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Outline of Islam
Outline of Islam
Outline of Islam
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Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs
Practices
History
Culture and society
Related topics

Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah)[1] and that Muhammad is His last Messenger.[2][3]

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Islam.

Beliefs

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Part of a series on
Aqidah
Sunni
Six Articles of Iman
Five Pillars of Islam
Schools of theology
Shi'a
Basic Tenets of Faith
Theology of the Twelvers4, 5
Theology of the Ismailis6
Theology of the Zaydis
Muhakkima
Theology of the Ibadis
Other variants

Including:

Islam portal

Aqidah

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Main article: Aqidah
Allah
God in Islam
Tawhid, Oneness of God
Repentance in Islam
Islamic views on sin
Shirk, Partnership and Idolatory
Haram
Kufr
Bid‘ah

Sunni / Ibadi / Ahmadiyya

Shia Twelvers

Shia Ismaili

Prophets

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This article is part of
a series about
Muhammad
Life
Career
Miracles
Views and Perspectives
Succession
Praise
Related

Scripture

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Quran
History
Manuscripts
Divisions
Content
Reading
Translations
Exegesis
Characteristics
Related
Part of a series on
Hadith
Hadith studies
Collections
Sunni1
Kutub Al-Sittah
("The Six Books")
Sahih al-Bukhari صحيح البخاري
Sahih Muslim صحيح مسلم
Sunan Abi Dawud سنن أبي داود
Sunan al-Tirmidhi سنن الترمذي
Sunan al-Nasa'i سنن النسائي
Sunan ibn Majah سنن ابن ماجه
Others
Al-Adab al-Mufrad
Al-Jami al-Kamil
Kanz al-Ummal
Kitab al-Athar
Majma al-Zawa'id
Mu'jam al-Awsat
Mu'jam al-Kabeer
Mu'jam al-Saghir
Musannaf Abd al-Razzaq
Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah
Musnad Abu Awanah
Musnad Abu Hanifa
Musnad Abu Ya'la
Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Musnad_al-Bazzar
Musnad al-Shafi'i
Musnad al-Siraj
Musnad al-Firdous
Musnad al-Tayalisi
Musnad Humaidi
Musnad Ishaq ibn Rahwayh
Mustadrak ala al-Sahihayn
Muwatta Imam Malik
Sahih Ibn Hibban
Sahih Ibn Khuzaymah
Sahifah Hammam ibn Munabbih
Shama'il al-Muhammadiyya
Sunan al-Kubra Bayhaqi
Sunan al-Wusta Bayhaqi
Sunan al-Daraqutni
Sunan al-Darimi
Sunan Nasa'i al-Kubra
Sunan Sa'id ibn Mansur
Shu'ab al-Iman
Tahdhib al-Athar
Targhib wal Tarhib
Shia
Al-Kutub Al-Arb'ah
("The Four Books")
Kitab al-Kafi الكتاب الكافي
من لا يحضره الفقيه
Tahdhib al-Ahkam تهذیب الاحکام
Al-Istibsar الاستبصار
Others
Al-Wafi
Wasa'il al-Shia
Mustadrak al-wasa'il
Bihar al-Anwar
Nahj al-Balagha
The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays
Al-Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya
Risalah al-Huquq
Sahifah of al-Ridha
Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah
Da'a'im al-Islam
Uyoun Akhbar Al-Ridha
Haqq al-Yaqeen
Ain Al-Hayat
Al-Ghadir
Ibadi
Related topics
Islam portal • Category

Denominational specifics

[edit]
Part of a series on
Ali
Ali
Views
Life
Legacy
Perspectives
Burial places
Related articles

Practice

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Denominational specifics

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Schools and branches

[edit]
Islam by country Sunni Shias   Ibadi
Distribution of Sunni, Shia, Quranist, Ibadi, and Nondenominational Muslim branches
Part of a series on
Sunni Islam
Beliefs
Five Pillars
Rashidun Caliphs

Others

Schools of law

Others

Schools of theology

In terms of Ihsan:

Contemporary movements
Holy sites
Lists
Islam portal
Part of a series on:
Salafi movement
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque, Qatar
Theology and Influences
Founders and key figures
Notable universities
Related ideologies
Associated organizations
Salafi jihadist groups

icon Politics portal

Islam portal

Philosophy

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Theology

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Law

[edit]
Part of a series on
Islamic jurisprudence
(fiqh)
Ritual
Shahada
Salah
Sawm
Zakat
Hajj
Political
Family
Marriage
Sexual
Criminal
Etiquette
Economic
History
Zakat
Banking
Inheritance
Hygiene
Dietary
Military
Social
Islamic studies

Hadith

[edit]
Main article
Hadith
Important Sunni Hadith
Kutub al-Sittah
Sahih al-Bukhari
Sahih Muslim
Al-Sunan al-Sughra
Sunan Abu Dawood
Jami` at-Tirmidhi
Sunan ibn Majah
Important Shia Hadith
The Four Books
Kitab al-Kafi
Man la yahduruhu al-Faqih
Tahdhib al-Ahkam
Al-Istibsar
Hadith Collectors
Muhammad al-Bukhari
Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj
Abu Dawood
Commentary for Sahih al-Bukhari
Fath al-Bari
Related
Hadith studies
Hadith terminology

The supernatural in Islam

[edit]
Islamic Concept of God
God in Islam
Names of God in Islam
Allah
The Light before the Material World
Nūr (Islam)
Muhammad in Islam
Al-Insān al-Kāmil
Holy Spirit in Islam
Miracles
Islamic view of miracles
Quran and miracles
Challenge of the Quran
Miracles of Muhammad
Saints
The Angels
Angels in Islam
Alam al Jabarut
Archangel
Artiya'il
Azrael
Cherub
Darda'il
Gabriel
Habib
Harut and Marut
Illiyin
Israfil, Raphael (archangel)
Jannah
Kiraman Katibin
Michael (archangel)
Mu'aqqibat, Hafaza, The Guardian angels
Recording angel
Riḍwan
Seraph
Beings and Forces in ordinary life
Asmodeus
Barakah
Al-Baqarah
Al-Ikhlas
Al-Mu'awwidhatayn
Al-Falaq
Al-Nas
Adhan
Throne Verse, also known as Al-Baqara 255 and Ayatul Kursi
Evil eye
Hatif
Hinn (mythology)
Ifrit
Jinn
Sura Al-Jinn
Exorcism in Islam
Ful-filling Fard
Preventing Major Sins
Removing Haram objects from body and Home
Destroying suspicious magical items, Ta'wiz, Talisman, Amulet
Stop giving information to suspects, Fortune-tellers, Magicians
Marid
Magic (paranormal)
Malakut
Peri
Qalb
Qareen
Solomon in Islam
Death and Human spirit
Barzakh
Illiyin
Islamic view of death
Munkar and Nakir
Nāzi'āt and Nāshiṭāt
Nafs
Rūḥ
Fallen Angels, Devils and Hell
As-Sirāt
Azazil
Dajjal
Div
Falak (Arabian legend)
Fallen angel
Iblis
Jahannam
Maalik
Nar as Samum
Shaitan
Sijjin
Zabaniyya
Zaqqum

Islamic Legends

[edit]
Adam in Islam
Akhirah
Al-Safa and Al-Marwah
Azazel
Azrael
Barzakh
Beast of the Earth
Biblical and Quranic narratives
Biblical figures in Islamic tradition
Black Standard
Black Stone
Cain and Abel in Islam
Crescent
Darda'il
Devil (Islam)
Dhul-Qarnayn
Dome of the Rock
Foundation Stone
Gabriel
Gog and Magog
Green in Islam
Hafaza
Hajj
Harut and Marut
Hateem
Holy Spirit (Islam)
Ishmael in Islam
Islamic eschatology
Islamic flags
Islamic view of angels
Islamic view of Jesus' death
Isra and Mi'raj
Israfil
Jahannam
Jannah
Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam
Jesus in Islam
Kaaba
Khidr
Kiraman Katibin
Kiswah
Maalik
Mahdi
Mary in Islam
Masih ad-Dajjal
Michael (archangel)
Moses in Islam
Mu'aqqibat
Munkar and Nakir
Noah in Islam
Queen of Sheba
Raphael (archangel)
Recording angel
Ridwan (name)
Rub el Hizb
Sarah
Satan
Solomon in Islam
Star and crescent
Symbols of Islam
Tawaf
The Occultation
Well of Souls
Zamzam Well
Zaqqum

History

[edit]
Timeline of 6th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 7th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 8th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 9th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 10th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 11th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 12th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 13th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 14th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 15th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 20th-century Muslim history
Timeline of 21st-century Muslim history

History of Islam by topic

[edit]

Society

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Today
(at UTC+00)
Sunday
Gregorian calendar9 November, AD 2025
Islamic calendar18 Jumada al-awwal, AH 1447
(using tabular method)
Hebrew calendar18 Cheshvan, AM 5786
Coptic calendar30 Paopi, AM 1742
Solar Hijri calendar18 Aban, SH 1404
Bengali calendar24 Kartik (month), BS 1432
Julian calendar27 October, AD 2025

Places

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Culture

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Politics

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Muslim world

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The Muslim population of the world map by percentage of each country, according to the Pew Forum (assessed on 29 June 2014).
Islam by country
World percentage of Muslims by country
Africa
Asia
Americas
Europe
Oceania
Islam portal

People

[edit]

Key religious figures

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Prophets and messengers in the Qur'an
Name Prophet Messenger Ulul'Azm Book Sent to Law (Sharia) Judeo-Christian Equivalent Chronological Order
Harun ✓[4] Aaron 15
Ibrahim ✓[5] ✓[6] ✓[7] Scrolls of Abraham[8] The people of Ibrahim[9] ✓[10] Abraham 6
Adam/Aadam ✓[11] Adam 1
Da'ud ✓[12] Zabur (Psalms)[13] David 17
Ilias ✓[12] ✓[14] The people of Elias[15] Elijah 19
Alyasa ✓[12] Elisha 20
Idris ✓[16] Enoch 2
Dhul-Kifl ✓[17] Ezekiel 16
Hud ✓[18] ✓[18] ʿĀd[19] Eber 4
Is'haq ✓[20] Isaac 9
Isma'il ✓[21] ✓[21] Ishmael 8
Yaqub ✓[20] Jacob 10
Shuaib ✓[22] ✓[22] Midian[23] Jethro 13
Isa ✓[24] ✓[25] ✓[26][27] Injil (Gospel)[28] The people of Israel[29] ✓[10] Jesus 24
Ayyub ✓[30] Job 12
Yahya ✓[31] John the Baptist 23
Yusuf ✓[30] ✓[32] Joseph 11
Younis ✓[12] ✓[33] The people of Younis[34] Jonah 21
Lut ✓[35] ✓[36] The people of Lot[37] Lot 7
Nuh ✓[12] ✓[38] ✓[26][27] The people of Noah[39] ✓[10] Noah 3
Muhammad ✓[40][41] ✓[42] ✓[7] Quran[43] Whole Mankind and Jinn[44] ✓[10] 25
Musa ✓[45] ✓[45] ✓[26][27] Tawrah (Torah)[46] Pharaoh and his establishment[47] ✓[10] Moses 14
Salih ✓[48] ✓[48] Thamud[49] Salah 5
Sulaiman ✓[12] Solomon 18
Zakariyyah ✓[12] Zechariah 22

Muhammad

[edit]

Sahabah

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Ashara e mubashra
Hadith of the ten promised paradise
Abu Bakr
Umar
Uthman ibn Affan
Ali
Talhah
Az-Zubair
Abdur Rahman bin Awf
Sa'd bin Abi Waqqas
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah
Sa'id ibn Zayd
Most hadith narrating sahabah
Abu Hurairah
Abdullah Ibn Umar
Anas ibn Malik
Aisha
Abd Allah ibn Abbas
Jabir ibn Abd Allah
Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri
Abdullah ibn Masud
'Abd Allah ibn 'Amr ibn al-'As
Umar
[edit]
Uthman
[edit]


Denominational specifics

[edit]

Sunni Islam

[edit]
  • List of Sunni Islamic scholars by schools of jurisprudence


Deobandi
[edit]
Barelvi
[edit]

Shia Islam

[edit]
  • List of Shia Imams
Imami Twelver
[edit]
The Fourteen Infallibles
Imami Ismailism
[edit]
Alevism
[edit]

Key figures

Islamism

[edit]

Key ideologues

Modernist Salafism

[edit]

Salafi movement

[edit]

Sufism

[edit]

List of Muslims by topic

[edit]

Historical

[edit]
  • List of honored women in Islam
    • List of Ayyubid sultans and emirs
    • List of Mamluk sultans
    • List of Ghaznavid sultans
    • Grand Viziers of the Safavid Empire
    • Viziers of the Samanid Empire
    [edit]

    Professional

    [edit]

    Regional

    [edit]

    See also

    [edit]

    References

    [edit]
    [edit]
    Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

    Outline of Islam

    View on Grokipedia
    from Grokipedia
    Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic founded in the early CE in , Arabia, by the prophet , whom adherents believe received divine revelations from (God) through the angel , compiled in the as the final and unaltered scripture superseding prior revelations to prophets including Abraham, , and . Central to Islamic doctrine is , the absolute oneness and transcendence of , alongside beliefs in Muhammad's prophethood as the seal of prophets, the existence of angels, divine scriptures, the Day of Judgment with accountability for deeds, and divine predestination tempered by human responsibility. The , viewed by Muslims as verbatim divine speech in Arabic, serves as the primary source of guidance, supplemented by the —Muhammad's reported sayings, actions, and approvals preserved in collections—forming the basis for (Islamic law) that governs personal conduct, family relations, economics, and governance in varying degrees across Muslim societies. The Five Pillars constitute the foundational acts of worship and practice: the (profession of faith: "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger"), salat (five daily ritual prayers facing Mecca), zakat (obligatory almsgiving to the needy), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca at least once if able). These pillars emphasize submission (islam literally meaning "submission" to God's will), communal solidarity, and discipline, though their observance and interpretation differ amid diverse cultural contexts and jurisprudential schools. Historically, Islam expanded rapidly after Muhammad's death in 632 CE through military conquests establishing caliphates that spanned from Iberia to by the , facilitated by routes, tribal alliances, and incentives like lower taxes for converts over time, though initial growth relied heavily on Arab-led armies subduing Byzantine and Sassanid territories. The faith's major arose from disputes over succession, yielding (about 85-90% of Muslims, emphasizing consensus via Muhammad's companions and caliphs) and (stressing by divinely appointed imams from Muhammad's , beginning with ), with ongoing doctrinal, , and political divergences, including Shiite of imams and distinct hadith corpora. Islam's defining characteristics include its emphasis on (global community transcending ethnicity), scriptural literalism in orthodoxy, and adaptive legal traditions like the four Sunni madhhabs (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), which have influenced empires, , and conflicts; notable achievements encompass medieval advancements in , , and under Abbasid patronage, while controversies persist over interpretations (from defensive struggle to expansionist warfare), penalties, roles under , and compatibility with secular governance in modern nation-states.

