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Lüshunkou, Dalian
Lüshunkou, Dalian
Lüshunkou, Dalian
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Lüshunkou District (also Lyushunkou District; 旅顺口区) is a district of Dalian, Liaoning province, China. The district's area is 512.15 km2 (197.74 sq mi) and its permanent population as of 2020 is 398,579.[2][1][3]

Key Information

Lüshunkou is located at the extreme southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula. It has a natural harbor, the possession and control of which became a casus belli of the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05). Japanese and then Russian administration was established in 1895 and continued until 1905 when control was ceded to Japan. During that period, it was world-famous and was more significant than the other port on the peninsula, Dalian proper.

Also formerly called Lüshun City (旅顺市) or literally Lüshun Port (旅顺港), it was formerly known as both Port Arthur (Russian: Порт-Артур, romanized: Port-Artur) and Ryojun (Japanese: 旅順).

Toponym

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In English-language diplomatic, news, and historical writings, it was known as Port Arthur after a British Royal Navy Lieutenant named William Arthur who surveyed the harbor in the gunboat HMS Algerine in 1860.[4]

During the period when the Japanese Empire controlled and administered the Liaodong (= Liaotung) Peninsula it was called Ryojun (旅順), the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese characters in the city's name. After the Japanese defeat in World War II, the city was under the administration of the Soviet Union, which rented the port from China, until 1950. Although the Soviets presented the port to the new People's Republic of China in 1950, Soviet Armed Forces troops remained in the city until 1955.

Geography

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Dalian and vicinities, Landsat 5 satellite image, 2010-08-03

Central Dalian is some 40 km (25 mi) farther up the coast, sprawling around the narrowest neck of the Liaodong Peninsula (simplified Chinese: 辽东半岛; traditional Chinese: 遼東半島; pinyin: Liáodōng Bàndǎo), whereas Lüshun occupies its southern tip. (See Landsat Map below Zoomed – Lüshun City surrounds the lake-like structure clearly visible near the peninsular tip—the lake-like feature is the inner natural harbour of the port, a very well-sheltered and fortifiable harbour to 19th century eyes.)

The Liaodong Peninsula is located northwest in relation to Korea, the Yellow Sea to its southeast, the Korea Bay to its due east, and the Bohai Sea (or Gulf) to its west. Beijing is almost directly (due west-northwest) across the Bo Hai Gulf from the port city.

History

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Artillery battery at a fortress in Lüshunkou

In the late 1880s, the German company Krupp was contracted by the Qing dynasty to build a series of fortifications around Port Arthur. Reportedly, this was after local contractors had "made an extensive bungle of the job".[5]

Port Arthur first came into international prominence during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895). Following Japan's victory over the Imperial Chinese Army troops at the Battle of Pyongyang in Korea in September 1894, the Japanese First and Second Armies converged on the Liaodong Peninsula by land and sea. Imperial Japanese Armed Forces war planners, ambitious for control of the Liaodong Peninsula and Port Arthur and also cognizant of that port's strategic position controlling the northern Yellow Sea routes and the passage to Tianjin, were determined to seize it.

Lüshun Museum

On 20–21 November 1894, 15,000 Japanese troops defeated 13,000 Qing soldiers and conquered Lüshunkou. The Port Arthur massacre resulted in the deaths of somewhere between 2,600 civilians and 20,000 people including Chinese soldiers.

Japan went on to occupy Port Arthur and to seize control of the whole Liaodong Peninsula. As part of the terms of the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki concluding the war, Japan was granted the Liaodong Peninsula but had to cede the territory when threatened jointly with war by France, Germany and Russia in what is called the Triple Intervention of 1895. This was seen as a great humiliation in Japan.

Russian base in Port Arthur

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The Russian Empire in 1898 coerced a lease from China of the Liaodong Peninsula and created the territory of Russian Dalian. It gained railroad right-of-way to join the Liaodong Peninsula to the Chinese Eastern Railway with a line running from Port Arthur to the Chinese city of Harbin, and systematically began to fortify the town and harbor at Port Arthur.[6] Tsar Nicholas II believed this acquisition of a Pacific port would enhance Russian security, and extend its economic influence. He was also falsely informed that the British Empire was considering seizing the port.[7] Nicholas founded Dalny (later Dalian) near Port Arthur and also on the Chinese Eastern Railway. In 1902, the Russian viceroy de-emphasized Dalny, building a palace and cultural edifices at Port Arthur instead. All of these developments contributed to Japanese resentment towards Russia over competing imperial aims in Manchuria.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)

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Ten years later, Port Arthur again played a central role in war in China. After the Boxer Rebellion (1900–01) had been extinguished by an international Eight-Nation Alliance of troops, the Imperial Russian Army refused to withdraw its reinforcements from Manchuria and instead began to fortify and garrison the entire route along the Southern Manchurian Railway. With this development, Japan proposed the two powers meet and discuss their respective roles in eastern Manchuria, as the area was considered being in their respective spheres of influence. Talks were conducted between 1902 and 1904. While numerous proposals and agreement papers were generated between the two powers, Russia continued the de facto annexation of territory through fortification and garrison, if not de jure; while employing stalling tactics in its negotiations. In the end, with over two years of intensive bilateral negotiations having gotten nowhere in clarifying each country's rights, prerogatives, and interests in Manchuria, Japan attacked Port Arthur and the Russian fleet without declaring war in February 1904.

