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Keling (pronounced [kəliŋ]) or Kling is an exonym to denote a Tamilian or someone deemed to have originated from South India. Originally a neutral term, since the mid-20th century it has been considered derogatory and an ethnic slur,[1] and it is sometimes euphemistically referred to as the K-word.[2] The term is used in parts of Southeast Asia, particularly the Malay Archipelago where there are a significant Tamil diaspora – specifically Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei – but cognates exist in neighbouring countries as well.

Although the early definition was neutral and linked to the historical Kalinga kingdom,[3] it is now generally considered offensive by Indians in Southeast Asia. In Brunei, the word Kaling was not considered to be pejorative, but due to media influence from Malaysia, the majority of Bruneians now tend to avoid using it. In modern usage it is not commonly capitalised. The term has also been used based on skin tone (colourism) whereby it is more likely to be used against visibly darker-skinned Indians.

Etymology

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See also: Sanskritisation, Greater India, Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Buddhism in Southeast Asia, and Treatment of non-Muslims in Islam

The word Keling derives from the ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga. According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.

While this was apparently sometimes localized as Kalingga (as in the Indonesian Kalingga Kingdom), the terminal schwa sound was dropped in common usage to form Keling. Though ostensibly denoting the Kalinga kingdom, the term Keling in ancient Southeast Asia came to be a more general term for India and its people. The Khmer word Kleng (ក្លិង្គ) derived from the same root. Prior to the introduction of the English word "India", Keling and Jambu Dwipa were used to refer to the country in the Malay and Indonesian, while Benua Keling referred to the Indian Subcontinent.[4]

Usage

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The earliest known occurrence of the word Keling appears in the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals).[5] The legend mentions Raja Shulan as the king of Keling who sets out to conquer China with his descendant Raja Chulan. Scholars identify Raja Chulan with the Chola king of southern India,[6] from whom the term Chulia derives, as in Penang's Chulia Street. Later parts of the Sejarah Melayu mention the voyages of Hang Nadim and Hang Tuah to Benua Keling (India). However Keling must not be misunderstood as a specific territory, rather it refers to people of Indian origin and not only the inhabitants of Kalinga.[5] For example, a colonial-era Indonesian tradition refers to the Ramayana epic as Rama meaning "Rama the Indian".[7] After the introduction of Islam, Keling sometimes referred specifically to Malayalee or Telugu people while Gujaratis and Indo-Aryan peoples from Pakistan were often confused with Parsi or Persians.[8]

The Dutch used the words "Clings" and "Klingers" to refer to the Indian inhabitants of Malacca. The British colonial writings also use the word "Kling" to describe the immigrants from Gujarat Presidency and Coromandel coast.[5] John Crawfurd (1856) mentioned that the term "Kling" was used by the Malays and the Javanese as "a general term for all the people of Hindustan (North India), and for the country India itself".[9]

The 16th-century Portuguese traveller Castanheda wrote of the Keling community in Melaka in the period between 1528 and 1538:[10]

In the northern part [of the city of Malacca] live merchants known as Quelins [Klings — a name applied to South Indians]; in this part the town is much larger than at any other. There are at Malacca, many foreign merchants ...

In its early usage Keling was a neutral term for people of Indian Muslim origin,[11] but was perceived negatively beginning in the 20th century due to various socio-political factors. From the mid-1900s, words denoting ethnic origin were used derogatively in Malay to imply immigrant status. Consequently, more neutral language was adopted. This can be observed in the book Cherita Jenaka, where the term orang Keling (Keling people) in the 1960 edition was changed to orang India Muslim (Indian Muslim people) in the 1963 edition.[12]

The phrases Keling-a (Hokkien; 吉寧仔; POJ: Ki-lêng-á[13]), Keling-yan (Cantonese; 吉寧人; Yale: gat-lìhng-yan),(Hakka; 吉靈仔 git-lin-zai); and Keling-kia (Teochew) are frequently used within the Chinese community in Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore. The Hokkien and Teochew suffixes -a and -kia are diminutives, oftentimes used to refer to children, while the Cantonese "-yan" means "people".

Cambodia

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In Cambodia, the slang term for Indian people is Kleng (ក្លិង្គ),[14] also derived from the kingdom of Kalinga and cognate with the Malay Keling or Kling. It may also be used as a nickname for people who have stereotypically Indian features such as big eyes and dark skin.[15]

Indonesia

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Traditionally in Indonesia, Keling is linked with India while Kalingga refers to the 6th century Kalingga Kingdom, which ultimately derived from the Indian Kalinga kingdom. In modern colloquial Indonesian, it is sometimes used to refer to any dark-skinned person of Indian descent, stereotypically associated with South Indians;[16] this usage is considered offensive.