    Historical Foundations

    Origins and Life of Muhammad

    ibn Abdullah, the founder of , was born around 570 CE in , a commercial hub in the Hijaz region of western Arabia controlled by the tribe, to which he belonged through the [Banu Hashim](/page/Banu Hashim) clan. His father, Abdullah, died before his birth, and his mother, , passed away when he was approximately six years old, leaving him orphaned and raised first by his grandfather Abdul Muttalib and then by his uncle Abu Talib, a merchant who protected him amid tribal politics and polytheistic practices centered on the shrine. As a young adult, Muhammad engaged in trade caravans to , earning a reputation for trustworthiness that led to employment by the wealthy widow , whom he married around 595 CE at age 25 while she was about 40; their union produced at least four daughters and two sons who died young, with remaining his sole wife until her death in 619 CE. In his late 30s, troubled by Mecca's social inequalities, , and moral decay, he retreated for contemplation to the Cave of Hira on near . Around 610 CE, at age 40, experienced what Islamic tradition describes as the first revelation: the angel commanded him to "recite" (iqra), delivering initial verses later incorporated into the ( 96:1-5), marking the start of his prophethood claim as the final messenger in Abrahamic lineage. He confided initially in , who supported him and consulted her cousin Waraqa, a Christian familiar with scriptures, affirming the event's divine nature; early converts included , his cousin (age 10), adopted son Zayd, and friend . Over 13 years in (610-622 CE), he preached (), social , and rejection of idols, attracting about 150 followers but facing hostility from elites who saw threats to their economic and religious dominance, leading to boycotts, , and the deaths of some adherents like Bilal's and Sumayyah's martyrdom, the first in . Facing assassination plots, migrated (Hijra) in 622 CE to Yathrib (renamed ), invited as an arbiter among feuding tribes; this event defines the Islamic calendar's start and established the first Muslim community (), formalized in the , a pact allying Muslims, local , and pagans under his leadership for mutual defense. In , he unified tribes, directed raids on Meccan caravans to pressure economically, and fought defensive battles: Badr (March 624 CE), where 313 Muslims defeated 1,000 , killing 70 including leaders like Abu Jahl (victory attributed to divine aid in 3:123); Uhud (March 625 CE), a tactical loss due to archers' disobedience, with wounded and 70 Muslims killed; and the (627 CE), where a by 10,000 confederates failed amid harsh weather, followed by the execution of Jewish males (estimated 400-900) for alleged treason. The 628 CE Treaty of Hudaybiyyah with allowed pilgrimage access but appeared unequal, yet enabled peaceful conversions, swelling Muslim ranks to 10,000; violated by allies, it prompted the bloodless in January 630 CE, where granted amnesty, destroyed idols in the , and declared it a monotheistic , consolidating Arabian tribal allegiances. He returned for the in 632 CE, delivering a emphasizing equality, , and unity, before falling ill and dying on June 8, 632 CE in at age 62, buried in his wife Aisha's house adjacent to what became the ; his death triggered succession disputes between Abu Bakr's and Ali's claims, initiating Sunni-Shia division. The biography relies primarily on 8th-9th century Islamic sources like Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah (d. 767 CE, edited by Ibn Hisham) and hadith compilations (e.g., Sahih Bukhari, c. 846 CE), transmitted orally before compilation, which critical scholars view as potentially embellished for theological purposes but corroborated in core outline by 7th-century inscriptions mentioning "Muhammad" as prophet (e.g., 634 CE Syrian stone) and Byzantine/ Armenian chronicles referencing an Arabian leader by 640 CE, affirming his historical existence amid sparse contemporary records.

    Early Islamic Conquests and Caliphates

    Following the death of Muhammad on June 8, 632 CE, Abu Bakr was selected as the first caliph through consultation among prominent companions in Medina, establishing the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 CE), a period of elective leadership by the "rightly guided" caliphs. Abu Bakr's initial challenge was the Ridda Wars (632–633 CE), a series of campaigns against Arabian tribes that renounced Islam, withheld zakat tribute, or followed false prophets like Musaylima ibn Habib and Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid, viewing these as threats to central authority and religious unity. Forces under commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid suppressed these revolts, with key victories including the Battle of Yamama in December 632 CE, where Musaylima was killed amid heavy casualties estimated at 1,200–7,000 Muslims and up to 21,000 rebels. By mid-633 CE, these wars consolidated Arabia under caliphal control, enabling outward expansion by enforcing Islamic governance and resource extraction for further campaigns. Under the second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab (r. 634–644 CE), the conquests accelerated against the exhausted Byzantine and Sassanid empires, weakened by mutual warfare, the (541–542 CE aftermath), and internal strife. In the , Muslim armies of approximately 20,000–40,000 defeated Byzantine forces at the Battle of Yarmouk (August 636 CE), leading to the capture of Damascus (September 636 CE), (638 CE under a pact allowing ), and most of by 640 CE. Simultaneously, in , the (late 636 CE) routed Sassanid armies, followed by the fall of their capital (March 637 CE) and the defeat of Emperor at (642 CE), effectively dismantling the Sassanid state. was invaded in 639 CE, with surrendering in 642 CE after sieges, yielding tribute and strategic ports; these victories, driven by mobile Arab cavalry tactics and religious motivation, expanded the to over 2.2 million square miles by Umar's death, incorporating diverse populations under tax for non-Muslims. The third caliph, ibn Affan (r. 644–656 CE), extended frontiers into , (649 CE raid), and initial North African incursions, standardizing the to unify doctrine amid growing administrative strains. His assassination in 656 CE sparked the civil war, during which ibn Abi Talib (r. 656–661 CE), the fourth caliph and Muhammad's cousin, faced rebellions from Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan in and the , culminating in Ali's murder in 661 CE and the caliphate's shift to hereditary rule under the (661–750 CE), founded by . The Umayyads, based in , pursued further conquests, completing by 709 CE through campaigns against Berber resistance, and invading the of in 711 CE under , who crossed the with 7,000–12,000 troops, defeating King at the (July 711 CE) and capturing Toledo, establishing . These expansions, reaching the Indus Valley by 712 CE, relied on Arab settler garrisons () and fiscal incentives like land grants, but sowed seeds of overextension and ethnic tensions between and mawali converts.

    Major Eras of Expansion and Division

    The (632–661 CE), led by the first four successors to —, , , and —witnessed the initial explosive expansion of Islamic rule, conquering the Byzantine provinces of (by 636 CE at the Battle of Yarmouk), , and (by 642 CE), as well as the Sassanid Persian Empire (by 651 CE following the ). These conquests, driven by tribal Arab armies motivated by religious zeal and economic incentives, transformed a fragmented polity into an empire spanning over 2 million square miles within three decades. This era also initiated profound divisions, notably the (656–661 CE), a civil war sparked by the and disputes over leadership legitimacy, pitting against Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, which entrenched the Sunni-Shia schism rooted in differing views on rightful succession—Sunnis favoring communal election and Shias insisting on Ali's divine designation from . The (661–750 CE), established by Muawiya in , extended Islamic dominion further westward into the and (, conquered by 711 CE under ) and eastward into (712 CE) and , reaching a peak territorial extent of approximately 11 million square kilometers by the early . and Islamization accelerated through administrative centralization and tax incentives for conversion, though non-Arab Muslims (mawali) faced , fueling resentment. Divisions intensified with the Second Fitna (680–692 CE), including the martyrdom of Ali's son Husayn at in 680 CE, which solidified Shia identity around the (Prophet's family) and opposition to Umayyad "usurpation," while Sunni consensus coalesced around the caliphs' political authority. The Abbasid Revolution (747–750 CE), backed by Persian and Shia elements disillusioned with Umayyad Arab favoritism, toppled the dynasty at the , relocating the capital to and ushering in a more cosmopolitan but fragmented era. Under the (750–1258 CE), military expansion waned in favor of intellectual and economic consolidation, with the realm fragmenting into semi-autonomous regions ruled by Turkish mamluks, Buyids, and Seljuks by the 10th century, while emerged in and (909–1171 CE), claiming and challenging Abbasid Sunni orthodoxy. The Mongol sack of in 1258 CE, led by Hulagu Khan, killed Caliph and ended the Abbasid line in , dissolving centralized caliphal authority and paving the way for regional Islamic powers amid widespread devastation that halved the Muslim world's population in affected areas. Subsequent eras featured rival empires accentuating sectarian divides: the Sunni (c. 1299–1924 CE) expanded from into the (conquering in 1453 CE) and Arab lands, claiming the in 1517 CE after defeating the Mamluks and controlling up to 5.2 million square kilometers at its 17th-century zenith under . Concurrently, the Shia Safavid Empire (1501–1736 CE) in Persia enforced as , converting a majority-Sunni population through coercion and clerical alliances, which provoked wars with the Ottomans (e.g., Chaldiran 1514 CE) and institutionalized the Sunni-Shia geopolitical rift persisting into modern conflicts. These dynamics shifted Islamic expansion from conquest to consolidation and rivalry, with no unified until its abolition by in 1924 CE.

    Scriptural and Doctrinal Core

    The Quran as Revelation

    hold that the constitutes the verbatim from () delivered to via the angel over a period of 23 years, from 610 CE to 632 CE. The initial occurred in the Cave of Hira near during the month of in 610 CE, with the command "Iqra" (Recite), marking the surah as the first disclosed. These disclosures, termed wahy, arrived piecemeal in response to events, comprising approximately 114 surahs (chapters) in , emphasizing monotheism, moral guidance, and eschatology. The 's divine origin is asserted through claims of linguistic inimitability () and predictive elements, though these remain interpretive within Islamic rather than empirically verifiable. During Muhammad's lifetime, revelations were primarily transmitted orally, with companions (sahaba) memorizing verses verbatim as huffaz, while scribes like Zaid ibn Thabit recorded them on materials such as palm leaves, bones, and leather. The Prophet reviewed the annually with and twice in the final year, establishing its sequence and abrogation (naskh) of earlier verses by later ones. No complete written existed at his death in 632 CE, relying instead on distributed fragments and , which Islamic tradition credits for initial fidelity but modern examines for potential oral variations. Following heavy losses of memorizers in the Battle of Yamama (632-633 CE), Caliph (r. 632-634 CE) commissioned Zaid ibn Thabit to compile a unified from authenticated written pieces and oral testimonies, cross-verified against multiple witnesses. This , housed with and later Hafsa (Umar's daughter), addressed fears of loss but represented a selective assembly rather than exhaustive reproduction. Under Caliph (r. 644-656 CE), dialectal recitations proliferated amid empire expansion, prompting a standardization committee—again led by Zaid—to produce authoritative copies in the dialect, distributed to major cities, with orders to incinerate divergent variants around 650 CE. This Uthmanic recension forms the basis of all extant Qurans, though early manuscripts like the Birmingham folios (carbon-dated 568-645 CE) exhibit minor orthographic and (consonantal skeleton) differences, indicating a stabilization process involving human curation. The Quran's preservation is upheld in Islamic sources as miraculous, with seven to ten canonical (recitation modes) traced to prophetic approval, yet scholarly of pre-Uthmanic fragments reveals textual fluidity in non-core elements, challenging absolute verbatim uniformity claims while affirming overall consonantal consistency since the 7th century. This historical trajectory underscores a transition from oral-prophetic delivery to codified scripture, where empirical evidence supports remarkable stability post-Uthman but highlights the role of caliphal authority in its final form.

    Articles of Faith and Aqidah

    The articles of faith, or arkan al-iman (pillars of faith), form the core doctrinal beliefs in , comprising six fundamental tenets derived from a hadith in which the Prophet Muhammad defines iman (faith) to the angel Jibril in the presence of companions. This hadith, recorded in (hadith 8), states: "Faith is to believe in , His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and the divine decree, both the good and the evil thereof." These beliefs are obligatory for and underpin aqidah, the systematic Islamic theology that articulates creed through scriptural exegesis and rational defense against deviations. Belief in () asserts the absolute oneness, uniqueness, and sovereignty of , rejecting any partners, associates, or anthropomorphic attributes that compromise divine transcendence, as emphasized in 112:1–4: "Say, He is , [who is] One, , the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, nor is there to Him any equivalent." This tenet forms the bedrock of Islamic , with historical theological schools like the Ash'aris and Maturidis developing defenses against rationalist challenges from Mu'tazilites, who prioritized human reason in interpreting divine attributes. Belief in angels recognizes these as immaterial creations of , devoid of , who execute God's commands, such as Jibril's role in revelations (Quran 2:97). Angels record human deeds (Quran 82:10–12) and serve as intermediaries without independent agency, distinguishing Islamic angelology from polytheistic or dualistic cosmologies. Belief in divine affirms God's revelations to prophets, with the as the final, unaltered scripture abrogating prior texts like the , , and , which hold were distorted over time (Quran 5:13–14). This underscores the Quran's primacy as verbatim divine speech, preserved since its compilation under Caliph around 650 CE. Belief in prophets acknowledges a chain of messengers from to , all conveying , with as the seal (Quran 33:40). Key figures include Abraham, , and , viewed as human exemplars without divinity. This linear prophetic history rejects claims of exclusivity in other faiths. Belief in the Last Day anticipates , , paradise, and , where deeds are weighed (Quran 101:6–9), motivating ethical conduct amid eschatological certainty. Belief in qadr (divine decree) holds that possesses foreknowledge and predetermines all events while granting human accountability through , reconciling with moral responsibility (Quran 57:22). Interpretations vary, with Sunnis emphasizing compatibility between decree and , whereas some Shia views integrate it with infallible guidance from Imams. Aqidah encompasses these articles within formalized creeds, such as the Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah (c. 933 CE) for Sunnis, which affirms orthodoxy against innovation (), or Shia texts emphasizing as an extension of prophethood. Theological disputes, like those over 's attributes or , arose early, with Sunni consensus codified in texts by scholars like al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE), prioritizing scripture over speculative . While shared across major sects, aqidah manifests divergences, such as Shia inclusion of (allegiance to and Imams) as essential, reflecting post-661 CE schisms. These doctrines demand affirmation through heart, tongue, and action, distinguishing true faith from mere profession.