The Battle of Port Arthur

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A Japanese propaganda block print of the night attack on Port Arthur by the Japanese Navy

The Battle of Port Arthur, the opening battle of the Russo-Japanese War, was fought in the heavily fortified harbor of the town of Port Arthur/Lüshun on 9 February 1904 when the Japanese attacked at night with torpedoes, followed by a brief daylight skirmish by major surface combatants.

By the end of July 1904, the Japanese army had pushed down the Liaodong peninsula and was at the outer defenses of Port Arthur. The fact that Japanese forces had closed to within artillery range of the harbor in early August 1904 led directly to the naval Battle of the Yellow Sea which solidified Japan's command of the sea, where her fleets continued to blockade the harbor. Virtually all the battles of the war until July 1904 were strategic battles for territorial gain or position leading to the investment and siege of the port city.

The port eventually fell 2 January 1905 after a long train of battles on land and sea during which the Japanese occupied the whole of the Korean Peninsula, split the Russian Army, devastated the Imperial Russian Navy, and cut off the source of supplies on the railway from Harbin, culminating in the bloody battle known as the Siege of Port Arthur (June–January; some sources place the siege start in late July, a technical difference due to definitions).

Japanese Ryojun

[edit]

After Japan's defeat of Russia, it took over Kwantung Leased Territory and renamed Port Arthur to Ryojun. The Japanese-controlled Ryojun City had 40 districts. They built the war monuments on 203 Hill and Baiyu Mountain. The Port Arthur–Harbin line became part of the South Manchurian Railway. After Japan created the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, Japan regarded its lease as being held from Manchukuo rather than from China.

Post-war administration

[edit]
Map of Lüshun, ca. 1950s

The Chinese Lüshun City was established on 25 November 1945 to replace Ryojun. The city was a subdivision of a larger Lüda City and contained 40 villages in 3 districts: Dazhong (大众区; 大眾區), Wenhua (文化), and Guangming (光明). In January 1946, Wenhua was merged into Dazhong, and the 40 villages were reduced to 23 communes (坊). In January 1948, the remaining two districts were merged into one: Shinei (市内区; 市內區), with 12 communes.

Under the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance signed by Joseph Stalin and Chiang Kai-shek, the Republic of China agreed to allow the Soviet Navy to maintain a base there in exchange for Soviet diplomatic recognition of the Nationalist government. However, the USSR later used the port to assist the Chinese Communist Party's People's Liberation Army during the Chinese Civil War, leading to the Kuomintang's overthrow.[8]

On 7 January 1960, Lüshun City was renamed Lüshunkou District, still under Lüda. In 1981, Lüda was renamed Dalian, with Lüshunkou remaining a constituent district. In 1985, 7 of Lüshunkou's 9 townships were upgraded to towns.

Lüshunkou District administers 9 subdistricts; all of the former towns were either abolished, merged or converted into subdistricts themselves.[9]

The city's southern half along Lüshun South Road, central Lüshun and the Naval Port zone continue to be off-limits to foreigners although Lüshunkou District is thoroughly modernized. The World Peace Park opened on the western coast of Lüshun, becoming a sightseeing spot.

The universities in downtown Dalian are being relocated to Lüshunkou. Dalian Jiaotong University (formerly Dalian Railroad University) moved its software school to the area near the new port, and the Dalian University of Foreign Languages and Dalian Medical University relocated their main campuses to the eastern slope of Baiying Mountain, on Lüshun South Road. Dalian Fisheries University is in the process of moving its English and Japanese language schools to Daheishi, on Lüshun North Road. From late 2006, Sinorail has operated the Bohai Train Ferry between Lüshun, Dalian, and Yantai, Shandong.[citation needed]

Historic and modern names, translated into English, of landmark facilities in Lüshun[citation needed]
Under Russian rule Under Japanese rule Under Chinese rule[original research?]
The Old Town
Unknown Lüshun City Hall Commercial Bldg. on right of New Mart Supermarket
Unknown Public Welfare Office Naval Hotel
— Lüshun Branch, Bank of Chōsen Lüshun Branch, Commercial Bank of China
— Lüshun No. 1 Primary School A Naval Facility (on left of Zhangjian Rd. South 3rd Alley)
Red Cross Hospital Lüshun Hospital & Medical School A Naval Facility (Lüshunkou Hospital on north side)
— Kwantung High Court Old Kwantung High Court (inside Hospital premises)
Lüshun Jail (Gray Walled Bldgs.) Lüshun Jail (Extended with Red Walled Bldgs.) Russo-Japanese Jail (Anti-Imperialist Propaganda Facility)
— Lüshun Danish Lutheran Church Lüshunkou Christian Church
— Hyochu (Showing Loyalty) Tower White Jade Tower
— Asahi (Morning Sun) Plaza Friendship Park
The New Town
Unknown Japan Bridge (over the Long He) Liberation Bridge
Russian Marines Hqs. Lüshun Institute of Technology Navy Hospital No. 406
Unknown Lüshun High School A Naval Facility (Lüshun command)
A German Merchant's Store Lüshun (No. 1) Middle School A Naval facility (No. 58 Stalin Rd.)
Meeting Place of Sniper Unit's Non-commissioned Officers Lüshun No. 2 Primary School Dalian City No. 56 Middle School
Ji Fengtai's Shop The Lüshun Yamato Hotel Shop & Hostel
Unknown Lüshun No. 2 Middle School Not Used
Photoshop/Town Hall/Restaurant Lüshun Girls' High School Navy Related Families' Living Quarters
Unknown Kodama Ground Ground for Navy
Unknown Korakuen Park Lüshun Museum Park