Malaysia

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The word Keling has been used variously within the Malay community to mean an Indian Muslim, but now it is used more to refer to any Indian. The title "Kapitan Keling" was used for a representative of an Indian community, similar to the "Kapitan Cina" of a Chinese community. In early Penang of the 1790s the Kapitan Keling was Cauder Mohideen who, together with the Kapitan Cina Koh Lay Huan and other prominent members of the community, formed the first Committee of Assessors to decide the rates and collection of taxes.[17] This usage is preserved is the name of the Kapitan Keling Mosque, a prominent Penang landmark.

In some modern cases Keling is used as a derogatory term.[11] It was used in 2005 by Members of Parliament in Malaysia because of misconception about Indian Muslim ethnics, which resulted in an uproar accusing the MPs of racism.[18]

Recently, social media slang had given rise to a more subtle word for this slur, "Type K", in which the K stands for the K-word slur like in "Type M" and "Type C".[19]

The definition of the word may vary from one Malaysian state to another. In Kedah, for example, the term is mainly used to refer to Muslims of Indian descent (In Selangor, the word Mamak is used to refer to an Indian Muslim).

Philippines

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For the southern Philippines, it has been suggested that the sobriquet "Kiling", which referred to the name of a local Rajah (Rajah Kiling of Butuan), is not Visayan in origin but rather, Indian, because Kiling refers to the people of India among the Mindanaoans.[20]

Singapore

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In Singapore, Chulia Street was formerly known as Kling Street. Its original name is due to the large numbers of Indians from southern India known as ‘men from Kalinga’, or ‘orang kling’ in Malay who had congregated in the area. After Indian convicts were transported to Singapore, the term ‘kling’ was considered a derogatory association with Indians and the street was renamed to Chulia Street, with Chulia being the north Indian term for the Kalinga kingdom.[21]

During the 2025 Singaporean general election, Singapore Democratic Party's (SDP) candidate Gigene Wong called her fellow SDP candidate Ariffin Sha a "keling kia", believing it to be a "neutral term that Hokkien speakers use to refer to Indians", during a campaign rally.[22] The public took offence to the derogatory term and Wong acknowledged and apologised for her use of the term with the SDP issuing a public apology at the end of a campaign rally.[22]

Thailand

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The equivalent of Keling in the Thai language is Khaek (แขก). It is a generic term referring to anyone from South Asia. The term generally has no negative connotation and is used even in polite or formal communication. However, outside influence and confusion with Mughals and Indian Muslims has broadened the meaning in modern times to include certain predominantly Muslims communities, particularly Persians and Arabs. This extended meaning is considered inaccurate and at times rejected as derogatory, especially by Thai Muslims, but has become increasingly widespread.

Names of places

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Various place names in Malaysia contain the word Keling for historical reasons, e.g. Tanjong Keling.,[23] Kampong Keling,[24] and Bukit Keling, etc.

In Penang, the Kapitan Keling Mosque, situated on the corner of Buckingham Street and Jalan Masjid Kapitan Keling (Pitt Street), is one of the oldest mosques in George Town. Various other Penang Hokkien street names contain the word Keling, e.g. Kiet-leng-a Ban-san (Chowrasta Road), Kiet-leng-a Ke (King Street/Market Street). In Malacca, another mosque also uses the word Kling, Kampung Kling Mosque.

In Singapore, there is a road in Jurong Industrial Estate called Tanjong Kling Road which is probably derived from the word 'Keling'. Chulia Street was formerly known as Kling Street.[21]

In Jepara Regency, Central Java, Indonesia, there is a district called Keling. Locals link the location with the 6th century Kalingga Kingdom. In Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia, there is a place called "Pacar Keling", referring to the "Indian" henna plant (Lawsonia inermis) to differentiate with almost similar look alike plant called "Pacar Cina" (Aglaia odorata). The words "Kampung Keling" (Lit. Keling Village) Is also commonly used by the locals on various cities across Indonesia the denote an Indian settlement both during the Colonial era and within modern day Indonesia.[citation needed]