    Prophets, Angels, and Predestination

    In Islamic doctrine, belief in prophets (anbiya) constitutes a fundamental article of faith, asserting that dispatched messengers to every nation to convey divine guidance and warn against disbelief. The identifies 25 prophets by name, including , the first human and progenitor; Nuh (), who preached amid a flood; Ibrahim (Abraham), tested through sacrifice and father of monotheistic lineages; Musa (Moses), recipient of the and leader against ; Isa (Jesus), born miraculously and performer of miracles; and , designated as the final prophet and seal of prophethood. These figures are regarded as infallible in conveying , though human in other respects, with their core message uniformly emphasizing (oneness of God) and moral accountability. must affirm all prophets without distinction, rejecting any diminishment of their status, as 2:136 states: "We make no distinction between any of His messengers." Angels (mala'ika), another pillar of faith, are immaterial beings created from light, devoid of , , or disobedience, existing solely to execute Allah's commands. Their roles encompass revelation, as transmitted the to over 23 years; sustenance and mercy via Mikail (Michael); heralding the Day of through Israfil's trumpet blast; and extracting souls at death by the Angel of Death (Malak al-Mawt). Additional functions include recording human deeds by paired scribes (), protecting believers as per 13:11 ("For each one are successive [angels] before and behind him who protect him by the decree of Allah"), and bearing the of in worship. Unlike prophets, angels lack physical form and prophetic mission, serving as intermediaries in the unseen realm without independent agency. Predestination, or al-qadar, affirms Allah's absolute sovereignty over all events through eternal knowledge, decree, will, and creation, recorded in the Preserved Tablet (al-Lawh al-Mahfuz) before creation. This encompasses both good and evil outcomes, as Quran 57:22 declares: "No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in a register before We bring it into being—indeed that, for Allah, is easy." Hadith in Sahih Muslim elaborate that qadar operates in stages—Allah's pre-eternal knowledge, inscription 50,000 years before creation, divine willing, and actualization—yet human actions arise from acquired free will (kasb), enabling moral responsibility and judgment. Theological debates, such as those between Ash'aris (emphasizing divine causation) and Mu'tazilis (prioritizing human agency), arise from reconciling decree with accountability, but orthodox Sunni creed upholds both without contradiction, rejecting fatalism that negates striving. Belief in qadar thus fosters submission to divine wisdom while encouraging ethical effort, as unawareness of one's decree precludes predetermining outcomes through inaction.

    Religious Practices

    The Five Pillars

    The Five Pillars of Islam represent the core obligatory acts of worship and practice that form the foundation of a Muslim's religious obligations, applicable to all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable. They are explicitly outlined in a hadith narrated by Ibn Umar, in which the Prophet Muhammad declared: "Islam has been built upon five [pillars]: testifying that there is no deity worthy of worship except Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah; establishing the prayer; paying the zakat; fasting the month of Ramadan; and performing Hajj to the House for those who are able." This narration is classified as authentic (sahih) and appears in major Sunni hadith collections, including Sahih al-Bukhari (8) and Sahih Muslim (16). Although the Quran does not enumerate the pillars as a single list, it provides explicit commands for each, emphasizing their role in submission to God (e.g., Quran 2:177). Both Sunni and Shia Muslims recognize these practices as essential religious duties, though Shia traditions frame them within the "branches of faith" (furu' al-din) and incorporate interpretive variations, such as permissible combining of prayers. Shahada (Testimony of Faith)
    The requires sincere recitation of the declaration: "There is no god but , and is the Messenger of " (La ilaha illallah, Muhammadur rasulullah), affirming () and 's prophethood. It serves as the entry point to , with conversion occurring upon its verbal and heartfelt affirmation before witnesses. The underscores as the essence of faith ( 112:1-4) and 's role as messenger ( 48:29). Recitation five times daily during prayers reinforces it, and denial of either component constitutes disbelief (kufr).     Salah (Ritual Prayer)
    mandates five daily prayers at prescribed times—dawn (fajr), noon (zuhr), afternoon (asr), sunset (maghrib), and night (isha)—performed facing the in (). Each involves specific recitations, bowing (), and prostration (), totaling 17 rak'ahs (units) per day for able-bodied adults. The commands establishment of prayer over 80 times, linking it to spiritual purification and remembrance of ( 2:43, 20:14). Prayers must be in , with physical cleansing ( or ) beforehand; exemptions apply for illness or travel, allowing shortened or sitting forms. Community prayers (jama'ah) on Fridays (Jumu'ah) replace zuhr for men.     Zakat (Almsgiving)
    is an annual wealth tax of 2.5% on savings exceeding the threshold (approximately 85 grams of or equivalent, valued at about $5,000 USD as of 2023), distributed to the poor, debtors, and other specified categories. It purifies wealth and fosters , as mandated in the ( 9:60 lists eight recipients). Eligible assets include cash, , silver, , and business held for a lunar year (hawl); payment is due in for some traditions. Unlike voluntary charity (), zakat is (obligatory), with non-payment risking spiritual penalty.     Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan)
    Sawm requires abstaining from food, drink, sexual relations, and sinful speech from dawn to sunset throughout , the ninth lunar month commemorating the Quran's . Exemptions include the ill, travelers, pregnant or nursing women, and pre-pubescent children, who may make up missed days later or provide fidya (compensation) if unable. The institutes as a means of (God-consciousness), emulating previous prophets ( 2:183-185). It ends with , involving communal prayer and charity (, about 3-5 kg of per person). Approximately 1.8 billion observe it annually, with global participation rates exceeding 90% among adherents in surveys.     Hajj (Pilgrimage to )
    is the once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to during Dhul-Hijjah (12th lunar month), involving rituals at the , Arafat, Mina, and , such as tawaf () and standing at Arafat. It is obligatory only for those with physical health, financial means for travel and support of dependents, and safe passage; about 2-3 million perform it yearly, peaking at 2.5 million in 2019 pre-pandemic. The prescribes it for capable believers ( 3:97), symbolizing unity and Abrahamic origins. Non-fulfillment without excuse does not negate faith but incurs sin; is a non-obligatory pilgrimage anytime.

    Additional Rituals and Daily Observances

    Muslims perform known as before each of the five daily prayers, involving washing the face, hands to the elbows, wiping the head, and washing the feet to the ankles in a specific sequence, as prescribed in the (5:6) and exemplified by the Prophet Muhammad. This ablution removes physical and spiritual impurities, with a recommended two-rak'ah voluntary prayer ( salat al-wudu) following its completion to seek additional reward, based on narrations where the Prophet stated it equals the reward of a supererogatory and . , a full-body ritual bath, is required after , , or , ensuring purity for worship. Voluntary prayers (nawafil or sunnah) supplement the obligatory salah, including two rak'ahs before Fajr, four before and two after Dhuhr, two after Maghrib, and two after Isha, as consistently practiced by the Prophet Muhammad according to authentic hadiths. These acts, not mandatory but highly meritorious, aim to draw closer to Allah, with the Prophet emphasizing their protection against forgetfulness in obligatory prayers. Dhikr, the repetitive invocation of Allah's names or phrases like Subhanallah (33 times), Alhamdulillah (33 times), and Allahu Akbar (34 times) after prayers, fosters mindfulness and gratitude, rooted in the Prophet's routine as reported in Sahih Muslim. Du'a, personal supplications, occur frequently outside formal prayers, often in one's language after or during , allowing direct pleas to without intermediaries, as the taught various formulas for daily needs like protection and forgiveness. , voluntary charity distinct from obligatory , includes any beneficial act or material giving, with the stating it extinguishes sins like water quenches fire and does not diminish wealth, encouraging even small daily contributions such as a kind word or removing harm from paths. Authentic hadiths highlight its ongoing reward even after death if it benefits others continuously. Voluntary fasting (sawm tawafuq) on Mondays and Thursdays, or the three middle days of each lunar month (13th, 14th, 15th), emulates the Prophet's habit, offering expiation for minor sins equivalent to six months' obligatory fast in reward, per hadith in Sunan an-Nasa'i. Daily Quran recitation, though not ritually obligatory, is encouraged for guidance and barakah, with the Prophet completing the full text monthly and urging portions like the last two verses of each surah before sleep. These observances, derived primarily from sunnah, reinforce discipline and devotion beyond the Five Pillars' framework.

    Denominations and Interpretive Traditions

    Sunni Islam and Its Schools

    represents the predominant branch of the religion, encompassing roughly 85 percent of the world's approximately 1.8 billion as of 2012 estimates, with projections indicating continued majority status amid overall . This adherence stems from the historical selection of as the first caliph in 632 CE following Muhammad's death, based on communal consensus () and the traditions () of the Prophet and his Companions, rather than hereditary claims to leadership advanced by supporters of ibn Abi Talib. Sunnis, self-identifying as Ahl al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah ("People of the and the Community"), emphasize through adherence to the , authenticated collections like those of al-Bukhari (d. 870 CE) and Muslim (d. 875 CE), and the consensus of early Muslim scholars, viewing the first four caliphs— (r. 632–634 CE), (r. 634–644 CE), (r. 644–656 CE), and (r. 656–661 CE)—as the ("Rightly Guided") exemplars of governance. Sunni interpretive traditions formalized into distinct schools (madhhabs) primarily in jurisprudence (fiqh) and theology (aqidah), emerging during the 8th and 9th centuries CE amid expanding Islamic empires and the need to derive legal rulings from primary sources: the , , scholarly consensus, and analogical reasoning (). These schools maintain unity on core doctrines while permitting methodological diversity, with no single madhhab claiming exclusivity; adherents often follow one for practical fiqh but recognize the validity of others. The four principal Sunni schools of jurisprudence are the , Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali madhhabs, each named after its founding imam and reflecting regional influences in the Abbasid era. The , founded by (699–767 CE) in , , prioritizes reason (ra'y) and (juristic preference) alongside , spreading widely in the , , and , where it accommodates customary practices () in areas like and . The , established by (d. 795 CE) in , emphasizes the practices of Medinan scholars ('amal ahl al-Madina) and consensus, dominating North and due to its reliance on early community praxis over speculative analogy. The Shafi'i madhhab, systematized by Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i (767–820 CE) in and , balances primacy with structured usul al-fiqh (principles of ), influencing , , and through its emphasis on explicit textual evidence. The Hanbali school, founded by (780–855 CE) in , adheres most strictly to literal interpretation and restricts analogy, gaining prominence in via figures like Ibn Taymiyyah (1263–1328 CE) and influencing Salafi movements, though it remains the smallest in global followers. These madhhabs diverged on secondary issues, such as the conditions for valid or purity, but converged on fundamentals like the obligation of the Five Pillars, with historical (imitation of a school) recommended for non-scholars to ensure consistency amid interpretive complexity. In theology, Sunnis predominantly follow the Ash'ari, Maturidi, or Athari creeds, which defend against rationalist challenges like during the inquisition (833–848 CE) under Caliph . The Ash'ari school, initiated by (d. 936 CE), employs dialectical () to affirm divine attributes as described in scripture without (tashbih) or (ta'til), becoming widespread in the Shafi'i and Maliki regions. The Maturidi creed, developed by (d. 944 CE) in Samarqand, similarly uses reason to support revelation but grants greater role to human in , prevailing among Hanafis in and . The Athari approach, rooted in traditionalism exemplified by , rejects speculative in favor of unqualified affirmation (ithbat bi-la kayf) of Quranic attributes and , associating closely with Hanbalis and emphasizing textual literalism while avoiding innovation (). These theological frameworks unify Sunnis on essentials like God's transcendence, prophetic finality, and , countering sectarian deviations through appeals to the (pious predecessors).

    Shia Islam and Imamate

    Shia Islam emerged from a dispute over leadership succession following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, with adherents maintaining that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was divinely designated as the rightful successor rather than the elected caliphs favored by Sunnis. This position, rooted in interpretations of events like the Ghadir Khumm declaration in 632 CE where Muhammad reportedly affirmed Ali's authority, posits that leadership must remain within the Prophet's family (Ahl al-Bayt) to preserve doctrinal purity and esoteric knowledge. Shia Muslims comprise approximately 10-15% of the global Muslim population, estimated at 154-200 million individuals, with majorities in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, and Azerbaijan. Central to Shia doctrine is the , the belief in a series of infallible Imams from Ali's lineage who serve as spiritual and temporal guides, possessing divinely granted knowledge ('ilm) to interpret the and beyond ordinary scholars. The Imams are seen as custodians of the faith, immune from error (), and appointed by divine designation (nass) rather than communal election, ensuring continuity of guidance amid political turmoil. This contrasts with Sunni emphasis on consensus () and the caliphate's role limited to governance without infallibility. Historical development of the Imamate concept solidified during the under figures like (d. 765 CE), amid Abbasid persecution that drove Shias underground. The largest Shia branch, Twelver (Ithna Ashariyyah), comprising 85-90% of Shias, recognizes twelve Imams: (1) Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661 CE), (2) Hasan ibn Ali (d. 670 CE), (3) Husayn ibn Ali (d. 680 CE, martyred at Karbala), (4) Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (d. 713 CE), (5) Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 733 CE), (6) Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 765 CE), (7) Musa al-Kazim (d. 799 CE), (8) Ali al-Rida (d. 818 CE), (9) Muhammad al-Jawad (d. 835 CE), (10) Ali al-Hadi (d. 868 CE), (11) Hasan al-Askari (d. 874 CE), and (12) Muhammad al-Mahdi (b. 869 CE), who entered occultation (ghaybah) in 874 CE and is expected to return as the Mahdi. Twelvers view the Imamate as essential for eschatological fulfillment, with the hidden Imam guiding through deputies during minor occultation (874-941 CE) and occultly thereafter. Other branches diverge on the Imamate's lineage: Ismailis (Sevener or Seveners) accept seven s up to Ismail ibn Ja'far (d. circa 762 CE) and maintain a living Imam tradition, as with since 1957 CE; Zaydis (Fivers) recognize up to (d. 740 CE) and emphasize activist leadership without infallibility claims, resembling Sunnis more closely in . These divisions arose from successions disputes, such as after , leading to distinct theological emphases while sharing core Shia veneration of and the Imams.

