requirements of () and abstinence. Prominent rulings include following the prayer and fasting timetable of , , which provides a stable equatorial reference point with consistent day-night cycles, or aligning with the nearest location outside the where sunrise and sunset occur normally. Some fatwas advocate for standardized durations, such as fasting 12 to 18 hours based on and rather than astronomical events, interpreting subtle changes in light intensity—such as relative fading during the midnight sun—as proxies for twilight. These approaches ensure the fast remains obligatory and valid, avoiding exemptions that could undermine communal practice. Historical precedents trace back to early Muslim encounters with polar-like conditions, such as the 10th-century traveler Ibn Fadlan, whose account of the Volga Bulghars during "white nights" highlighted difficulties in determining prayer times, a challenge analogous to modern fasting dilemmas. In contemporary settings, Muslim communities in Norway's Tromsø—home to around 1,000 Muslims as of 2013, primarily Somali immigrants—adopt Mecca's schedule; for example, in 2013 when Ramadan coincided with perpetual daylight, they began the fast at approximately 5:00 a.m. local time and broke it at 7:07 p.m. Similarly, early 20th-century Muslim settlers in Canada's Lac La Biche, Alberta, where about 10% of the population was Muslim by 1969, navigated subarctic conditions by adapting timings to regional norms, fostering resilient practices amid isolation. In 2024, with Ramadan falling in spring, Arctic Muslims experienced fasting periods of about 12-14 hours, similar to equatorial regions, and continued using these established methods. Proposed solutions also include using mechanical clocks set to equatorial times or estimating based on the 45th parallel, where day and night are roughly equal, to simulate traditional cycles without relying on local solar observations.

Adaptations for Modern Lifestyles

In contemporary society, across multiple time zones presents unique challenges for observing the fast, prompting specific adaptations in . Scholars rule that the timing for breaking the fast (iftar) should correspond to the sunset at the traveler's current location, such as the position of the or the destination upon landing. For instance, if a flight departs and the is to complete the day's fast, one refrains from eating until sunset occurs according to the locality where the plane is situated at that moment. When traveling eastward, the fast is maintained until sunset at the arrival point, while westward travel allows breaking it upon local sunset, even if delayed. These rulings ensure alignment with solar observations while accommodating high-speed transit. Individuals working shift jobs, including night shifts, adapt by adhering to the dawn and sunset times of their local residence or workplace, irrespective of inverted sleep schedules. Fiqh opinions emphasize that employment demands do not justify breaking the fast unless the physical exertion is extreme, in which case compensation (qada') is required afterward. Night shift workers typically rest during daylight hours while and consume meals post-sunset during off-duty periods, mirroring the standard solar-based cycle. This approach upholds the obligation without altering core timings, promoting resilience in professional commitments. Digital innovations have streamlined fasting observance globally, with mobile applications providing precise calculations for prayer times, notifications, and moon sightings essential for Ramadan's commencement. Tools like the Muslim Pro app integrate GPS for location-specific dawn and sunset alerts, while platforms such as moonsighting.com offer visibility predictions to assist in verifying crescent sightings. These resources foster coordination across , as bodies like the Fiqh Council of North America advocate for standardized global sighting protocols to unify fasting starts and ends, reducing discrepancies among diverse Muslim communities. Since 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced fasting practices by highlighting flexibilities in modern work environments, particularly remote and hybrid setups. Islamic authorities, including Egypt's Dar al-Ifta, have issued guidance promoting adjustable schedules to support fasters, such as shortened workdays or virtual meetings that minimize fatigue before iftar. This era saw increased adoption of online tools for communal aspects, enabling remote workers to balance professional duties with timely suhoor and iftar preparations, thereby sustaining observance amid disruptions.

References

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