See also

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Maritime history

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Keling

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from Grokipedia
Keling is an exonym in Malay and Indonesian languages historically denoting people from South India, particularly Tamil merchants and traders who engaged in extensive maritime commerce with Southeast Asian polities from the medieval period onward. The term likely derives from references to the ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga (modern Odisha) or the Chola port of Klinggar, evolving through interactions documented in regional trade records and literature. In classical Malay texts like the Sulalat al-Salatin (Sejarah Melayu), Keling figures appear as skilled navigators, jewelers, and occasionally military allies or adversaries to Malay sultans, reflecting their economic influence in ports such as Melaka. During European colonial rule in Southeast Asia, the title Kapitan Keling was conferred on leaders appointed to administer Indian diaspora communities, underscoring their organized social structures. By the mid-20th century, however, the word shifted toward pejorative usage in Malaysia and Singapore, functioning as an ethnic slur targeting Indian-origin residents and evoking stereotypes of poverty or drunkenness in colloquial expressions. This evolution has sparked modern controversies, including Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim's 2023 reference to it in a historical poem, which prompted public backlash and an apology despite his contextual intent. While some affected individuals advocate reclamation to restore its neutral historical connotation, prevailing social norms in multicultural societies like Malaysia treat it as offensive, highlighting tensions between linguistic heritage and contemporary ethnic sensitivities.

Etymology and Historical Origins

Linguistic Derivation

The term keling in Malay originates from the kaliṅga (कलिङ्ग), referring to the ancient kingdom and historical region of Kalinga located in eastern , corresponding to modern-day . This derivation reflects early maritime contacts between and the , where Kalinga served as a prominent trading hub exporting goods and cultural influences via ports on the . The adaptation into Malay likely occurred through phonetic approximation during pre-Islamic trade networks, predating the 15th century, as evidenced by its appearance in classical texts like the Sejarah Melayu (Sulalat al-Salatin), a 16th-century that employs keling to describe South Indian polities and figures, such as identifying the Chola Rajendra Chola (r. circa 1014–1044 CE) as "Raja Keling." Linguistically, keling functions as an exonym in Austronesian languages of the , generalizing to denote immigrants or traders from the , particularly those perceived as originating from southern or eastern coastal regions rather than strictly Kalinga itself. Cognates appear in related languages, such as Cambodian kleng (ក្លិង្គ), which similarly traces to Kalinga and denotes Indian-descended populations. European colonial records further illustrate this evolution: documents from the 17th century transliterate it as "Clings" or "Klingers" when referring to Indian merchants in Melaka, indicating the term's established usage by the without initial pejorative intent. The shift from a geographic-ethnic descriptor to broader application for South Indians, especially , underscores phonetic and semantic broadening in Malay vernacular, unlinked to direct Kalingan migrations but tied to shared Indic-Southeast Asian lexical exchanges.

Ancient Connections to Kalinga

The term Keling derives from the ancient kingdom of Kalinga, located on India's eastern seaboard (modern-day ), where maritime traders from the region established early contacts with through sea routes. Kalinga's naval capabilities enabled colonization efforts and trade networks extending to Burma, , , and the as early as the 1st century BCE, facilitating the export of goods such as textiles, spices, ivory, and precious stones. These interactions introduced Hindu-Buddhist cultural elements, with Kalinga merchants playing a pivotal role in the Indianization of local societies before the expansions of southern dynasties like the Cholas. A notable outcome was the establishment of the Kalingga Kingdom (also known as Kerajaan Keling) in around the 6th-7th centuries CE, recognized as one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist polities in Indonesian and reflecting direct Kalinga influence through migration and governance models. Archaeological and textual from Odisha's ports, such as Tamralipti and Palur, underscores Kalinga's dominance in these voyages, with annual expeditions like the Bali Yatra sustaining links to , , and beyond for centuries. This kingdom's legacy persisted in local toponyms and administrative practices, blending Kalinga seafaring expertise with indigenous structures. Linguistic traces of these connections endure in Southeast Asian vernaculars, where variants like Kling, Telinga, and Keling originally denoted Kalinga-origin traders before evolving to reference broader Indian populations. Such terms highlight Kalinga's outsized role in pre-colonial exchanges, distinct from overland influences via the valley, as evidenced by shared motifs in temple architecture and epigraphy across and the . These ancient ties underscore a causal pathway from Kalinga's geographic position and maritime prowess to enduring cultural imprints in the region.