    Minority Sects and Movements

    Ibadi Islam represents a distinct branch tracing its origins to the early as a moderate offshoot of the Kharijite movement, emphasizing community consensus and rejecting extremism while maintaining practices closer to Sunni traditions than other Kharijite factions. Adherents, who number in the low millions globally, form the majority faith in , where they coexist with Sunnis in relative parity. Ibadis prioritize rational interpretation of scripture and have historically established independent states, such as in from the onward, fostering a tradition of pragmatic governance that avoids the hierarchical clericalism seen in . Within Shiism, Zaydism emerged in the mid-8th century following the rebellion of Zayd ibn Ali (died 740 CE) against Umayyad rule, advocating for leadership by qualified descendants of Ali who actively oppose injustice, differing from Twelver occultation doctrine by rejecting a hidden imam. Zaydis constitute approximately 45 percent of Yemen's Muslim population, concentrated in the northern highlands, where their imamate ruled until the 1962 revolution that established a republic. This sect's jurisprudence aligns more closely with Sunni schools, permitting temporary marriage and emphasizing ijtihad, though modern iterations, including the Houthi movement, have incorporated political activism blending Zaydi revivalism with anti-imperialist rhetoric. Ismailism, another Shia minority, bifurcated from mainstream in the 8th century over succession disputes, with the Nizari branch—led by a hereditary —gaining prominence after the 1094 CE and emphasizing esoteric interpretation (ta'wil) of the alongside exoteric law. Nizari Ismailis, numbering 12 to 15 million worldwide under the Aga Khan's spiritual authority, prioritize intellectual pluralism, modern education, and community welfare through institutions like the , diverging from orthodox Shia by viewing the 's guidance as ongoing and adaptive to contemporary contexts. Smaller Tayyibi Ismaili groups, such as the Dawoodi Bohras, maintain stricter insularity and mercantile traditions. Alawism, an esoteric offshoot of classified as (extremist) by many orthodox Muslims due to doctrines like deification of , , and gnostic rituals, originated in the from the teachings of ibn Nusayr. comprise 10 to 12 percent of Syria's population, roughly 2.5 million individuals, historically marginalized until the 20th-century rise of the Assad family, which elevated their role in state institutions amid Sunni majoritarian dominance. Their syncretic practices, incorporating pre-Islamic elements and secretive , have fueled debates over their Islamic , with some Sunni scholars deeming them outside the faith. The movement, founded in 1889 by in British , positions itself as a messianic revival within , asserting Ahmad's role as the promised and subordinate prophet to , a claim rejected by mainstream Muslims as violating the finality of prophethood. With an estimated 10 million adherents globally, concentrated in , , and diaspora communities, Ahmadis emphasize peaceful as self-reform and loyalty to host states, yet face systemic persecution, including declaration as non-Muslims in via 1974 constitutional amendments and violent pogroms. This exclusion stems from orthodox interpretations prioritizing Muhammad's seal, rendering Ahmadiyya a marginalized movement despite its organizational growth and missionary outreach.

    Islamic Law and Jurisprudence

    Sources and Methodology of Sharia

    The , revealed to between approximately 610 and 632 CE, constitutes the foundational and primary source of , providing explicit divine legislation on matters such as worship, morality, and social conduct. Its verses, considered infallible and immutable, form the basis for all subsequent legal derivations, with around 500 verses addressing legal rulings directly or indirectly. The , encompassing the Prophet Muhammad's sayings, actions, and tacit approvals as recorded in , serves as the second primary source, elaborating and interpreting Quranic injunctions. authenticity is determined through rigorous criticism of transmission chains (isnad) and content (matn), a methodology developed from the onward, resulting in canonical collections such as (compiled circa 846 CE) and (circa 875 CE), which contain thousands of authenticated narrations. These texts address practical applications not detailed in the , such as specific rituals and contractual forms. Secondary sources include , the consensus of qualified scholars or the Prophet's companions on a legal ruling, viewed as binding due to a stating "My community will never agree in an error." , or analogical reasoning, extends primary rulings to new cases by identifying an effective cause ('illah) shared between the original and novel situation, as in applying theft penalties to modern equivalents. Sunni jurisprudence classically recognizes these four sources, while Shia traditions incorporate the teachings of infallible Imams as an extension of and emphasize 'aql (intellect) for rational deduction. The methodology of derivation is formalized in Usul al-Fiqh, the principles of jurisprudence, which guide mujtahids—scholars qualified through mastery of , , , and prior rulings—in performing , the independent exertion of effort to extract rulings from sources. contrasts with , the emulation of established scholarly opinions by non-experts, which became prevalent after the 10th century as some schools deemed the "gates of ijtihad" closed, though reformist movements since the advocate its reopening for contemporary issues. This process prioritizes textual evidence, with secondary sources invoked only when primaries are silent, ensuring rulings align with revealed intent. Islamic (fiqh) classifies human actions into five categories based on their moral and legal status, derived from Quranic injunctions and prophetic traditions: fard or wajib (obligatory acts, such as the five daily prayers, whose omission incurs ); mandub or mustahab (recommended acts, like additional prayers, rewarded but not sinful if omitted); mubah (permissible acts, neutral with no reward or punishment); makruh (disliked acts, better avoided for reward but not sinful); and haram (forbidden acts, such as consuming alcohol or , punishable by divine and sometimes earthly sanctions). These categories provide a framework for , emphasizing intention () as a determinant of moral worth, where actions are judged by their alignment with divine will rather than mere outcomes. The objectives of Sharia (maqasid al-Sharia) underpin these classifications, aiming to preserve five essentials: (din), life (nafs), intellect (aql), lineage (nasl), and property (mal), as articulated by classical scholars like Al-Shatibi to realize human welfare () while upholding (divine unity). Ethical principles in Islam, known as akhlaq, derive primarily from the Quran and , promoting virtues such as (adl), benevolence (), honesty (sidq), compassion (rahma), and modesty (haya), with the Prophet Muhammad described as exemplifying sublime character (khuluq hasan). These virtues extend to social responsibilities, including care for orphans, fair dealings in contracts, and prohibition of (), which exploits vulnerability and disrupts economic equity. Legally, enforces fixed punishments () for crimes against and society, including for ( 5:38, requiring strict proof like and absence of necessity); flogging for unmarried (, 24:2) or false accusation (qadhf, 24:4); and death or for highway robbery (hiraba, 5:33). for married adulterers stems from rather than explicit Quranic text, applied rarely due to evidentiary hurdles designed to favor acquittal. () applies to intentional or ( 2:178), allowing forgiveness or blood (diyah) as alternatives, while discretionary penalties (ta'zir) address other offenses through judicial reasoning. Implementation varies by school—Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali—and historical context, with modern applications in countries like and reflecting interpretive divergences, though empirical data shows executions remain infrequent owing to proof thresholds.

    Sharia in Governance and Personal Life

    Sharia, derived from the , , and scholarly consensus, delineates rules for and private behavior in Islamic doctrine. In governance, it prescribes punishments for offenses like (amputation of the hand), (stoning or lashing), and (death), alongside for retaliation in murder and ta'zir for discretionary penalties. These fixed penalties require stringent evidence, such as four eyewitnesses for (unlawful intercourse), rendering convictions rare in practice even where codified. In state systems, full Sharia penal codes operate in fewer than a dozen Muslim-majority countries, including , , , and , where hudud apply to crimes against divine rights. executed 196 people in 2022 under Sharia-influenced law, including for sorcery and , while amputations for occurred as recently as 2013. Iran's penal code, blending Shia , mandates for married adulterers and for highway robbery, with 582 executions reported in 2023. Partial applications exist elsewhere, such as northern Nigeria's 12 states enforcing since 2000, though amputations remain infrequent due to evidentiary hurdles and international pressure. Variations arise from madhhabs; Sunni Hanbali dominates in , while Shia Ja'fari prevails in , affecting interpretations like inheritance shares or testimony weight. For personal life, governs (transactions) and through fixed rules on , requiring consent, (dowry), and permitting for men up to four wives under equity conditions. Divorce via talaq allows unilateral male initiation, with waiting periods; women may seek khul' via court, often forfeiting . Inheritance allocates shares by gender and lineage—sons receive double daughters' portions—rooted in 4:11-12, prioritizing male financial obligations. Daily conduct mandates food, in dress ( for women), prohibition of (), and (excessive uncertainty) in contracts, influencing finance like Islamic banking's asset-backed loans. Sharia courts handle personal status in over 40 Muslim countries, from Egypt's family tribunals to Malaysia's syariah panels, enforcing these norms while secular codes govern commerce. Enforcement varies; in secular states like , it influences only voluntary arbitration, whereas in under rule since 2021, it curtails women's public roles and mandates veiling. Scholarly adapts applications, but core remain unaltered, with modern debates centering on compatibility with covenants, often rejected as Western impositions by proponents.

    Theology, Philosophy, and Mysticism

    Theological Debates in Kalam

    , or Islamic speculative theology, emerged in the CE as a discipline employing dialectical reasoning to defend core Islamic doctrines against internal and external challenges, including Greek philosophy and sectarian disputes. It addressed questions on God's , human responsibility, and scriptural interpretation, often through structured arguments (kalam meaning "speech" or "debate"). Early proponents drew from Quranic and sources while incorporating Aristotelian logic, leading to formalized schools that shaped Sunni orthodoxy. A central debate in concerned the createdness of the . Mu'tazila theologians, influential under Abbasid caliphs like (r. 813–833 CE), argued the was created in time to preserve God's absolute transcendence and avoid implying multiplicity in the divine , as an uncreated speech would suggest eternal attributes distinct from God's . This position, enforced via the inquisition from 833 CE, posited that affirming the 's risked (shirk). In opposition, traditionalists and later Ash'ari scholars maintained the as Allah's eternal, uncreated speech, distinct yet inseparable from His , rejecting createdness as diminishing divine speech's reality while interpreting anthropomorphic verses non-literally. Another key contention involved divine attributes, balancing affirmation (ithbat) against (tashbih) and negation (ta'til). Mu'tazila advocates, prioritizing rational unity (), often divested God of literal attributes like "hand" or "face" mentioned in 39:67 and 55:27, interpreting them metaphorically to avoid corporealism, which they deemed incompatible with divine . Ash'ari , systematized by (d. 936 CE), countered with "affirmation without modality" (bi-la kayf), accepting attributes as real and eternal but neither identical to nor separate from God's essence, nor resembling creation, thus avoiding both literal likeness to humans and outright denial. The Maturidi school, founded by (d. 944 CE), aligned closely but emphasized rational compatibility, viewing attributes as necessary concomitants of divine perfection without compromising transcendence. Debates on (ikhtiyar) and (qadar) hinged on reconciling human accountability with divine . Mu'tazila held humans possess full , enabling and divine justice, as neither creates evil acts nor predestines sin, per Quran 76:3 ("We guided him to the path, be he grateful or ungrateful"). Ash'ari and Maturidi responses introduced "acquisition" (kasb), wherein creates all acts, but humans acquire them through volition, preserving (as in Quran 57:22, all decreed beforehand) without absolving culpability; this compatibilist view rejected Mu'tazila's delegation of creative power to humans as undermining . These positions influenced Sunni creeds, with Ash'ari dominance in Shafi'i and Maliki and Maturidi in Hanafi traditions. The nature of faith (iman) further divided kalam: Mu'tazila classified major sinners as unbelievers (kafir) or hypocrites, intermediate between faith and infidelity, to uphold divine justice against unpunished sin. Orthodox Sunni kalam, via Ash'ari and Maturidi, deemed sinners sinful believers (fasiq), not apostates, as faith resides in the heart's affirmation, per hadith reports of the Prophet Muhammad distinguishing verbal profession from inner belief, thus avoiding extremism in takfir. These debates, peaking by the 10th century, solidified Ash'ari-Maturidi orthodoxy against Mu'tazila rationalism, which waned post-Mihna, though kalam continued evolving against philosophy.

    Philosophical Rationalism and Conflicts

    Islamic philosophical rationalism emerged in the 8th and 9th centuries through the Mu'tazila school of theology (), which posited that reason could independently discern ethical truths such as divine justice and human free will, viewing the 's principles as rationally comprehensible rather than solely reliant on literal interpretation. This rationalist approach gained imperial support under Abbasid caliphs, notably during the (inquisition) initiated by Caliph in 833 CE, which enforced Mu'tazilite doctrines like the createdness of the , leading to the persecution of dissenting scholars such as . Parallel to kalam rationalism, the falsafa tradition integrated Aristotelian and Neoplatonic logic and metaphysics, beginning with (c. 801–873 CE), who sought to harmonize Greek philosophy with Islamic revelation, followed by (c. 872–950 CE) in political theory and Ibn Sina (, 980–1037 CE) in , where he argued for a necessary existent () as the cause of contingent being. Conflicts arose as clashed with traditionalist emphases on textual authority (naql) over unaided reason ('aql), culminating in the Ash'ari school's founding by (d. 936 CE) as a counter to Mu'tazilite "excessive ," advocating that reason must submit to and defending occasionalism—wherein divine will directly causes all events without intermediary causal necessity—to preserve omnipotence against philosophers' deterministic implications. , alongside the similar Maturidi school, became predominant in Sunni theology by the 11th century, marginalizing , which survived mainly among some Shia groups and Zaydis. A pivotal confrontation occurred in falsafa with Abu Hamid al-Ghazali's (1058–1111 CE) Tahafut al-Falasifa (Incoherence of the Philosophers, c. 1095 CE), which indicted Avicennian metaphysics on 20 logical inconsistencies and deemed three positions—eternal world, denial of bodily resurrection, and God's ignorance of particulars—heretical, arguing that philosophers' reliance on necessary causation undermined tawhid (divine unity) by implying independent natural laws. Al-Ghazali endorsed logic as a tool but subordinated it to sharia, promoting a fideistic skepticism toward unaided reason's limits in grasping metaphysical truths. Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198 CE) rebutted in Tahafut al-Tahafut (Incoherence of the Incoherence, c. 1180 CE), defending philosophy's compatibility with Islam by distinguishing esoteric truths for elites from exoteric faith for masses, yet his efforts failed to revive Peripatetic rationalism amid rising theological orthodoxy. These tensions contributed to the decline of systematic falsafa in by the , as Ash'ari critiques and shifted focus toward experiential faith over speculative reason, exacerbated by political instability like the Mongol sack of in 1258 CE, though persisted. endured longer in Shia contexts, such as through (ishraq) via Suhrawardi (d. 1191 CE), but Sunni dominance of Ash'ari occasionalism reinforced revelation's primacy, limiting philosophy's institutional role. This subordination reflected a causal prioritization of doctrinal unity over intellectual pluralism, as unchecked risked scriptural reinterpretations conflicting with prophetic traditions.