Climate

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Climate data for Lüshunkou District, elevation 67 m (220 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1991–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 11.2
(52.2) 		15.1
(59.2) 		22.3
(72.1) 		26.7
(80.1) 		33.6
(92.5) 		34.7
(94.5) 		37.5
(99.5) 		36.6
(97.9) 		32.0
(89.6) 		27.0
(80.6) 		20.5
(68.9) 		14.3
(57.7) 		37.5
(99.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 0.6
(33.1) 		2.7
(36.9) 		7.9
(46.2) 		14.6
(58.3) 		20.4
(68.7) 		24.2
(75.6) 		27.0
(80.6) 		27.7
(81.9) 		24.5
(76.1) 		18.2
(64.8) 		10.3
(50.5) 		3.5
(38.3) 		15.1
(59.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −3.0
(26.6) 		−1.0
(30.2) 		3.8
(38.8) 		10.1
(50.2) 		15.9
(60.6) 		20.2
(68.4) 		23.6
(74.5) 		24.3
(75.7) 		20.8
(69.4) 		14.4
(57.9) 		6.7
(44.1) 		0.0
(32.0) 		11.3
(52.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −6.3
(20.7) 		−4.3
(24.3) 		0.4
(32.7) 		6.4
(43.5) 		12.0
(53.6) 		17.0
(62.6) 		21.1
(70.0) 		21.6
(70.9) 		17.3
(63.1) 		10.7
(51.3) 		3.1
(37.6) 		−3.5
(25.7) 		8.0
(46.3)
Record low °C (°F) −18.0
(−0.4) 		−15.4
(4.3) 		−8.5
(16.7) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		5.0
(41.0) 		8.6
(47.5) 		15.8
(60.4) 		14.3
(57.7) 		7.9
(46.2) 		−0.7
(30.7) 		−9.0
(15.8) 		−13.0
(8.6) 		−18.0
(−0.4)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 4.0
(0.16) 		6.4
(0.25) 		11.5
(0.45) 		32.5
(1.28) 		55.7
(2.19) 		71.2
(2.80) 		129.0
(5.08) 		160.4
(6.31) 		46.1
(1.81) 		34.3
(1.35) 		26.1
(1.03) 		8.5
(0.33) 		585.7
(23.04)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 3.1 2.2 3.0 5.5 6.5 7.8 9.0 8.5 5.2 5.3 5.2 4.3 65.6
Average snowy days 6.0 3.7 1.7 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 3.2 7.4 22.4
Average relative humidity (%) 60 61 59 60 64 77 85 84 73 65 62 60 68
Mean monthly sunshine hours 178.6 182.7 233.2 242.1 264.7 231.7 192.7 211.7 225.4 210.8 160.7 154.8 2,489.1
Percentage possible sunshine 59 60 63 61 60 52 43 51 61 62 54 53 57
Source: China Meteorological Administration[10][11]

Education

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See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lüshunkou, Dalian

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lüshunkou District constitutes the southernmost portion of municipality in Province, northeastern , situated at the tip of the and distinguished by its narrow-entrance, deep-water harbor that remains ice-free throughout the year, thereby enabling continuous naval access and underscoring its longstanding geopolitical value in safeguarding approaches to southern , western Korea, and the coast.
Originally known to the Chinese as Lushun-k'ou and renamed Port Arthur in 1860 by a British naval officer, the site was fortified in the 1880s under Chinese direction with modern artillery before secured a 25-year lease in 1898 to establish a Pacific , a move that precipitated conflict.
Captured by Japanese forces in a mere 24 hours during the (1894–1895) and again after a protracted lasting over 11 months in the (1904–1905), Lüshunkou exemplified the high costs of modern fortress warfare and shifted regional dominance toward , which administered the territory until 1945.
Following Soviet occupation from 1945 to 1955, the district reverted to Chinese sovereignty and was merged with adjacent to form the administrative entity Lüda, subsequently reorganized as a district within the renamed municipality, where it continues to support port operations and historical preservation amid broader economic integration.