Historical Usage and Context

Pre-Colonial Trade and Migrations

The pre-colonial trade networks of Kalinga, an ancient maritime power centered in present-day , , were spearheaded by Sadhabas—merchants and mariners who navigated the to , establishing enduring commercial links from at least the 2nd century CE. These voyages, conducted aboard robust boita ships, typically commenced annually on (October-November) and connected Kalinga ports to destinations including , , , , the , Burma, Siam, , and , facilitating the exchange of goods such as spices, textiles, precious stones, , and . Trade guilds supported these expeditions, emphasizing peaceful commercial expansion over military conquest, though indirect influences from events like Ashoka's (circa 261 BCE) may have spurred initial migrations. Migrations of Kalingan traders and settlers, driven primarily by economic opportunities rather than mass colonization, resulted in the formation of outposts and cultural enclaves across between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE. Reports indicate groups numbering up to 20,000 families settled in alone, contributing to the founding or influencing of polities such as Holing (identified in Chinese records as a Kalinga derivative) and the Sailendra dynasty in , linked etymologically and culturally to Kalinga's Sailodbhava rulers. These settlers, often from and other castes, integrated with local populations, leaving traces in place names like "Orang Klinig" and persisting terms such as "Kling" or "Keling" for Indian-origin communities in the . Archaeological and epigraphic evidence, including inscriptions and architectural parallels—such as Borobudur's motifs resembling those from Kalinga's sites—underscores the role of these migrations in Indianization processes, transmitting , , Indian script, art, and governance models while adapting to indigenous customs. Chinese chronicles further corroborate Kalingan presence, describing kingdoms like Sri Vijaya and Prome () with direct ties to Kalinga trade hubs. This era of exchange laid foundational layers for Southeast Asian societies, blending Kalingan seafaring prowess with regional dynamics until disruptions by later Islamic and European incursions.

Colonial Period Roles

During the British colonial era in Malaya (present-day ) and , from the late onward, Keling—denoting South Indian migrants, primarily from regions like present-day —were extensively recruited as indentured and contract laborers for agricultural estates. This migration intensified after the introduction of rubber cultivation around 1890, with forming the majority of workers on plantations due to their perceived suitability for manual labor under harsh tropical conditions. The kangani system, whereby recruiters (kangani) from prior migrant networks supervised new arrivals, facilitated the influx, peaking in the early when Indians comprised over 60% of estate laborers in key areas like and . Beyond plantations, Keling migrants contributed to development, including the construction of the Railways, operational from 1901 and extended across the peninsula by 1924, where they served as coolies handling track laying and maintenance amid demanding schedules and rudimentary tools. A smaller subset, such as the Nattukottai Chettiar bankers from , acted as financiers, extending credit to European planters and Chinese tin miners from the 1880s, thereby supporting economic expansion without direct labor involvement; their networks spanned Malaya and extended to under British oversight. In the (modern ), Keling roles were more limited during the colonial period, with South Indian communities primarily functioning as merchants, scribes, and moneylenders in port cities like Batavia (). These intermediaries, including groups like the Labbai , facilitated trade links and pilgrimage logistics to , though they numbered far fewer than in British territories and often operated under Dutch commercial oversight rather than large-scale labor recruitment. Overall, Keling participation reinforced colonial extractive economies, with laborers enduring high mortality from diseases like and exploitative contracts, as documented in British administrative reports from the .

Modern Usage by Country

Malaysia

In Malaysia, the term keling historically denoted individuals from the , particularly those originating from the ancient kingdom of Kalinga (modern-day ), who engaged in pre-colonial trade and migration to . Records indicate its usage dates back to at least the in Malay texts, referring neutrally to South Indian merchants and communities that established settlements, as evidenced by enduring place names such as Kampung Keling in and in , named after a 19th-century Indian captain appointed by British colonial authorities. These migrations involved Tamil and other South Indian groups arriving via maritime routes, contributing to cultural exchanges documented in historical accounts like the Sejarah Melayu. During the British colonial era (1824–1957), the term extended to indentured laborers from , primarily , imported for plantation work, numbering over 250,000 by 1910, which embedded keling in local lexicon for the emerging . Post-independence, as (comprising about 7% of the population, mostly South Indian descendants) integrated into society, the word retained descriptive use in some contexts but increasingly carried undertones associating it with stereotypes of , , or , amplified during political tensions like the 1987 UMNO crisis where it targeted figures of partial Indian heritage. Malaysian Indian advocacy groups, such as MIC, have condemned it as a slur, leading to public backlash against its inclusion in official dictionaries by (DBP) with phrases like "keling mabuk todi" (drunken keling), prompting revisions in 2020. Contemporary usage in Malaysia remains polarized: while some defend keling as a neutral ethnonym rooted in historical trade links—arguing derogatory status arose from colonial-era socioeconomic disparities rather than inherent malice—others view it as inherently racist, evoking exclusion amid ethnic hierarchies. A notable 2023 incident involved Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim invoking the term in a speech quoting a 16th-century text to critique elites, sparking outrage from Indian communities and an apology wherein he clarified its historical intent absent modern offense. Efforts to reclaim it exist among some Malaysian Indians, framing it as pride in Kalinga heritage, though mainstream discourse, influenced by multicultural policies under Article 153 of the Constitution, treats casual use as inflammatory. This reflects broader tensions in Malaysia's multiethnic framework, where empirical data on hate speech incidents (e.g., SUHAKAM reports) highlight its role in intergroup friction without evidence of systemic endorsement by state institutions.