    Sufism and Esoteric Dimensions

    , known as tasawwuf in , represents the mystical and introspective tradition within , focusing on the seeker's inner purification (tazkiyah al-nafs) and pursuit of direct experiential knowledge () of through devotion, , and spiritual discipline. Emerging in the CE among early Muslim ascetics in regions like and , emphasizes fana (annihilation of the ego in the divine) and baqa (subsistence in ), drawing from Quranic injunctions to remember (dhikr) and emulate prophetic spirituality. Proponents assert its roots in the Muhammad's example and the practices of his companions, such as ibn Abi Talib, rather than external influences, though some 20th-century scholars have debated potential synergies with pre-Islamic or . Early figures like Hasan al-Basri (d. 728 CE), who stressed renunciation of worldly attachments, and Rabia al-Adawiyya (d. 801 CE), who articulated disinterested love for God independent of paradise or hell, laid foundational doctrines. By the 9th century, systematization occurred through teachers like al-Junayd (d. 910 CE), who defined sobriety (sahw) in mystical states to align with Sharia orthodoxy, contrasting with ecstatic expressions exemplified by Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922 CE), executed for declaring "I am the Truth" (ana al-haqq), interpreted by critics as claiming divinity. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111 CE) further legitimized Sufism in his Ihya Ulum al-Din, integrating it with jurisprudence and theology to counter philosophical rationalism, arguing that mystical intuition complements rational proofs for divine unity (tawhid). Esoteric dimensions of Sufism involve ta'wil (allegorical interpretation) to uncover the batin (inner, hidden meanings) of the Quran and Hadith, beyond the zahir (apparent, legalistic exegesis), positing that spiritual insight reveals layers of divine wisdom accessible only through purification and guidance from a spiritual master (shaykh). Practices include rhythmic dhikr (invocation of divine names), sama' (auditory sessions with poetry or music to induce ecstasy), and progression through spiritual stations (maqamat) like repentance (tawba), patience (sabr), and gratitude (shukr), culminating in unveiling (kashf). These methods aim at realizing the unity of existence (wahdat al-wujud), as articulated by Ibn Arabi (d. 1240 CE), who viewed creation as manifestations of divine reality, though this doctrine has sparked debates over potential pantheism. Sufi orders (tariqas), formalized from the 12th century, provide structured paths under chains of transmission (silsila) linking back to the Prophet. Major examples include the Qadiriyya, founded by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. 1166 CE) in Baghdad, emphasizing ethical conduct and widespread in Africa and South Asia; the Naqshbandiyya, originating with Baha al-Din Naqshband (d. 1389 CE) in Central Asia, focusing silent dhikr and sobriety, influential in Ottoman and Mughal empires; the Chishti order in South Asia, known for music and charity under Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236 CE); and the Mevleviyya, associated with Jalaluddin Rumi (d. 1273 CE), featuring whirling dances (sema) as symbolic of cosmic rotation. These orders, numbering over 40 historically, have adapted locally while claiming fidelity to core Islamic sources. Within orthodox Islam, Sufism faces criticisms from literalist schools like Salafism, which condemn practices such as shrine visitation () to saints (awliya) as bordering on shirk (associating partners with ) or innovation (), citing instances of grave excesses or unverified miracles (). Historical persecutions, including under some Abbasid caliphs and modern Wahhabi campaigns in since the 18th century, reflect tensions between Sufi emphasis on personal and strict adherence to transmitted texts. Nonetheless, many Sufi authorities, including , insist on primacy, with orthodox tariqas rejecting ; empirical surveys indicate Sufism persists among 5-10% of global , often harmonizing with Sunni or Shia .

    Supernatural Elements and Eschatology

    Jinn, Miracles, and the Unseen

    In Islamic doctrine, al-ghayb (the unseen) encompasses realities hidden from human perception and senses, accessible solely through divine rather than empirical observation or reason. These include the existence of angels, the precise timing of the Day of Judgment, the nature of paradise and , and the inner states of creation, with full knowledge reserved exclusively for as stated in 27:65: "Say, 'None in the heavens and earth knows the unseen except Allah.'" Partial glimpses are conveyed to prophets via wahy (), underscoring in the unseen as a foundational pillar of belief, distinct from verifiable phenomena. Jinn form a key component of the unseen realm, described in the Quran as a parallel creation to humans, formed from "smokeless fire" (Quran 15:27) and possessing free will, intellect, and accountability before God. Like humans, jinn were created to worship Allah (Quran 51:56), yet they vary in obedience, with righteous jinn submitting to divine guidance and rebellious ones, including Iblis (Satan), defying it (Quran 18:50). Typically invisible to humans, jinn can interact with the physical world, influence thoughts or events through whispers (waswas), and are invoked in pre-Islamic Arabian traditions, though Islam prohibits such appeals as associating partners with God (Quran 6:100). Surah Al-Jinn (72) recounts a group of jinn overhearing Quranic recitation, recognizing its truth, and warning their kin against disbelief, illustrating their capacity for conversion and communal structure. Miracles, or mu'jizat, represent divine interventions from the unseen to authenticate prophethood, defying natural laws as signs (ayat) for believers. In , these are granted by to prophets, with Muhammad's primary miracle being the itself, portrayed as an inimitable linguistic and preservative challenge (Quran 2:23), enduring unaltered since its revelation between 610 and 632 CE. Other narrated events include the —Prophet Muhammad's night journey from to and ascension through heavens in 621 CE (Quran 17:1)—and the (Quran 54:1-2), witnessed by Meccans around 614 CE as a response to demands for proof. collections, such as , report additional instances like multiplying food and water during expeditions, though these rely on chains of transmission (isnad) varying in authenticity per scholarly scrutiny. Unlike repeatable scientific phenomena, such miracles are held as historical, non-empirical validations of , with post-prophetic claims of miracles dismissed as potential sorcery or deception in orthodox views.

    Day of Judgment and Afterlife

    In Islamic doctrine, the Day of Judgment, known as Yawm al-Qiyamah, represents the culmination of human existence, where Allah resurrects all individuals from Adam to the last human for accountability based on their earthly deeds, as detailed in numerous Quranic verses emphasizing divine justice without injustice. This event is one of the six articles of faith (iman), underscoring resurrection (ba'ath), reckoning (hisab), and the eternal outcomes of paradise (Jannah) or hell (Jahannam), with the Quran describing it as a day of inevitable terror and separation for humanity. Authentic hadith collections, such as Sahih Muslim, elaborate that deeds will be weighed on precise scales, where even the weight of a mustard seed's good or evil act determines fate, rejecting claims of insignificant actions carrying no consequence. Preceding Qiyamah are minor and major signs foretold in . Minor signs include the prevalence of over , widespread , and the appearance of false prophets—over 30 in number—as reported in narrations from the Prophet Muhammad, many of which Islamic scholars deem fulfilled based on historical patterns like societal moral decline post-prophetic era. Major signs encompass the emergence of the , the Dajjal (a one-eyed deceiver), the descent of Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus) to slay the Dajjal, the release of (Ya'juj wa Ma'juj), a beast speaking to humanity, the sun rising from the west, and cosmic upheavals like three massive sinkholes, culminating in a trumpet blast by the that annihilates all life before a second blast initiates resurrection. These sequences, drawn from in Sahih Bukhari and Muslim, are presented as sequential portents known only fully to , with the affirming the Hour's approach as sudden and unpostponable. The judgment process unfolds with the gathering of souls on a vast plain under divine scrutiny, where prophets and witnesses intercede selectively, and individuals cross the Sirat—a razor-thin bridge over —proportional to their righteousness, as per descriptions of varying speeds from lightning-like to crawling. Deeds are evaluated from preserved by angels, with the Quran stipulating that polytheists and major sinners face explicit denial of paradise unless granted mercy or by , limited to those Allah permits. Empirical scrutiny of these narratives reveals reliance on prophetic reports graded sahih (authentic) by scholars like al-Bukhari, though sectarian differences exist, such as Shia emphasis on Imam Ali's . Post-judgment, the righteous enter , depicted in the Quran as multilevel gardens with rivers of non-intoxicating milk, wine, honey, and pure water; eternal youth; companionship of purified spouses (hur al-ayn); and fruits without toil, serving as reward for faith and obedience exceeding punishment for transient worldly tests. Conversely, Jahannam comprises seven gates with escalating torments—boiling fetid water, pus-drinking, thorny tree fruits, and iron chains—for disbelievers and hypocrites, whose stay may be eternal or purgatorial for some monotheistic sinners, per Quranic distinctions between grave disbelief and lesser infractions. specify Jahannam's capacity to hold multitudes, fueled by 70,000 chains and guarded by , rejecting notions of temporary hell for all as incompatible with explicit Quranic permanence for rejectors of truth. These afterlife realms underscore Islam's causal framework of actions yielding precise, irreversible consequences, with no but potential divine abrogation of punishment through or .

    Societal Structures and Cultural Expressions

    Family Dynamics and Gender Norms

    In Islamic doctrine, family structure is patriarchal, with 4:34 designating men as qawwamun (protectors and maintainers) over women due to their financial obligations and divine preference for men in this role. This verse mandates wifely obedience in matters of righteousness and outlines disciplinary steps for perceived nushuz (disloyalty or rebellion): verbal admonition, separation in bed, and light striking (idribuhunna) as a last resort. collections reinforce male authority, portraying the Prophet Muhammad as advising against harsh treatment but affirming husbands' leadership, as in narrations emphasizing gentle handling yet ultimate responsibility. ties are idealized, prioritizing and clan solidarity, though nuclear units predominate in urbanized Muslim societies. Marriage (nikah) requires mutual consent, a , witnesses, and a specifying mahr—a mandatory payment or property from to as her exclusive right, serving as financial security. In most jurisprudential schools (e.g., Hanafi, Maliki), a needs a male guardian (), typically her father or brother, to validate the union, reflecting protective oversight rooted in pre-Islamic Arabian norms adapted by . is explicitly permitted for men up to four wives, per Quran 4:3, provided equitable treatment, originally contextualized for protecting orphans but extended as a general allowance; is prohibited. Empirical prevalence varies: as of 2020, rates exceed 30% in countries like and , correlating with dominance, though banned or restricted in secular states like since 1926. Inheritance follows fixed Quranic shares (fara'id), with Quran 4:11 stipulating a son's portion as twice a daughter's, justified by men's to provide for families while women retain their shares without such obligations. Similar disparities apply to in financial matters (Quran 2:282), where two female witnesses equal one male to guard against forgetfulness. These rules persist in courts, though some modern reforms equalize shares; Pew Research in 2013 found majorities opposing equal inheritance for daughters in (85%) and (74%), reflecting scriptural fidelity over egalitarian reinterpretations. Divorce procedures are gender-asymmetric under . Husbands initiate talaq (repudiation) unilaterally by pronouncing it thrice over three menstrual cycles, revocable twice, granting them procedural ease. Wives pursue khula (redemption), requesting separation via , often returning mahr or forfeiting maintenance, with husband's consent required or judicial dissolution under grounds like abuse; this burdens women financially and logistically. Faskh () allows court intervention for defects (e.g., impotence), but rates remain low for women without strong evidence. In practice, triple talaq was criminalized in in 2019 amid abuses, yet persists informally elsewhere. Gender norms prescribe complementary roles: men as providers and public actors, women as nurturers focused on home, child-rearing, and modesty. Quran 33:33 urges women to remain in homes and not display pre-Islamic ostentation, underpinning veiling (hijab) and seclusion (purdah) in conservative interpretations. Obedience to husband is tied to paradise in hadith (e.g., Sahih Bukhari 9:89:252), with non-compliance risking divine displeasure. Labor participation reflects this: female workforce rates average 20-30% in Gulf states versus 50%+ globally, per World Bank data, linked to guardianship laws requiring male permission for travel or employment in places like Saudi Arabia until 2019 reforms. Empirically, Sharia-influenced family dynamics correlate with elevated . UN (2023) ranks Muslim-majority nations low: (0.82), (0.67), (0.535), versus global average ~0.44, measuring gaps in maternal mortality, parliamentary seats, and labor force participation. Pew's 2013 global survey of showed 70-90% in and endorsing wife obedience and opposing unrestricted divorce rights for women, with supporters least favoring equality in inheritance or leadership roles. Studies confirm stricter application exacerbates disparities, countering claims of inherent equity by highlighting causal ties to reproductive and economic restrictions, though cultural factors amplify scriptural baselines in tribal contexts. Secular-leaning nations like (post-1956 reforms) score higher (GII 0.239), demonstrating variance from .