Etymology

Historical Names and Translations

Lǚshùn (旅顺), the core area of present-day Lüshunkou District, received its during the (1368–1644), evoking wishes for unhindered voyages and favorable winds through the characters lǚ (旅, journey) and shùn (顺, smooth). This designation encompassed the harbor and surrounding region, later formalized as Lǚshùnkǒu (旅顺口) to denote the "mouth" or estuary configuration. Until mid-20th-century administrative reforms, it operated as Lüshun City (旅顺市) or Lüshun Port (旅顺港), reflecting its maritime focus; in 1950, it merged with Dalian to form Lüda (旅大), and by 1981, it was reorganized as Lüshunkou District under the renamed Dalian municipality. From 1898 to 1904, under Russian leasehold following the after the , the site was designated Port Arthur (Russian: Порт-Артур), a emphasizing its role as a fortified naval outpost; this Western appellation, of 19th-century European surveying origin, supplanted local usage in diplomatic and military records. Subsequent Japanese control from 1905 to 1945, post-Russo-Japanese War victory, rendered it Ryojun (旅順), adapting the while aligning with imperial nomenclature for the Kwantung Leased Territory's southern hub. These foreign terms endured in global due to wartime associations, notably the 1904–1905 siege, though post-1945 Soviet occupation and Chinese resumption reverted officially to Lǚshùn variants.

Geography

Physical Features and Location

Lüshunkou District occupies the extreme southern tip of the in Province, northeastern , forming the southwestern portion of municipality. Its geographic coordinates are approximately 38°49′N 121°14′E. The district extends along the to the west and the to the east, positioned at the entrance to the Bohai Strait, which enhances its strategic maritime significance. The terrain of Lüshunkou is predominantly mountainous and hilly, with elevations typically ranging from to around 461 meters at its highest peaks. Rolling hills and rugged landforms characterize the interior, interspersed with rivers, lakes, forests, and wetlands that contribute to a diverse . The district features a deeply indented coastline exceeding 100 kilometers in length, marked by bays, capes, and clear waters conducive to marine ecosystems. A key physical feature is the natural, ice-free harbor at Lushun (formerly Port Arthur), sheltered by surrounding hills and providing deep-water anchorage for naval and commercial vessels. This harbor, formed by the confluence of , has historically facilitated year-round shipping due to minimal formation, distinguishing it from northern ports. The surrounding includes protective headlands that create multiple sheltered inlets, underscoring the area's defensibility and economic value.

Ports and Infrastructure

Lüshun Port, situated in Lüshunkou District, constitutes a natural deep-water, ice-free harbor at the southern extremity of the Liaodong Peninsula, providing strategic access to the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea. This geographic advantage has historically supported naval operations, with the port's depths and equipment enabling provisioning of oil and water to vessels. Currently, the facility primarily serves military purposes under the People's Liberation Army Navy, hosting the Liaonan Shipyard established in 1883 for warship construction and maintenance. Commercial development remains subordinate to naval priorities, though expansions at the New were planned in the early to add nine berths at a cost of $355 million over three years. Unlike Dalian's principal commercial terminals, Lüshunkou's port handles limited civilian cargo, focusing instead on defense-related amid ongoing shipyard enhancements. Supporting infrastructure includes integration into Dalian's network via Line 12, operational since 2021, with key stations at Lüshun and Lüshun New Port facilitating passenger and freight connectivity to central Dalian. Road systems, bolstered by district-wide urban planning completed by 2019, link the area to broader Province networks, aiding industrial relocation and .

History

Pre-Modern Period

Archaeological investigations reveal human settlements in the Lüshunkou area dating to the mid-Neolithic period (approximately 7.5–5.0 ka BP), with sites such as Donggang and Guojiacun linked to the Middle Xiaozhushan Culture. These coastal locations, often below 50 meters above on slopes under 6° and more than 3 km from major rivers, clustered on areas like Guanglu Island and supported economies centered on and . During the (5.0–4.0 ka BP), settlement patterns evolved, expanding to mainland sites including Santang and Dapanjia village (dated 4.8–4.1 ka BP), still favoring low elevations and gentle slopes but with some proximity to rivers under 1 km. This phase marked a slight decrease in aggregation compared to earlier clustering, alongside emerging reliance on and . By the (4.0–3.0 ka BP), settlements in the broader Dalian region, encompassing Lüshunkou, adapted to varied terrains, including elevations over 100 meters, steeper slopes (6–25°), and river distances under 3 km, coinciding with peak numbers of sites and advancements in agricultural techniques. The harbor, long designated Lüshun-k'ou by Chinese records, maintained modest significance as a outlet through subsequent dynasties, with the name "Lüshun" formalized in the Ming period to invoke safe passage and favorable winds. Prior to the 17th century, it lacked major fortifications or central administrative roles, reflecting its peripheral status in Liaodong's coastal economy.

Qing Dynasty and First Sino-Japanese War

During the late , Lüshunkou developed into a vital strategic port on the . Qing authorities established a there by the early , but significant occurred in the amid rising tensions with imperial powers. In 1880, the Lushunkou military port was constructed, positioning it among the world's leading fortified harbors and serving as the principal base for the , the Qing Empire's northern naval squadron. Fortifications expanded rapidly from 1884 onward, with coastal batteries and defenses built under the supervision of German engineers and firms like to protect against foreign incursions, particularly from . Key installations, such as the Yizishan Fort completed in 1889, aimed to safeguard the approaches to via the . Lüshunkou earned the designation of the "First Fort in the " due to its role in coastal defense and control over maritime routes. The (1894–1895), triggered by disputes over Korea, elevated Lüshunkou's prominence as sought to dismantle Qing naval power. Japanese Second Army forces, advancing from the Korean Peninsula, assaulted the port on November 18, 1894. After three days of fierce engagements, they overran Qing defenses on November 21, securing the harbor and neutralizing the Beiyang Fleet's main anchorage. The capture enabled Japanese dominance in the , paving the way for further advances into . In the aftermath, Japanese troops massacred surrendering Qing soldiers and local civilians, an incident documented in contemporary foreign reports as unjustifiable under civilized warfare standards, with thousands reported killed. The , signed on April 17, 1895, provisionally ceded Lüshunkou and the to , but the by , , and in November 1895 forced to retrocede the territory to Qing control in return for an augmented .