Indonesia

In , the term keling historically referred to South Indian immigrants, particularly , who arrived during the Dutch colonial era as traders, laborers, and clerks, establishing communities in northern Sumatra such as . These settlers formed ethnic enclaves like Kampung Keling in , the original hub of the Indian community, where they engaged in commerce, money lending, and textile trade, fostering economic ties with local Indonesians. Similar settlements existed in , , serving as focal points for Tamil cultural and religious practices. Today, Indonesia's Indian-descended population numbers approximately 120,000, concentrated in , with keling persisting in informal speech to denote people of Indian origin or, more broadly, those with dark complexions. While place names like the former Kampung Keling (now officially Kampung Madras in ) retain the term from its neutral historical roots, contemporary usage often carries derogatory connotations, evoking stereotypes of otherness or inferiority akin to regional patterns in and . Local residents in continue to refer to the Little India district as Kampung Keling despite official renamings, reflecting entrenched linguistic habits over formal sensitivities. Public discourse on the term's offensiveness remains subdued compared to neighboring countries, with limited reported incidents of backlash or policy interventions, possibly due to the smaller Indian minority and integrated economic roles of descendants in urban areas. , many of whom are Muslim or Hindu , maintain cultural institutions like temples and mosques in these historic neighborhoods, but the slur's application underscores ongoing ethnic distinctions in a predominantly Austronesian .

Singapore and Other Nations

In Singapore, the term keling is used to refer to persons of Indian descent, particularly , but is widely regarded as a derogatory ethnic slur in contemporary contexts. Its application has diminished relative to , yet instances persist, often evoking offense among affected communities. A prominent example arose on April 26, 2025, during the general election rally for the (SDP) in Marsiling-Yew Tee GRC, where candidate Gigene Wong mispronounced fellow candidate Ariffin Sha's name as "keling kia," a phrase combining the slur with for "child." Wong subsequently apologized twice, claiming ignorance of the term's hurtful implications and attributing it to a error. SDP leader also apologized, expressing regret to for the incident's impact on racial harmony. In , keling denotes South Indian-origin individuals and retains neutral historical ties, as seen in place names like Kampung Keling (also known as Kampung Madras), a Tamil enclave in established during colonial trade eras. Modern usage, however, frequently aligns with pejorative connotations similar to those in and , reflecting post-colonial ethnic tensions. In Brunei, keling refers to Bruneians of Indian descent; historically neutral, its usage has shifted toward pejorative connotations influenced by neighboring countries. In , references to "Kling" historically described South Indian Muslim traders who integrated into 16th-century Ayutthaya society, fostering religious and ethnic diversity through commerce and settlement. Current employment of the term is sparse and lacks the widespread derogatory freight observed elsewhere in , with limited documentation of modern controversies.

Controversies and Debates

Perceptions as Derogatory Term

In , the term "keling" has been widely regarded as a derogatory ethnic slur targeting individuals of Indian descent, particularly , since the mid-20th century, evoking colonial-era stereotypes of indentured laborers and associating the word with negative connotations such as or . This perception intensified during a 2003 when an Indian Muslim group filed a lawsuit against the for including pejorative examples like "keling mabuk " (drunken Indian) in its , arguing it perpetuated racial insults. The slur's offensiveness was highlighted in December 2023 when Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim used "keling" in a speech quoting a historical poem, prompting backlash from Indian community leaders who viewed it as insensitive amid ongoing ethnic tensions; Anwar subsequently apologized, clarifying his intent was literary rather than derogatory, though critics argued it reinforced harmful tropes regardless of context. In Singapore, the term is considered dated and offensive, often equated with slurs like "apu nene," and is avoided in polite discourse due to its implication of inferiority tied to South Indian migrant workers. Perceptions extend to Indonesia, where "keling" is used pejoratively against South Indian communities, linking to historical trade but now carrying undertones of otherness or economic marginalization, as evidenced in social media analyses of hate speech dynamics. Indian diaspora advocates in Southeast Asia consistently report the word's deployment in interpersonal conflicts or online harassment to demean based on skin color, accent, or occupation, fostering a sense of exclusion despite its ancient neutral origins in referencing the Kalinga region. Efforts to reclaim the term, as attempted by some Malaysian Indians, remain marginal and contested, with most viewing such initiatives as insufficient against entrenched discriminatory usage.