    Education, Science, and Intellectual Traditions

    During the , spanning roughly the 8th to 14th centuries, Muslim scholars made notable advancements in fields such as , , astronomy, and , often building upon translated Greek, Indian, and Persian texts preserved and expanded in institutions like the in . Al-Khwarizmi's introduction of in his 9th-century treatise laid foundational methods for solving linear and quadratic equations, influencing European . In , Ibn Sina's (completed around 1025) systematized and clinical practices, serving as a standard text in until the 17th century. Ibn al-Haytham's (circa 1011–1021) pioneered experimental methods in vision and refraction, predating similar European work by centuries. Intellectual traditions emphasized rational inquiry through falsafa (), with figures like (d. 950) and (Ibn Rushd, d. 1198) integrating Aristotelian logic with Islamic , advocating for the harmony of reason and revelation. However, tensions arose with orthodox theologians; the Mu'tazilite school's emphasis on waned after the 9th century, giving way to Ash'arite , which prioritized divine over causal mechanisms in . Al-Ghazali's (1095) critiqued excessive reliance on Greek , arguing it undermined (divine unity), contributing to a shift toward scriptural literalism over empirical experimentation. This philosophical conflicted with growing religious , limiting sustained innovation. Education in the Islamic world historically centered on madrasas, established from the onward as institutions primarily for religious instruction in , , (jurisprudence), and , with rote memorization (hifz) as a core method to preserve orthodoxy. While early madrasas like the Nizamiyya in (founded 1065) incorporated some secular subjects such as logic and , the curriculum overwhelmingly prioritized religious sciences ('ulum al-din) over , fostering (imitation of precedent) rather than independent (reasoning). In contemporary Muslim-majority countries, madrasas often maintain this focus, with many—such as in and —devoting over 80% of study time to religious texts, sidelining secular sciences and critical inquiry. Scientific output declined post-13th century due to multiple factors, including Mongol invasions disrupting centers like (sacked 1258), but empirical analyses link it proximately to the political empowerment of religious (ulema), who enforced theological conformity and marginalized rationalist approaches. Studies of medieval manuscript production show scientific texts comprising a falling share of output in Muslim regions after the , correlating with Ash'arite dominance that attributed phenomena to divine will rather than discoverable laws. In the , Muslim-majority countries, representing about 24% of the global population, contribute roughly 5% of worldwide scientific publications indexed in , with 46 such nations accounting for just 1.17% of global output as of early data, trailing even smaller non-Muslim economies like . Nobel Prizes in sciences awarded to number only four: (Physics, 1979), (Chemistry, 1999), (Chemistry, 2015), and (Chemistry, 2023), despite over 1.8 billion worldwide. International assessments reflect this lag: in TIMSS 2019, Muslim-majority participants like and scored below global averages in eighth-grade math (e.g., at 379 vs. 488 international average) and , with studies attributing gaps partly to curricula emphasizing religious over empirical .

    Arts, Architecture, and Daily Culture

    Islamic architecture developed from the CE, incorporating regional influences such as Byzantine and Sassanian styles while adapting to religious requirements like directional toward (). Key features include large (sahn) for communal , minarets for the call to (), domes symbolizing the heavens, horseshoe or pointed arches, and (honeycomb vaulting) for transitioning between structural elements. The in , constructed around 622 CE shortly after Muhammad's migration (hijra), represents the earliest example, featuring a simple hall with a wall. Later structures like the , founded in 670 CE in , introduced a and porticos around a , establishing prototypes for subsequent mosques. In arts, Islamic traditions emphasize non-figural decoration due to aniconism, a doctrinal aversion to images of sentient beings in religious contexts to avoid idolatry (shirk), rooted in hadiths from collections like Sahih Bukhari that curse image-makers and warn of severe punishment for imitating God's creation. This prohibition, articulated in late 8th-century hadith literature rather than the Quran directly, channeled artistic expression into calligraphy, geometric patterns, and arabesques. Calligraphy, deemed the noblest art form for rendering Quranic verses, evolved from Kufic script in the 7th century to more fluid styles like naskh by the 10th century, often integrated with vegetal motifs (arabesques) symbolizing infinite divine order. Geometric designs, using interlocking polygons, stars, and circles, proliferated from the 9th century, representing mathematical precision and the infinite, as seen in tilework and stucco from Persia to Andalusia; their complexity increased over time, avoiding representation to align with theological constraints. These abstract forms adorned mosques, madrasas, and manuscripts, influencing ceramics, textiles, and metalwork across Muslim regions. Daily cultural practices in Islam revolve around the Five Pillars, structuring routines around ritual purity, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage. Muslims perform five daily prayers (salat) at dawn (fajr), noon (dhuhr), afternoon (asr), sunset (maghrib), and night (isha), involving ablution (wudu), prostration toward Mecca, and often congregational mosque attendance, reinforcing communal discipline and submission to God. Dietary laws mandate halal food—permissible meats from animals slaughtered with a blessing invoking Allah, excluding pork and alcohol—derived from Quranic verses and hadiths emphasizing cleanliness and gratitude. Modest attire prevails, with women typically covering hair and body (hijab) in public per interpretations of Quranic injunctions on chastity, varying by sect and region but enforcing gender segregation in prayer and social spaces to uphold moral order. Festivals include Eid al-Fitr, marking Ramadan's end with dawn prayers, feasting on sweets, new clothes, and charity (zakat al-fitr) distributed to the poor, and Eid al-Adha, commemorating Abraham's sacrifice with animal slaughter, meat sharing, and pilgrimage rituals during Hajj, promoting equality as participants don plain ihram garments. These observances, observed by over 1.8 billion Muslims, sustain social cohesion but can impose economic strains in poorer communities due to ritual costs.

    Political Dimensions

    Historical Caliphates and Theocratic Models

    The (632–661 CE), led by the first four successors to —Abu Bakr, ibn al-Khattab, ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib—established the foundational model of Islamic governance as a unified political and religious authority enforcing principles amid rapid conquests. Following 's death in 632 CE, suppressed the (632–633 CE) against apostate tribes, consolidating control before launching invasions that defeated Byzantine forces at Yarmouk (636 CE) and Sassanid Persia by 651 CE, expanding territory from Arabia to , , and . 's administration (634–644 CE) formalized the system, granting protected status to non-Muslims (Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians) in exchange for and submission to Muslim rule, which imposed social restrictions like bans on proselytizing or building new places of worship while exempting Muslims from equivalent burdens. This era's theocratic elements derived from the caliphs' role as interpreters and enforcers of Quranic law via qadis (judges), though practical governance blended tribal consultations with military fiat, culminating in civil strife: 's sparked rebellion leading to his assassination (656 CE), and Ali's tenure (656–661 CE) saw the civil war, ending with his murder and the caliphate's shift to dynastic rule. The (661–750 CE), founded by after defeating Ali's faction, transitioned to centered in , prioritizing supremacy while extending conquests to , (711 CE), and the Indus Valley. retained theocratic veneer through caliphal oversight of courts for personal status and criminal matters, but incorporated Byzantine administrative models like tax bureaucracies and provincial governors (amirs), allowing pragmatic deviations such as tolerating non-Arab mawali converts' second-class status until revolts. The dhimmi framework persisted, with funding military expansions that subjugated diverse populations, though enforcement varied; non-Muslims comprised the majority in early provinces, facing periodic forced conversions or discriminatory pacts (ahd al-dhimma) limiting arms-bearing and public religious displays. Internal tribal rivalries and Abbasid propaganda portraying Umayyads as worldly tyrants fueled the 750 CE revolution, fragmenting the empire into the Abbasid core and Umayyad survivor state in Iberia (756–1031 CE). The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), claiming Prophetic lineage via Muhammad's uncle Abbas, relocated to Baghdad (762 CE) and emphasized universal Islamic ummah over Arab exclusivity, fostering a bureaucratic theocracy with viziers handling administration while caliphs symbolized religious unity. Sharia implementation advanced through madrasas and juristic schools (e.g., Hanafi, Maliki), with caliphs appointing qadis and muhtasibs (market inspectors) to enforce hudud punishments and moral codes, though fiscal needs led to mukataba contracts blending Islamic finance with pre-Islamic customs. By the 9th century, caliphal authority waned amid Buyid and Seljuk Turkic overlords, reducing theocracy to ceremonial roles; the dhimmi system endured, protecting minorities but entrenching hierarchies, as seen in Baghdad's diverse yet stratified society where Jews and Christians paid jizya while contributing to intellectual output under caliphal patronage. Mongol sack of Baghdad (1258 CE) ended Abbasid centrality, spawning parallel claims like the Mamluk-hosted "shadow caliphs" and Fatimid Shi'a caliphate (909–1171 CE) in North Africa, which prioritized Ismaili doctrine in governance. Later models culminated in the Ottoman Empire's caliphal claim (1517–1924 CE), where sultans like assumed the title after conquering Mamluks, merging Turkish military tradition with Islamic legitimacy to rule via for and kanun (sultanic edicts) for state matters. The millet system extended protections to communal autonomy for Orthodox Christians, , and under their leaders, contingent on loyalty and taxes, enabling multi-ethnic stability but reinforcing subordination—non-Muslims barred from high office and subject to child levies for Janissaries until the . Theocratic ideals clashed with ; 19th-century Tanzimat reforms diluted exclusivity for modernization, yet caliphal abolition by Atatürk in 1924 reflected secular backlash against perceived stagnation. Across caliphates, theocratic models hinged on caliphal fusion of prophetic succession with temporal power, but empirical divergences—dynastic corruption, military dependencies, and adaptive —often prioritized stability over strict scripturalism, yielding expansive empires at the cost of internal fractures and non-Muslim resentments.

    Modern Islamism and Political Movements

    Modern refers to political ideologies and movements that seek to establish governance based on interpretations of Islamic law () as derived from the and , often rejecting secularism and Western in favor of theocratic or Islamist states. Emerging prominently in the early amid the decline of the and European colonial rule, gained traction as a response to perceived failures of secular and modernization efforts, which many viewed as culturally alienating and ineffective against Western dominance. Key foundational organizations include the , established in on March 21, 1928, by , which advocated for societal Islamization through education, charity, and gradual political infiltration rather than immediate revolution. Similarly, Abul A'la founded in British in 1941, promoting a comprehensive that integrates religion into all spheres of life, influencing movements in and . Influential thinkers like , executed by Egypt's government in 1966, radicalized Islamist ideology through works such as Milestones (1964), which declared modern Muslim societies as realms of (pre-Islamic ignorance) warranting defensive and excommunication () of apostate rulers. The 1979 under Khomeini provided a Shia template for Islamist success, inspiring Sunni groups by demonstrating the overthrow of a secular via and the establishment of a velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the ) system, though sectarian tensions limited cross-confessional emulation. , allied with the Saudi state since the and propagated globally through oil wealth, intersected with modern Salafism—a puritanical movement emphasizing return to the practices of the (pious ancestors)—fostering political that ranged from quietist avoidance of to jihadist insurgencies. Saudi Arabia's funding of Salafi institutions worldwide, estimated in billions from the 1960s onward, amplified this strain, contributing to the rise of groups like the in (1996–2001) and , founded by in 1988. Islamist movements achieved electoral gains during the Arab Spring uprisings starting in December 2010, with the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party winning Egypt's presidency in June 2012 under , and securing Tunisia's elections in October 2011. However, these successes were short-lived: Morsi's rule, marked by (GDP growth averaging 2.2% annually from 2012–2013 amid 13% ) and constitutional pushes for supremacy, polarized society and led to his ouster in a July 2013 military coup amid mass protests. Empirical analyses of Islamist-governed entities, such as Iran's post-1979 economy or Gaza under since 2007, reveal persistent underperformance: Iran's GDP per capita stagnated relative to global averages, with real growth hampered by sanctions, corruption, and ideological barriers to innovation, while social indicators like female labor participation remain low at around 16% as of 2023. In , the Justice and Development Party (AKP) under , rooted in Islamist Milli Görüş but pragmatically hybrid, delivered initial economic booms (averaging 5.4% GDP growth from 2003–2011) before reverting to and spikes exceeding 80% in 2022, underscoring tensions between Islamist governance and sustained prosperity. Contemporary Islamism faces setbacks from governance failures, including the rise of militant offshoots like , which controlled territory in and from 2014–2019 but collapsed due to military defeats and internal alienating populations. Repression has intensified: banned the as a terrorist group in 2013, followed by similar designations in (2014), UAE, and , eroding its transnational networks. Despite this, pockets persist, such as Hamas's 2006 Gaza victory and Hezbollah's influence in , though empirical data on Muslim-majority states under Islamist sway—evidenced by lower scores (e.g., at 0.455 in 2022 versus global average 0.732)—highlight causal links to institutional rigidity, suppression of dissent, and economic isolation over secular or hybrid models. These outcomes reflect not mere policy errors but structural incompatibilities between rigid implementations and demands for adaptability in modern economies, as argued in analyses.

    Relations with Non-Muslims and Minorities

    In Islamic doctrine, non-Muslims are categorized primarily as dhimmis (protected persons), a status derived from Quranic injunctions such as Surah 9:29, which mandates fighting against those who do not believe in Allah until they pay the jizya tax in submission while feeling themselves subdued. This system, formalized in early Islamic conquests, granted People of the Book—Jews, Christians, and Sabians—limited protections in exchange for financial tribute and adherence to subordinate social norms, while polytheists faced harsher treatment, often including incentives for conversion or warfare as per Surah 9:5. The Pact of Umar, attributed to Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab around 637 CE following the conquest of Jerusalem, codified restrictions on dhimmis, prohibiting them from building new houses of worship, repairing existing ones without permission, displaying religious symbols publicly, proselytizing, or holding authority over Muslims; violators risked loss of protection. Historically, under caliphates and empires like the Umayyads, Abbasids, and Ottomans, dhimmis enjoyed communal autonomy via systems such as the Ottoman millet, allowing internal governance and religious practice, but endured systemic inferiority: distinctive clothing (e.g., yellow badges for ), bans on bearing arms or riding horses, and vulnerability to arbitrary taxation or violence during economic distress. under Muslim rule, from under —who expelled tribes like and —to later periods, faced periodic massacres, such as the 1066 killing 4,000 or the 1465 Fez riots; while some flourished as physicians or traders, their status remained precarious, with forced conversions under Almohads in the displacing figures like . similarly declined under prolonged rule: in , comprised a majority at the 7th-century conquest but dwindled through conversions, burdens, and sporadically enforced restrictions, with Ottoman-era levies conscripting Christian boys into corps. Hindus under Mughal rule, classified as idolaters beyond protections, endured temple destructions (e.g., over 2,000 documented by from 1658–1707), reimposition in 1679 affecting millions, and enslavement during invasions, contributing to demographic shifts where non-Muslims fell from near-total majority to about 20% by 1800. In contemporary Muslim-majority countries, religious minorities have continued to decline sharply, often due to , , and : Christians in the Middle East dropped from approximately 20% of the population in 1900 to under 5% by 2020, with Iraq's Assyrian community shrinking from 1.5 million in 2003 to fewer than 250,000 amid ISIS persecutions. A 2013 Pew survey across 39 countries found majorities in nations like (74%) and (62%) favoring sharia-based laws that enforce dhimmi-like subordinations, including death for , correlating with blasphemy convictions (e.g., Asia Bibi's 2010 death sentence in , upheld until 2018 under international pressure). Empirical data from sources like the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom highlight ongoing issues, such as Yemen's Jewish population falling from 50,000 in 1948 to near-zero by 2021 due to forced expulsions and kidnappings, underscoring causal links between doctrinal and minority attrition, despite apologetic narratives from institutions like Yaqeen Institute emphasizing historical tolerance—which empirical records of pogroms and conversions contradict.