Russian Occupation (1898–1904)

On March 27, 1898, the Russian Empire and the Qing Dynasty signed the Convention for the Lease of the Liaotung Peninsula, granting Russia a 25-year lease over the territory including Lüshunkou (known to Russians as Port Arthur) and Dalian (Talianwan or Dalny), along with the adjacent waters and the right to construct a railway connecting the leased area to the Chinese Eastern Railway. This lease, coerced amid the broader scramble for concessions in China following the First Sino-Japanese War, established the Kwantung Leased Territory under Russian civil and military administration, with Port Arthur designated primarily as a fortified naval base and Dalny as a commercial port to support Russian Pacific ambitions. Russian authorities rapidly fortified Lüshunkou, enhancing pre-existing Chinese defenses designed by German engineer Major Constantin von Hanneken with extensive harbor protections, batteries, and landward fortifications to create one of Asia's strongest naval bases, second only to Russia's Baltic facilities in investment and strategic priority. By 1903, these included multiple concrete forts overlooking the harbor and approaches, manned by Russian troops and integrated with the Pacific Fleet's berthing facilities, reflecting Tsarist Russia's intent to secure a year-round, ice-free anchorage against potential like . The military focus limited civilian development in Lüshunkou, prioritizing defensive over urban expansion. In contrast, Dalian underwent planned commercial development starting in under Chief Engineer V. Sakharov, who drafted a European-style plan featuring a grid layout with wide boulevards (such as Kiev Prospect and Prospect), a central square for financial institutions, segregated districts including a "Chinese Town," and facilities like wharves, warehouses, and a yard connected to the new line. The Russians constructed a branch of the southward from , completing the line to Dalian and Lüshunkou by early 1903, facilitating in timber, smelting, shipping, and industries that industrialized the area and positioned Dalny as a terminus for Siberian commerce. Despite these efforts, volumes remained modest by 1904 due to incomplete infrastructure and geopolitical tensions. The occupation emphasized Russian strategic consolidation in , with over 20,000 troops stationed by 1903 and significant investment in dual-use , but it provoked Japanese concerns over regional dominance, culminating in the Russo-Japanese War's outbreak on February 8, 1904, with a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Lüshunkou harbor.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)

The Russo-Japanese War erupted with a surprise Japanese naval assault on the Russian Pacific Fleet at anchor in Lüshunkou's harbor (known as Port Arthur) on the night of February 8–9, 1904. Japanese destroyers torpedoed and damaged several Russian battleships, including the Retvizan and , though no ships were sunk, and the attack inflicted around 150 Russian casualties against 132 Japanese losses. Following the initial naval engagement, Japanese Third Army forces under General landed on the in May 1904 and initiated a land against the heavily fortified Russian garrison commanded by General Anatoly Stoessel. The defenders, bolstered by extensive pre-war fortifications and an ice-free deep-water , repelled multiple Japanese assaults on surrounding heights during the summer and autumn, prolonging the conflict into one of the war's most grueling campaigns. A pivotal breakthrough occurred with the Japanese capture of 203 Meter Hill on November 30, 1904, after weeks of intense fighting that allowed placement of heavy artillery overlooking the harbor, leading to the of the remaining Russian fleet. Exhausted and facing inevitable defeat, Stoessel surrendered the on January 2, 1905, yielding 32,000 prisoners. Japanese forces incurred over 60,000 casualties in killed and wounded during the approximately 240-day , while Russian losses reached about 30,000 from combat and disease. The fall of Lüshunkou crippled Russian naval operations in the Pacific and boosted Japanese morale, paving the way for their dominance in subsequent battles and the that ended the war.

Japanese Administration (1905–1945)