Defenses of Neutral Historical Usage

The term "keling" derives etymologically from the ancient Indian kingdom of , located in present-day , whose traders and seafarers established early contacts with Southeast Asian polities as far back as the first millennium CE, leading to its adoption in Malay as a descriptor for South Indian origins without inherent intent. In classical Malay texts like the Sulalat al-Salatin (Sejarah Melayu, circa 17th century), the word appears in neutral contexts, such as "hulubalang keling" denoting warriors from Kalinga or "rakyat keling" referring to its subjects, reflecting a geographical and historical identifier rather than a slur. Defenders of its neutral historical usage contend that the term functioned as a standard in pre-colonial trade networks, akin to how "Gujarati" or "Chola" denoted specific Indian mercantile groups, and that modern offensiveness stems from 20th-century colonial-era distortions or isolated abusive applications rather than the word's foundational meaning. Historical linguists note its documentation in Malay sources from the 15th century onward as a benign label for Indian-origin communities involved in regional commerce, predating British colonial influences that sometimes anglicized it to "Kling" for southern Indians without derogatory overlay. Persistence of "keling" in non-pejorative toponyms, such as Kampung Keling in (established in the 18th century as an Indian settlement) and (named after a 19th-century Indian leader), exemplifies its entrenched neutral role in denoting heritage sites tied to Indian migration waves, unaffected by contemporary sensitivities. Proponents argue that equating such usage with overlooks causal historical continuity, as the term's evolution into a slur correlates with post-independence ethnic tensions rather than its empirical origins in verifiable ancient interactions, urging contextual reclamation over blanket prohibition.

Notable Incidents and Responses

In December 2023, Malaysian Prime Minister used the term "keling" during a speech in while quoting a historical poem by Latiff Mohidin, prompting widespread from Indian community leaders and politicians who viewed it as endorsing a derogatory slur against . Anwar subsequently apologized, clarifying that his intent was to reference historical linguistic context rather than to offend, and emphasized the need for sensitivity in modern usage amid ongoing debates on racial harmony. The incident reignited discussions on whether "keling" retains neutral etymological value from its origins in referencing ancient Kalinga traders or has evolved into a due to colonial-era associations with indentured labor. In March 2021, the (DBP), Malaysia's national language authority, faced backlash after its online dictionary defined "tambi"—a term for Indian estate workers—as sometimes paired with "keling," exemplified in phrases implying drunkenness, which critics like Deputy Chief Minister P. condemned as perpetuating racial stereotypes. DBP responded by agreeing to revise the entry but defended the inclusion as reflecting historical linguistic usage rather than endorsement, while Ramasamy demanded a formal apology and threatened legal action, arguing it institutionalized bias against Indians. The episode highlighted tensions between linguistic preservation and contemporary offense, with no ruling but public pressure leading to the term's eventual removal from the example. Earlier, in April 2018, former Prime Minister repeatedly used "keling" in public statements to describe Indian Malaysians, drawing rebukes from DAP politician P. Ramasamy, who urged him to abandon outdated clichés that could alienate minorities during election campaigning. Mahathir maintained the term's innocuous historical roots tied to South Indian origins, rejecting calls to reframe it as derogatory and arguing against hypersensitivity to language evolution. This exchange underscored partisan divides, with critics accusing selective outrage—citing instances where visual depictions of "keling" in media went unchallenged—while defenders like Aliran commentator P. Ramakrishnan pointed to inconsistent enforcement of offense claims. In February 2025, a Malaysian trader in posted a sign refusing to sell corn to "orang keling," explicitly barring Indians and using the term pejoratively, which went viral and united condemnation from across political lines, including calls from Gerakan president Lau for legislative bans on such slurs to curb everyday . Authorities investigated under laws, but no charges were filed by late February, with responses focusing on social media outrage rather than formal penalties, reflecting broader challenges in enforcing amid claims of cultural normalization.