    Controversies and Empirical Critiques

    Interpretations of Jihad and Warfare

    Jihad, derived from the Arabic root j-h-d meaning "to strive" or "to exert effort," encompasses various forms of struggle in Islamic theology, ranging from personal spiritual endeavors to communal military actions. The Quran employs the term in contexts of striving for God, such as in Surah Al-Hajj 22:78, which commands believers to "strive for Allah with the striving due to Him," and Surah At-Tawbah 9:24, referencing striving with one's wealth and life. Classical Islamic scholars, drawing from these verses alongside hadith, distinguished between greater jihad—an internal moral and spiritual purification—and lesser jihad, the external armed struggle, though the hadith elevating the greater jihad above military efforts is classified as weak (da'if) by major hadith critics like Ibn Hajar. In classical fiqh, particularly among the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali schools, jihad as warfare was categorized as fard kifaya (communal obligation) when undertaken to defend Muslim lands or expand the domain of Islam (dar al-Islam) against non-Muslim territories (dar al-harb), permitting offensive campaigns absent a direct threat. Jurists like Al-Shaybani (d. 805 CE) in the Hanafi tradition justified such expansion as a means to propagate Islam and secure jizya tribute from non-Muslims, viewing perpetual enmity between Islamic and non-Islamic realms as normative until submission. Defensive jihad (*jihad al-daf') was deemed fard 'ayn (individual duty) during invasions, as in the Medinan surahs like Al-Baqarah 2:190-193, which permit fighting those who attack but prohibit transgression or aggression. However, doctrines of abrogation (naskh) prioritized later Meccan verses, such as the "Sword Verse" in Surah At-Tawbah 9:5, commanding to "slay the polytheists wherever you find them" after sacred months, which some jurists interpreted as license for unconditional warfare against unbelievers. Islamic rules of warfare, codified in fiqh texts like Reliance of the Traveller by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (d. 1368 CE), prohibit targeting non-combatants, including women, children, clergy, and the elderly, mutilation of bodies, destruction of crops or livestock, and treachery under safe conduct (aman). These derive from prophetic hadith, such as those in Sahih Muslim where Muhammad instructs, "Do not kill a child, nor a woman, nor an old man," during expeditions. Yet, historical applications diverged: early conquests under the Rashidun caliphs (632-661 CE) involved mass executions, enslavement, and forced conversions in regions like Persia and Byzantium, contravening stated prohibitions and reflecting pragmatic imperatives over strict adherence. Ottoman expansions (14th-20th centuries) similarly invoked offensive jihad for territorial gain, with jurists issuing fatwas rationalizing alliances with non-Muslims when expedient, undermining the binary dar al-Islam/harb framework. Modern interpretations bifurcate sharply. Reformist scholars like (d. 1905) and emphasized defensive exclusively, aligning it with and portraying offensive variants as outdated misapplications amid colonial contexts. In contrast, militant groups such as and revive classical offensive paradigms, citing Surah At-Tawbah to mandate global confrontation with "apostate" regimes and Western powers, framing as legitimate lesser jihad to restore a . This militant exegesis, disseminated via fatwas from figures like , rejects peaceful coexistence treaties as abrogated, prioritizing (declaring Muslims infidels) to justify intra-Muslim violence. Empirically, jihadist interpretations have fueled disproportionate violence: the 2024 Global Terrorism Index records 7,998 jihadist incidents in 2023, causing 253 deaths in non-conflict zones and thousands more in theaters like and the , where groups like the and operationalize offensive doctrines. Since 2000, over 200,000 deaths worldwide stem from such attacks, per databases tracking Salafi-jihadist networks, exceeding other ideological extremisms and underscoring the causal potency of scriptural literalism over contextual . Despite condemnations from mainstream bodies like Al-Azhar, the persistence of militant fatwas indicates unresolved tensions between doctrinal ideals and observed outcomes.

    Women's Status and Scriptural Prescriptions

    The establishes male qiwamah (authority and maintenance) over women, predicated on men's financial responsibilities and perceived protective role, as articulated in Surah 4:34, which describes men as qawwamun (maintainers) of women and prescribes a sequence of responses to perceived nushuz (ill-conduct or rebellion) by wives: , separation in bed, and light striking if necessary, while prohibiting further harm if reconciliation occurs. This verse has been interpreted across Islamic jurisprudential schools to justify male guardianship in family decisions, though modern reformist readings emphasize non-violent resolutions and contextual limitations. Scriptural inheritance laws differentiate by gender: 4:11 mandates that a son's share is double that of a daughter's, allocating two-thirds to multiple daughters collectively if no son exists, or half to a single daughter, with provisions adjusted for parental shares absent children. Similarly, evidentiary standards in financial transactions per Al-Baqarah 2:282 equate the testimony of two women to that of one man, rationalized by the potential for one to remind the other if forgetfulness occurs, a rule extended in some to women's general "deficiency" in linked to menstrual exemptions from and . Marriage prescriptions permit polygyny, allowing men up to four wives provided justice is maintained, as in Surah An-Nisa 4:3, which advises monogamy or concubinage as alternatives if equity proves unattainable—a condition classical jurists deemed practically impossible, effectively endorsing male marital plurality while prohibiting polyandry. Hadith reinforce spousal hierarchy, with authenticated narrations stating that if prostration to any human were permissible besides Allah, a wife would prostrate to her husband due to his rights' magnitude, and emphasizing women's obligation to obey husbands in permissible matters as a religious duty. These prescriptions, while granting women rights to , , and initiation (khul'), embed asymmetries that empirical analyses of application attribute to doctrinal ambiguity on economic agency, often resulting in restricted female autonomy in male-dominated interpretations predominant since the CE. Classical tafsirs (exegeses) by figures like (d. 923 CE) frame such rules as divinely ordained for social order, yet critiques from non-traditional scholars highlight their tension with egalitarian principles, noting patriarchal pre-Islamic influences amplified in post-prophetic codification. Variations exist—Shia softens some evidentiary disparities—but Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali) uniformly uphold core gender-differentiated obligations, informing ongoing debates over compatibility with universal frameworks.

    Apostasy, Blasphemy, and Freedom Issues

    In traditional Islamic across major schools of thought, (riddah or irtidad), defined as the renunciation of by a Muslim, is punishable by death for adult males who do not repent after a period of admonition, typically three days. This penalty derives primarily from literature rather than direct Quranic mandates for worldly punishment, with a prominent narration in stating: "Whoever changed his religion, kill him," attributed to and upheld by companions like during the following the Prophet's death in 632 CE. The rationale, rooted in early Islamic expansion, frames as akin to against , potentially destabilizing the community, though the Quran's verse "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256) is interpreted by jurists as applying to initial conversion, not abandonment. While some modern reformist scholars argue for contextual limitation to wartime rebellion, mainstream Sunni and Shia authorities, including those in Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Ja'fari traditions, endorse the death penalty, often requiring judicial process but allowing extrajudicial action in cases of public declaration. As of 2024, at least 12 Muslim-majority countries prescribe the death penalty for apostasy under Sharia-influenced codes, including , , , , , , (under suspended provisions), and states within , (northern regions), and the UAE, with enforcement varying from formal executions to imprisonment or flogging. In , for example, over 30 individuals faced apostasy charges between 2014 and 2020, with at least one execution in 2019; similarly, 's 2022 execution of a man for social media posts deemed apostasy underscores ongoing application. Empirical surveys indicate broad support among : a 2013 poll found 76% of South Asian , 86% in , and over 60% in and Palestinian territories favoring death for leaving , reflecting doctrinal influence over secular norms. Extrajudicial violence persists, as in where 50+ apostasy-related murders occurred from 1990-2020, often by mobs invoking religious duty. Blasphemy (sabb al-Rasul or sabb ), encompassing insults to , the , or , overlaps with in Sharia courts and carries comparable penalties, including death in 13 countries as of 2023, such as , where Section 295-C of the penal code mandates execution for derogating the , resulting in over 1,500 accusations since 1987 and 80+ deaths from vigilante attacks. In , blasphemy convictions rose to 50+ by 2022 under Article 156a, targeting minorities like Ahmadis; Nigeria's northern states apply death under for similar offenses. support includes narrations prescribing killing for public abuse of , as in Sunan Abu Dawood, reinforcing juristic consensus on qisas-like retribution to deter fitna (sedition). data shows 84 of 198 global territories had blasphemy laws in 2019, with Muslim-majority states comprising over half, often enforced asymmetrically against non-Muslims or critics, as in the 2023 Sudanese case where a Christian faced death for alleged insults. These doctrines contribute to systemic restrictions on religious freedom, with Muslim-majority countries averaging high scores on Pew's Government Restrictions Index (median 5.0+ out of 10 from 2007-2020), including bans on to Muslims, mandatory Islamic education, and exit barriers like loss of or custody for apostates. In 22 nations, apostasy laws explicitly criminalize leaving , absent reciprocal protections for converts to , leading to documented cases of forced recantations and asylum claims: UNHCR reported 10,000+ Iranian and Pakistani seeking refuge by 2023 due to threats. While defenders cite communal preservation amid historical , empirical outcomes include suppressed dissent and minority , with rating only 2 of 50 Muslim-majority states as "free" in religious practice as of 2024, attributing causality to Sharia's prioritization of over individual autonomy.

    Compatibility with Secular Modernity

    Islamic doctrine fundamentally posits that sovereignty (hakimiyya) resides with alone, as articulated in Quranic verses such as 12:40 and 33:36, which reject human legislation independent of divine , rendering —defined as the separation of religious and political authority—incompatible with core tenets requiring as the comprehensive legal framework. Traditional Islamic , derived from the and , mandates under divine law, viewing secular systems as usurpation of God's authority, a position upheld by influential scholars like in Milestones (1964), who argued that true Islamic rule precludes man-made constitutions. Empirical surveys reveal widespread Muslim preference for Sharia integration into state law over secular alternatives. A 2013 study across 39 countries found majorities favoring as official law in regions encompassing 99% of Afghan Muslims, 91% of Iraqi Muslims, and 84% of Pakistani Muslims, with solid majorities (over 70%) in the , , and supporting its enforcement, often extending to non-Muslims in certain interpretations. More recent data, such as a 2023 Arab Barometer survey, indicate a resurgence in support for , with preferences for parties emphasizing Islamic governance rising post-Arab Spring in countries like and . Gallup polls similarly show significant majorities in Muslim-majority nations endorsing Islam's role in political life, correlating with lower acceptance of secular pluralism. Governance outcomes in Muslim-majority countries underscore tensions with secular modernity's hallmarks, including , free expression, and . As of the 2023 Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index, most such states score below the global average of 5.17, with examples including (2.08), (4.13), and (2.93), classifying many as "authoritarian regimes" due to theocratic elements suppressing . Freedom House's 2024 assessments rate over 90% of the Middle East-North Africa population under "Not Free" conditions, attributing restrictions to Sharia-derived laws on and , enforced in at least 10 countries with penalties up to death (e.g., , , ). remains punishable by death or imprisonment in nations like and , per U.S. State Department reports, directly conflicting with secular commitments to individual autonomy and exit rights from faith. Historical secular reforms illustrate partial but contested compatibility. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's post-1923 Turkish initiatives abolished the , adopted a secular (1926), and curtailed religious influence in education and attire, fostering modernization amid military enforcement. Gamal Abdel Nasser's (1950s-1960s) pursued Arab socialist , nationalizing assets and suppressing the , yet faced Islamist resurgence after his death, culminating in Anwar Sadat's partial Islamization. These efforts often relied on authoritarian coercion rather than doctrinal reform, yielding reversals like Turkey's Justice and Development Party (AKP) shifts under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan since 2002 toward re-Islamization, reflecting persistent cultural and scriptural resistance to enduring . While modernist interpreters like those in Indonesia's advocate contextual adaptations, mainstream adherence prioritizes divine primacy, limiting stable alignment with secular norms.

    Global Presence and Outcomes

    Demographic Growth and Migration Patterns

    The global Muslim population reached approximately 2.0 billion in 2020, representing about 25% of the world's total and growing at a rate more than twice that of the overall global between 2010 and 2020. This expansion is primarily driven by higher fertility rates among , averaging around 2.9 children per woman in Muslim-majority countries as of recent estimates, compared to the global average of 2.2 births per woman in 2024, alongside a younger median age structure that sustains higher birth cohorts. Projections indicate continued growth, with the Muslim share potentially reaching 30% of the global by 2050 under medium-migration scenarios, fueled more by demographic momentum than religious switching. In Muslim-majority regions, fertility rates have declined significantly—from 4.3 children per woman in the to lower levels today—but remain above replacement in many areas, contributing to increases in and parts of where Muslims predominate. Migration plays a secondary but notable role globally, with net positive flows reinforcing growth in host regions; for instance, estimates that without migration, the Muslim population would still rise due to natural increase, but inflows accelerate shifts in non-majority contexts. Muslim migration patterns since the mid-20th century have concentrated on , , and , originating mainly from , the , , and , driven by labor demands, conflicts, and asylum claims. In , comprised about 4.9% of the in 2016, with projections estimating 7.4% by 2050 under zero net migration—rising to 11-14% with medium-to-high inflows, as seen in Germany's Muslim share reaching 6.6% by 2019 amid post-2015 refugee surges from and elsewhere. Approximately 20% of global Muslim migrants reside in , where and higher immigrant fertility sustain demographic momentum, outpacing native rates in countries like and . In , number around 3-5% of the U.S. as of 2020, with growth similarly attributed to from diverse Muslim-origin countries. These patterns reflect causal factors including economic disparities, political instability in origin countries, and frameworks in destinations favoring skilled or humanitarian entries, though integration challenges and cultural retention often preserve higher birth rates among migrant communities relative to hosts. Empirical data from sources like Pew Research, which rely on census and survey aggregation, underscore that such growth is demographically determined rather than uniformly proselytizing, though projections carry uncertainty from variables like observed in some groups.