Following the , the on September 5, 1905, transferred Russia's leasehold rights over the , including Lüshunkou (renamed Ryojun by ), to , with China's formal consent to the arrangement. This established the , encompassing approximately 3,400 square kilometers with Lüshunkou as the southern military hub and the adjacent (Dairen) area as the commercial center. The territory served as Japan's strategic foothold in , facilitating naval operations and railway access northward. The Kwantung Government-General, headquartered in Ryojun, administered the territory through a dual civil-military structure, with a overseeing both domains and the providing security and enforcement. Formed in 1906, the maintained its headquarters in Ryojun, initially as a force protecting Japanese interests and the . Lüshunkou's harbor was fortified as a primary , with reconstructing Russian-era defenses and expanding dockyards to support the Imperial Japanese Navy's Pacific operations. Civil governance emphasized Japanese settler priorities, including land allocation and that segregated Japanese and Chinese populations. Japan invested heavily in infrastructure to integrate the territory into its empire, modernizing Lüshunkou's port facilities and linking them via the (Mantetsu), which extended 700 kilometers northward by 1910 and handled over 10 million tons of freight annually by the 1930s. emerged as a free port in , evolving into a key for , , and iron exports from , with Lüshunkou complementing it through naval logistics and ship repairs. Economic activities prioritized resource extraction for , fostering industries like chemicals and cement in the region, though growth disproportionately benefited Japanese firms and settlers, comprising about 16% of the territory's 1 million residents by the mid-1930s. This development model exemplified railway , using Mantetsu to control Manchurian trade routes and suppress local autonomy. The Kwantung Army's influence expanded after the 1931 , which orchestrated to justify invading Manchuria and establishing the puppet state of in 1932, though the remained a distinct administrative enclave until 1945. Lüshunkou's strategic role intensified during , serving as a staging point for operations in and the Pacific, with its defenses bolstered by bunkers and emplacements. Japanese administration ended abruptly on August 9, 1945, when Soviet forces launched Operation August Storm, overrunning the —reduced to under 600,000 troops amid Pacific transfers—and capturing Ryojun after minimal resistance, leading to the territory's handover to Chinese authorities post-war.

Soviet and Post-WWII Transition (1945–1949)

Following the Soviet declaration of war on on August 8, 1945, forces invaded Japanese-held and captured Lüshunkou—known to the Soviets as Port Arthur—on August 22, 1945, expelling the remaining garrison with minimal resistance. This operation fulfilled Soviet strategic aims outlined at the earlier that year, where Allied leaders had agreed to restore Russian pre-1904 rights in the region, including use of the port as a warm-water to secure Pacific Fleet access. On August 14, 1945, the USSR and the Republic of signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance, designating Lüshunkou a joint Sino-Soviet for 30 years under nominal Chinese sovereignty; the agreement stipulated Chinese civil administration, joint defense responsibilities led primarily by Soviet forces, and exclusive use of the facilities by Chinese and Soviet naval and commercial vessels. In practice, Soviet military authorities exercised direct control over Lüshunkou and adjacent from , establishing administrative structures that prioritized naval operations, infrastructure repairs, and resource extraction to offset war costs, including the disassembly and shipment of Japanese-built industrial equipment as reparations. This occupation isolated the port district from Nationalist Chinese forces during the ongoing , as Soviet commanders restricted access and maintained a buffer zone that prevented Kuomintang incursions while allowing limited (CCP) liaison activities. By 1947, CCP armed units had begun accumulating in the vicinity, leveraging Soviet tolerance to consolidate influence in amid the broader communist offensives. As the secured major Northeast industrial centers by late 1948, Lüshunkou's Soviet administration adapted to align with the shifting power dynamics, facilitating CCP and urban reforms modeled on Soviet practices, such as centralized and worker mobilization. By October 1949, with the PRC's proclamation, the port's civil governance transitioned toward CCP oversight under the enduring Soviet lease, marking the end of exclusive wartime occupation while preserving joint naval status until later renegotiation.

Integration into PRC and Modern Era (1949–Present)

Following the founding of the on October 1, 1949, Lüshunkou remained under joint Soviet-Chinese administration, with Soviet forces maintaining control of the naval base at Port Arthur (Lüshun) as stipulated in post-World War II agreements. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance, signed on February 14, 1950, committed the to withdraw its troops from the base by the end of 1952, but this timeline was extended due to the (1950–1953) and ensuing geopolitical tensions. Soviet military personnel began evacuating in May 1955, completing the handover to full Chinese sovereignty by September of that year, after which the facility transitioned to use by the . In parallel, Lüshunkou underwent administrative reorganization to align with PRC central governance. On December 30, 1950, it was merged with the adjacent city of to form the combined of Lüda (Lüshun-Dalian), facilitating coordinated urban and industrial under socialist principles, including land redistribution and collectivization efforts typical of early PRC policies. By January 7, 1960, Lüshun was redesignated as Lüshunkou District within Lüda, emphasizing its role as a peripheral district focused on infrastructure and defense rather than . The Soviet withdrawal enabled the PRC to repurpose former colonial-era assets, such as naval docks and railways, for domestic , while initial economic activities centered on fisheries, ship repair, and light manufacturing amid national campaigns like the First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957). Post-1978 economic reforms under accelerated modernization in Lüshunkou. Dalian, renamed from Lüda in 1981 with Lüshunkou as a constituent , was designated an "open coastal city" in 1984, spurring foreign investment and upgrades, including expanded capacity that indirectly benefited Lüshunkou's harbor facilities. The shifted from primarily military use toward and heritage preservation, leveraging its Russian and Japanese colonial architecture—such as the Lüshun Museum (established 1912, repurposed post-1949) and preserved fortifications—to attract visitors, with annual receipts contributing to local GDP growth. By the 2020 national census, Lüshunkou's permanent population stood at 398,579, reflecting modest amid broader metropolitan expansion, though aging demographics and rural depopulation posed challenges.