Cultural and Geographical References

Literary and Media Depictions

In classical Malay literature, such as the 16th-century chronicle Sulalat al-Salatin (also known as the Malay Annals), "keling" refers to a kingdom on the Indian subcontinent depicted as prosperous and powerful, with its rulers and merchants playing key roles in trade and legendary interactions with Malay polities. Figures like Raja Suran, a Keling king, are portrayed possessing magical artifacts, including a throne that could traverse oceans and skies, emphasizing themes of sovereignty and exotic allure. These representations frame Keling entities as influential allies rather than subordinates, reflecting pre-colonial Southeast Asian views of Indian Ocean networks. Modern literary usage in has often highlighted ethnic tensions. Abdullah Hussain's Interlok (originally published 1971, revised edition 2006), a chronicling multi-ethnic lives under British , uses "keling" for Indian characters facing , hierarchies, and social marginalization, including scenes of and practices. Its 2010 selection as Form Five sparked protests by Indian groups, who criticized the term and depictions as perpetuating stereotypes of inferiority and deviance, leading to government reviews and revisions removing specific passages. Hussain defended the choices as authentic to era-specific vernacular, drawn from historical accounts rather than malice. In Preeta Samarasan's Evening Is the Whole Day (2008), "Orang Keling" denotes Malaysian Indian figures amid the 1969 riots, where they evade targeted violence against Chinese due to perpetrators' ethnic categorizations, underscoring ironic survivals rooted in communal biases. Such portrayals critique postcolonial racial dynamics without endorsing slurs. yields fewer prominent examples, with "keling" largely confined to historical references akin to Malay texts, avoiding modern narrative centrality amid sensitivity concerns. Media representations remain sparse and reactive. Malaysian , like PERA's 2019 piece Keling, reclaims the term through visual and theatrical elements portraying as regal and resilient, aiming to desensitize derogatory associations via affirmative imagery rather than erasure. No major films or television series feature "keling" protagonists prominently, reflecting broader avoidance in commercial media to sidestep backlash, though the term surfaces in documentaries on colonial migration.

Place Names and Institutions

Several geographical locations in incorporate "Keling" in their names, reflecting historical settlements of Indian traders and laborers from the , often referred to as Kelings in Malay historical texts. Examples include Kampung Keling in Penang's Southwest District near , Kampung Keling in near , Kampung Simpang Keling in , and Kampung Sungai Keling in . Additional sites such as Tanjung Keling and Bukit Keling in various states preserve the term due to their origins in 19th-century Indian migration patterns under British colonial labor systems. In Indonesia, Kampung Keling in Medan, North Sumatra—originally a Tamil settlement—served as the city's Little India until its renaming to Kampung Madras in the mid-20th century to reflect its demographic composition. The term persists in local references without the derogatory connotations seen in Malaysia, tied to pre-colonial trade links with the Kalinga region of eastern India. Institutions named after "Keling" are predominantly religious, commemorating the role of Indian Muslim communities. The in , established in 1801 and expanded in the 19th century, was founded by Indian Muslim traders holding the title of Kapitan Keling, a colonial-era leader of the Chulias (Tamil Muslims). Similarly, the Kampung Kling Mosque in , dating to the early , draws its name from the Kling subgroup of South Indian Muslims who contributed to its construction during the Sultanate period. These structures highlight the architectural fusion of Indian, Moorish, and local Malay styles, serving as enduring symbols of Keling mercantile influence despite modern sensitivities around the term.