    Performance of Muslim-Majority Societies

    Muslim-majority societies, encompassing approximately 50 countries with over 1.8 billion people, display significant disparities in performance metrics, with Gulf states like and the achieving high rankings due to hydrocarbon wealth, while others such as and rank among the lowest globally. In the 2023/2024 (HDI), only a few, including the UAE (ranked 18th with HDI 0.937) and (33rd, 0.899), fall in the very high category, whereas the majority cluster in medium to low tiers; for instance, ranks 164th (0.544) and 183rd (0.424), reflecting challenges in , and income. The regional average for the (OIC) countries lags behind the global mean of 0.727, with systemic issues in inequality-adjusted HDI underscoring uneven progress. Economically, GDP per capita in terms varies widely: leads at $122,280 in 2023 estimates, followed by the UAE ($84,400) and ($74,670), driven by oil exports, but the median across Muslim-majority states remains below $10,000, with at $3,164 and at $4,650. Collectively, OIC countries' GDP totals $24.183 trillion PPP in 2024, representing about 8% of global output despite 25% of , highlighting dependence on commodities rather than diversified . Educational outcomes trail international benchmarks, as evidenced by (PISA) results from 2022, where scored 390 in science (versus average 485), and around 380-400 across reading, math, and science, and few participants exceeding 450. rates exceed 95% in Gulf nations like but dip below 70% in parts of and within the group, correlating with lower enrollment and quality in STEM fields. In innovation and scientific output, Muslim-majority countries contribute modestly to global totals: their share of Web of Science-indexed publications is 5.15%, despite representing a quarter of humanity, with (188,163 papers from 2015-2019) and leading but quality often lower than Western peers. The 2024 ranks the UAE 32nd, 33rd, and 37th as top performers, but most others, like (91st) and (outside top 100), score below global medians in R&D investment and patents. Nobel Prizes in sciences number only four for individuals of Muslim heritage (e.g., in Physics, 1979), contrasting with hundreds for other groups, indicative of limited high-impact . Governance metrics reveal persistent challenges, with the region's 2024 Corruption Perceptions Index average at 39/100, among the lowest globally; scores 63, but (11) and (14) rank near the bottom, linking perceived to authoritarian structures and weak institutions. These patterns persist despite resource inflows, suggesting structural barriers beyond .

    Interactions and Conflicts in the Contemporary World

    Islamist terrorist organizations have conducted the majority of global terrorist attacks since 2000, with over 48,000 incidents attributed to such groups between 1979 and 2021 alone, causing more than 210,000 deaths worldwide. The and its affiliates emerged as the deadliest perpetrator in the , responsible for 69,641 fatalities through bombings, executions, and territorial conquests in , , and beyond, often justified doctrinally as offensive to establish a . Similarly, the in accounted for 71,965 deaths, primarily targeting civilians, , and rival factions in pursuit of enforcement. These acts, rooted in interpretations of as perpetual struggle against perceived infidels, have strained , prompting military interventions like the U.S.-led coalitions in (2001) and (2003), which displaced millions and fueled cycles of . In the , conflicts framed as religious persist, notably the Israeli-Palestinian dispute, where groups like and (PIJ) invoke Islamic doctrine to reject coexistence and pursue Israel's elimination. 's 1988 charter designates as its path, viewing the land as an Islamic (endowment) incompatible with Jewish sovereignty, a stance reiterated in its actions such as the , 2023, attacks that killed approximately 1,200 Israelis and took over 250 hostages. PIJ, committed to destroying Israel via armed struggle, has launched thousands of rockets and suicide bombings since the 1980s, aligning with broader Sunni Islamist goals of reclaiming territory through violence rather than negotiation. These engagements, supported by and echoed in protests worldwide, highlight tensions between Islamist expansionism and secular or Jewish national aspirations, exacerbating regional instability and drawing in global powers. Western interactions with Muslim migrant communities, swelled by over 3.7 million arrivals from Muslim-majority countries to between 2010 and 2016, have generated conflicts over integration and parallel legal systems. In , 82 Islamist attacks since 1979 killed 334 people, including the 2015 and Bataclan assaults, often linked to radicalized immigrants rejecting secular norms. Sharia-based arbitration has gained footholds, with the hosting over 85 such councils handling family disputes, and a 2025 Austrian upholding a Sharia inheritance ruling as compatible with national law, raising concerns over and equality under discriminatory Islamic . Empirical studies indicate divergent human values, with Muslim immigrants in prioritizing tradition and conformity over openness to change at higher rates than natives, correlating with lower integration and heightened post-events like , 2023. These dynamics underscore causal frictions from doctrinal incompatibility with liberal democracies, manifesting in no-go zones, honor-based violence, and demands for accommodations that challenge host societies' legal primacy.

    Key Figures and Influences

    Muhammad and Early Companions

    ibn Abdullah was born circa 570 CE in to the tribe's clan, a merchant family of modest means. Orphaned early—his father before birth and mother by age six—he was raised by his grandfather and later uncle Abu Talib, engaging in trade caravans that exposed him to regional monotheistic ideas from and . At age 25, he married the wealthy widow Khadijah, aged about 40, bearing several children including daughter Fatimah; this union provided financial stability until her death in 619 CE. Around 610 CE, at age 40, reported receiving revelations from the angel in Mecca's Hira cave, claiming divine messages forming the Quran's basis, emphasizing against polytheistic idolatry. Initial converts included Khadijah, cousin , and friend , but preaching faced opposition due to threats to pilgrimage economy and , leading to three years of secret proselytizing followed by public declaration and boycotts. In 622 CE, facing assassination plots, migrated (Hijra) to , establishing the first Muslim community () via the , allying with local tribes including . In , led military expeditions, including raids on Meccan caravans and battles like Badr (624 CE, Muslim victory over larger force) and Uhud (625 CE, tactical loss), framing them as defensive against persecution while expanding influence. He married multiple women post-Khadijah—totaling 11 wives, including young and war captives—often for political alliances or widow support, exceeding the later four-wife limit he imposed on others. By 630 CE, he conquered bloodlessly, destroying idols and granting , unifying Arabia under before dying in 632 CE from illness, prompting succession disputes. Key early companions (sahaba) included , first convert after family, who funded Hijra and became first caliph (632–634 CE), suppressing apostasy rebellions (). ibn al-Khattab, converted circa 616 CE, enforced strict governance as second caliph (634–644 CE), expanding via conquests into Byzantine and Sassanid territories. ibn Affan, third caliph (644–656 CE), standardized compilation but faced nepotism accusations leading to his . Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law via Fatimah, fourth caliph (656–661 CE), whose tenure sparked civil wars (Fitnas) over legitimacy—Sunnis viewing the four as (rightly guided), Shias prioritizing Ali's familial ties and . These figures transmitted and shaped Islamic law, though accounts vary by sectarian sources with potential hagiographic biases.

    Jurists, Theologians, and Philosophers

    Islamic jurisprudence, or , developed through the efforts of early jurists who systematized legal rulings derived from the , , and consensus (). The four major Sunni schools of law (madhabs) were founded by prominent scholars in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. (699–767 CE), founder of the , emphasized analogical reasoning () and personal opinion (ra'y), making it the most widespread madhab today, followed by about one-third of Sunni Muslims. (711–795 CE) established the , prioritizing the practices of Medina's inhabitants (amal ahl al-Madina) alongside , which influenced North and West African legal traditions. ibn Idris (767–820 CE) founded the , authoring Al-Risala, the first systematic work on legal theory (usul al-fiqh), which balanced , consensus, and analogy while rejecting excessive reliance on opinion. (780–855 CE) initiated the , stressing strict adherence to and rejecting rationalist innovations, a approach that later inspired stricter interpretations like those of Ibn Taymiyyah. Theological discourse () arose to defend core Islamic doctrines against internal challenges and external philosophies, with major schools emerging from the 8th century onward. The Mu'tazila, founded by (d. 748 CE) in , advocated , asserting God's justice () implied human and the created nature of the , influencing Abbasid state doctrine during the inquisition (833–848 CE) but ultimately rejected by orthodox Sunnis for overemphasizing reason over revelation. In response, (874–936 CE) developed as a middle path, affirming divine while using kalam to reconcile occasionalism—God's direct causation of all events—with scriptural attributes, becoming dominant in Shafi'i and Maliki circles. (853–944 CE) founded , akin to Ash'arism but more affirming of human reason and moral responsibility, aligning closely with Hanafi jurisprudence and prevailing in and . These schools countered Mu'tazili rationalism by prioritizing God's will as the ultimate causal reality, though critics argue they introduced metaphysical subtleties that diluted scriptural literalism. Islamic philosophy (falsafa), heavily influenced by Greek thinkers like Aristotle and Plato, flourished from the 9th to 12th centuries but faced orthodox backlash for apparent incompatibilities with revelation. Al-Farabi (c. 872–950 CE), dubbed the "Second Teacher" after Aristotle, integrated Neoplatonism with Islam, positing an emanationist cosmology where intellects descend from the One (equated with Allah) to form the universe, and envisioned an ideal virtuous city ruled by philosopher-prophets. Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037 CE) advanced this in works like The Book of Healing, arguing for a necessary existent God as the universe's cause via eternal emanation, and distinguishing essence from existence, ideas that implied a deterministic cosmos challenging occasionalist theology. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE), initially a philosopher, critiqued falsafa in The Incoherence of the Philosophers (1095 CE), accusing Avicenna and al-Farabi of heresy for denying bodily resurrection and affirming the world's eternity, favoring theological voluntarism where God recreates the world anew each instant. Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126–1198 CE) defended philosophy in The Incoherence of the Incoherence, harmonizing reason and revelation by interpreting esoteric Quranic meanings allegorically for elites while allowing literal exoteric senses for the masses, though his emphasis on the unity of intellect undermined personal immortality and contributed to falsafa's decline after his death. These debates underscored tensions between rational inquiry and scriptural authority, with theology prevailing and limiting philosophy's institutional role thereafter.

    Modern Reformers, Radicals, and Critics

    Modern reformers in Islam, emerging primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, sought to adapt Islamic doctrine to contemporary challenges such as Western , scientific advancements, and secular governance through reinterpretation (), , and educational reforms. (1838–1897) advocated pan-Islamic unity and resistance to European imperialism, arguing that Muslims must revive to reclaim intellectual vigor lost under (imitation of tradition). His disciple (1849–1905), as of Egypt, promoted reconciling Islam with modern and , emphasizing ethical over rigid literalism and founding a in to teach sciences alongside religious studies. (1865–1935) extended these ideas by critiquing Ottoman decay and advocating a return to (pious ancestors), though his Salafi leanings later influenced stricter literalist movements rather than liberal reforms. Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), a poet-philosopher in British India, envisioned dynamic to foster a progressive Muslim identity, influencing the while critiquing blind adherence to schools. Despite these efforts, historical assessments indicate limited enduring impact: reformist ideas often devolved into fundamentalist revivalism, as seen in Rida's shift toward Wahhabi alliances, and failed to substantively alter core scriptural prescriptions on , gender roles, or due to doctrinal immutability and clerical resistance. Organizations like the , founded by (1906–1949) as a reform network, initially emphasized personal piety and social welfare but evolved into political activism enforcing . Radical Islamist ideologues in the reframed as a total revolutionary ideology, rejecting secular modernity and promoting against perceived apostate regimes and Western influences. (1906–1966), an Egyptian Brotherhood theorist executed for plotting against Nasser, articulated in Milestones (1964) that modern societies live in (pre-Islamic ignorance), justifying (declaring Muslims infidels) and vanguardist violence to establish divine sovereignty. (1903–1979), founder of Pakistan's (1941), conceived the where supersedes human law, influencing global calls for restoration through political and militant means. (1902–1989) operationalized radicalism via Iran's 1979 , instituting velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist), which centralized clerical rule and exported Shia militancy, resulting in over 3,000 political executions in 1988 alone per estimates. These figures' ideologies fueled groups like , founded by (1957–2011) in 1988, whose 1998 declared war on the U.S., citing U.S. troops in as occupation of holy lands, leading to attacks killing 2,977 on , 2001. Critics of Islam, often from Muslim or ex-Muslim backgrounds, have highlighted doctrinal incompatibilities with liberal values, including scriptural endorsements of , , and suppression of dissent. Ibn Warraq (pseudonym, b. 1946), in Why I Am Not a Muslim (1995), critiques the Quran's historical claims and Muhammad's life as morally flawed by modern standards, drawing on primary texts to argue Islam's resistance to criticism stems from penalties in hadiths like Sahih Bukhari 9:84:57 prescribing death. Ayaan Hirsi Ali (b. 1969), a Somali-born ex-Muslim and Dutch , exposes female genital mutilation and honor killings as rooted in Islamic , as detailed in (2007), and advocates after facing fatwas for films like Submission (2004) co-scripted with Theo van Gogh, who was murdered in 2004. Majid Nawaz (b. 1977), a former member radicalized in his youth and deradicalized in Egyptian prison (2001–2006), critiques Islamist supremacism in Radical (2012), founding Quilliam (2008) to counter extremism, reporting over 100,000 participants in its deradicalization programs by 2017. Such critiques face severe backlash, including death threats and charges under laws in 23 Muslim-majority countries enforcing punishments as of 2023 per USCIRF data, underscoring causal links between orthodoxy and intolerance.

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