Demographics

The permanent population of Lüshunkou District has exhibited substantial growth since the early 2010s, largely attributable to economic expansion in port activities and related industries attracting migrant labor from other regions. According to China's Sixth National Population Census conducted in 2010, the district's permanent population totaled 216,212 residents. By the Seventh National Population Census in 2020, this figure had risen to 398,579, representing an average annual growth rate of 2.1% over the decade, with population density reaching 732.1 persons per square kilometer across 544.4 square kilometers.
YearPermanent Population (persons)Registered Population (persons)Notes
2010216,212Not specifiedSixth data.
2013252,000221,300Early post-2010 growth phase.
2014–2016~305,700~221,400Stable mid-decade levels.
2020398,579Not specifiedSeventh ; 84% urbanization rate.
2024~440,000215,000Latest estimates; registered up 532 from prior year.
This expansion in permanent residents contrasts with the relative stability of the registered (hukou) population, which hovered around 210,000–220,000 from 2013 to 2024, underscoring reliance on non-local migrants for needs. Despite overall growth, natural have turned negative, with 2024 recording 1,030 births ( 4.8‰) against 2,110 deaths (death rate 9.8‰), yielding a natural growth rate of -5‰—a pattern consistent since at least 2022 and reflective of China's broader demographic challenges including low fertility and aging. Prior years showed similar trends, such as a -5.1‰ rate in the preceding period with 957 births and 2,035 deaths among registered residents. These figures derive from local statistical bulletins, which emphasize empirical and vital registration data over projections.

Ethnic Composition

Lüshunkou District is predominantly inhabited by the ethnic group, which forms the overwhelming majority of the population. Ethnic minorities account for approximately 4.23% of the resident population based on the Seventh National Population Census (). This proportion is lower than the provincial average of 15.08%, reflecting the district's urbanized and historically Han-settled coastal character. Detailed ethnic breakdowns from census aggregates show that only the Han group exceeds 10,000 individuals, with all other recognized ethnicities having far smaller populations, including several groups numbering under 100 persons such as Tibetan, Uyghur, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Buyi, and Dong. The primary ethnic minorities present include Manchu, Mongolian, Korean, Hui, and Xibe, consistent with broader patterns in southern where Manchu descendants from the Qing era remain notable but diluted through assimilation and migration. These groups are dispersed across the district's 12 subdistricts, with no single minority forming a concentrated community large enough to influence local demographics significantly. Historical foreign occupations (Russian and Japanese) introduced temporary non-Chinese populations, but post-1949 integration under the homogenized the ethnic makeup toward Han dominance through resettlement and policy. Recent trends show minimal shifts, as to the district for economic opportunities primarily draws from other Han-majority regions.

Economy

Key Sectors

Lüshunkou District's economy relies primarily on its primary and tertiary sectors, with fisheries and standing out as key contributors. The district's agricultural sector, which includes farming, , , and especially fisheries, generated a total output value of 4.27 billion yuan in , reflecting the importance of in the Bohai Strait and vicinity. Fisheries benefit from the district's coastal location and natural harbor, supporting local processing and export activities. Tourism has emerged as a growth driver in the tertiary sector, capitalizing on historical naval heritage, scenic beaches, and sites like the former Port Arthur fortifications. The industry's rapid development is evident in efforts to optimize routes and resources as of 2020, though it lags behind central districts in scale and infrastructure. Visitor attractions draw from the area's strategic past and natural assets, contributing to service-oriented employment and revenue. Port logistics, intertwined with Dalian's broader shipping hub status, underpins trade facilitation but is distinct from pure industrial manufacturing, which remains limited in Lüshunkou compared to Dalian's urban core. The district's harbor handles and supports ancillary services, aligning with regional emphases on shipping and without dominating local GDP composition data. Overall, these sectors reflect Lüshunkou's peripheral role in Dalian's , emphasizing resource-based and visitor-driven activities over .

Port and Trade Activities

Lüshunkou District's port facilities, centered on , form a key segment of the system, emphasizing handling including crude oil, , and products. The port features deep-water berths capable of accommodating vessels up to 300,000 deadweight tons for oil imports, supporting Northeast China's energy . Lushun Port integrates commercial trade with its historical naval infrastructure, facilitating imports of minerals and exports of mechanical equipment and chemicals through specialized terminals operated by the Dalian Port Group. As of September 2025, ongoing expansions at Lushun New Port include to add berths for enhanced throughput, building on prior investments exceeding $355 million for nine additional facilities. These activities contribute to Dalian Port's broader role in regional trade, with Lushun terminals aiding in the handling of liquid bulk cargoes amid the port's ice-free operations year-round. While district-specific throughput data remains aggregated within Dalian Port's totals—exceeding 400 million tons annually in recent years—Lushun's focus on strategic commodities underscores its economic linkage to industrial sectors like refining and .