References

  1. https://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/keling.htm
  2. https://www.ijssh.net/papers/342-A00006.pdf
  3. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3246389/anwars-use-derogatory-k-word-sparks-debate-malaysia-language-race-and-history
  4. https://www.vice.com/en/article/keling-is-a-racial-slur-used-against-malaysian-indians-im-now-trying-to-reclaim-the-word/
  5. http://thegreatrawthers.blogspot.com/2015/09/colourful-history-of-racial-slurs.html
  6. https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/orissareview/nov2004/englishPdf/kalingainsoutheastasia.pdf
  7. https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2011/Nov/engpdf/39-41.pdf
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344166091_ROLE_OF_KALINGA_IN_THE_PROCESS_OF_ANCIENT_INDIAN_COLONISATION_IN_SOUTH-EAST_ASIA
  9. https://icich.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/ICICH_2025_Monograph.pdf
  10. https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2019/Nov/engpdf/41-45.pdf
  11. https://www.historyjournal.net/article/302/6-2-30-132.pdf
  12. https://magazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2010/November/engpdf/17-26.pdf
  13. https://www.academia.edu/8047165/Kalinga_In_South_East_Asia
  14. https://ijsser.org/2018files/ijsser_03__87.pdf
  15. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004715400/BP000015.xml
  16. https://www.quora.com/Why-do-place-names-like-Kapitan-Keling-Kampung-Keling-and-Tanjung-Kling-continue-to-be-used-in-Malaysia-if-the-word-keling-itself-is-derogatory-to-Malaysian-Indians
  17. https://www.reddit.com/r/malaysia/comments/5ohvkz/how_and_why_did_keling_became_a_derogatory_term/
  18. https://www.malaysiakini.com/letters/691273
  19. https://malaysia.news.yahoo.com/dbp-backs-down-replace-derogatory-100259887.html
  20. https://jawawa.id/newsitem/kampung-keling-economic-symbiosis-in-medans-1447893297
  21. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/09/07/a-touch-india-sumatra.html
  22. https://thediplomat.com/2018/02/indonesias-indian-community/
  23. https://www.thenewsminute.com/news/stop-using-k-slur-15-year-old-tamil-living-singapore-writes-134801
  24. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/singapore/ge2025-sdp-gigene-wong-ariffin-sha-racial-slur-rally-marsiling-yew-tee-grc-5092416
  25. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/politics/sdp-chief-chee-soon-juan-apologises-for-candidate-gigene-wongs-racial-slur-at-rally
  26. https://www.facebook.com/wakeupSG/posts/dear-straits-times-the-k-word-is-not-a-term-of-endearment/992850779712725/
  27. https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/85FBE98FF776299DEC7995EEB3EEF056/S2051364X21000247a.pdf/kling_muslims_in_sixteenthcentury_ayutthaya_towards_aggregating_the_fragments.pdf
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/393279555_Keling_Cina_and_Meleis_Ethnic_Slurs_Social_Media_and_the_Dynamics_of_Digital_Hate_Speech_in_Malaysia
  29. https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/567800
  30. https://www.reddit.com/r/malaysia/comments/94bbj2/im_sorry_if_this_sounds_racist_but_is_keling_a/
  31. https://malaysia.news.yahoo.com/ramasamy-tells-dbp-remove-racist-020100995.html
  32. https://gempak.com/rojakdaily/news/dewan-bahasa-explains-use-racist-slur-keling-their-website-after-social-media-uproar-60779
  33. https://malaysia.news.yahoo.com/ramasamy-insists-dbp-apologises-over-012800457.html
  34. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2018/04/09/ramasamy-tells-dr-m-to-stop-using-keling-word
  35. https://m.aliran.com/thinking-allowed-online/keling-offensive-when-uttered-but-not-so-when-displayed
  36. https://www.thevibes.com/articles/news/104987/racist-notice-by-trader-reads-sorry-ini-jagung-tiada-jual-sama-orang-keling
  37. https://www.facebook.com/Malaysiakini/posts/gerakan-president-dominic-lau-urged-the-government-to-ban-the-use-of-terms-such-/1114508367381208/
  38. https://www.academia.edu/5567796/The_Images_of_Keling_in_Sulalat_al_Salatin
  39. https://dinmerican.wordpress.com/2011/01/14/interlok-distorts-history/
  40. https://www.thenutgraph.com/the-hypocrisy-surrounding-interlok/
  41. https://bigdogdotcom.wordpress.com/2011/01/29/fearing-history-leave-abdullah-husseins-work-alone/
  42. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17449855.2021.1975406
  43. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_XIfg7b5Z0
  44. https://varnam.my/9478/keling-explorative-art-that-aims-to-challenge-the-derogatory-term-gender-stereotypes/
  45. https://mapcarta.com/15882562
  46. https://www.expedia.com/Kampung-Keling.dx3000751540
  47. https://www.mindat.org/feature-1764326.html
  48. http://www.maplandia.com/malaysia/sabah/kampung-sungai-keling/
  49. https://www.malaysiakini.com/letters/26644
  50. https://www.sunwayhotels.com/sunway-georgetown/experiences/kapitan-keling-mosque
  51. https://penang.attractionsinmalaysia.com/Kapitan-Keling-Mosque.php
  52. https://academicinspired.com/jised/article/download/1610/1610/6440
  53. https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g298303-d451175-Reviews-Kapitan_Keling_Mosque-George_Town_Penang_Island_Penang.html
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