Climate

Classification and Seasonal Patterns

Lüshunkou District exhibits a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen Dwa), marked by pronounced seasonal contrasts, with cold, dry winters driven by continental polar air masses and warm, humid summers influenced by the East Asian monsoon. This classification reflects average temperatures below 0°C (32°F) in the coldest month (typically ) and above 22°C (72°F) in the warmest (usually ), alongside annual precipitation concentrated in summer, totaling approximately 600–700 mm, where winter months receive less than one-tenth of potential evapotranspiration. The district's coastal position on the moderates extremes slightly compared to inland areas, though fog and sea breezes are common year-round. Winter (December–February) brings the harshest conditions, with average January highs near 2°C (36°F) and lows around -8°C (18°F), frequent northerly winds exceeding 20 km/h, and minimal —often under 10 mm monthly, mostly as or sleet—yielding clear skies but high humidity from . Spring (March–May) transitions variably, with rising temperatures from 8°C (46°F) highs in March to 20°C (68°F) by May, accompanied by increasing (20–60 mm monthly) and occasional dust storms from the , though coastal winds mitigate severity. Summer (June–August) is the wettest period, featuring average highs of 25–28°C (77–82°F) and lows of 20–22°C (68–72°F), with seeing peak rainfall of 140–150 over 10–15 days, often as afternoon thunderstorms or remnants, contributing 60–70% of annual totals. High (often >80%) and skies prevail, with occasional heatwaves pushing daytime peaks above 30°C (86°F). Autumn (–) offers mild relief, with highs dropping from 22°C (72°F) to 10°C (50°F), decreasing rain (40–20 monthly), and clearer conditions favoring reduced and lower .
SeasonAvg. High Temp (°C)Avg. Low Temp (°C)Precipitation (mm)Key Features
Winter (Dec–Feb)2–5-8 to -4<10, dry, windy, occasional
Spring (Mar–May)8–200–1220–60Variable, rising rain, sea breezes
Summer (Jun–Aug)25–2820–22100–150Warm, humid, rains
Autumn (Sep–Nov)10–224–1420–40Mild, decreasing precip, clear skies
Data derived from long-term observations (1991–2020), showing ~2,200 annual sunshine hours and rare freezes below -15°C (-5°F).

Education

Institutions and Facilities

Lüshunkou District hosts campuses of multiple higher education institutions affiliated with , contributing to the region's focus on specialized professional training. (DUFL), established in 1964 as a provincial emphasizing instruction, relocated its main to 6 Lushun South Road in the district in 2007. The institution offers programs in , international studies, and related fields, serving over 20,000 students across its facilities. Dalian Medical University (DMU), founded in 1947, transferred to a new in Lüshunkou District in October 2007, positioned across Lushun South Road from DUFL's site. This move expanded its capacity for , including undergraduate and graduate programs in clinical medicine, with a notable enrollment of international students in MBBS degrees. Dalian Jiaotong University (DJTU), originally established as Dalian Railway Institute and renamed in 2004, operates a secondary campus in the district alongside its primary site in Shahekou District. Covering 862,000 square meters total across campuses, DJTU specializes in , railway technology, and , enrolling approximately 17,000 full-time students. Primary and secondary education in the district follows China's national compulsory system, with local schools providing general curriculum, though detailed facility inventories are managed by the Lüshunkou District . Vocational and technical training supplements higher education, aligning with the area's industrial and port-related economy.

Recent Relocations and Developments

In October 2007, Dalian Medical University relocated to a new campus in Lüshunkou District, spanning a significant area dedicated to and research facilities. This move positioned the university adjacent to Dalian University of Foreign Languages' new site, fostering collaborative academic environments in the district. Concurrently in 2007, Dalian University of Foreign Languages shifted its main campus to Lüshunkou District, leveraging the area's strategic location for expanded language and international studies programs. These relocations contributed to decentralizing higher education from central , enhancing Lüshunkou's role as an educational hub with modern infrastructure. Dalian Jiaotong University maintains a secondary in Lüshunkou District, supporting specialized programs such as , as part of broader efforts to distribute university resources across 's districts. Recent initiatives in the district include collaborations between local institutions like Dalian University of Foreign Languages and Lüshunkou's cultural authorities to integrate education with tourism development, as seen in a cooperation meeting focused on resource sharing.

Military Significance

Historical Naval Role

Lüshunkou's deep, ice-free natural harbor made it a strategically vital naval anchorage, recognized by Qing China which began fortifying it in the 1880s with coastal batteries to defend against foreign incursions. However, these defenses proved inadequate during the First Sino-Japanese War, when Japanese forces captured the port on November 21, 1894, highlighting its naval accessibility and control over regional sea lanes. In 1898, Russia leased Lüshunkou from for 25 years, developing it as Port Arthur into the primary base for its Pacific Fleet to project power into the and support expansion in . The harbor's position allowed Russian warships to dominate access to the , serving as a warm-water outpost amid frozen northern ports. This lease escalated tensions, culminating in the , where Japanese destroyers launched a surprise attack on the anchored Russian fleet at Port Arthur on the night of February 8-9, 1904, damaging several battleships and cruisers without significant Japanese losses, thereby neutralizing Russian naval power in the region at the war's outset. Japanese naval forces maintained a throughout the ensuing , preventing Russian reinforcements and supply, which contributed to the fleet's effective destruction by January 2, 1905, when surviving vessels surrendered. Under Japanese control after the 1905 , Lüshunkou—renamed Ryojun—became the headquarters of the Japanese Kwantung Fleet and a fortified naval district, essential for securing Japan's leased territories and maritime dominance in through and into the . The base supported naval operations, including patrols and infrastructure expansions like dry docks capable of servicing capital ships. Japanese naval emphasized Lüshunkou's role in containing Soviet influence post-1922, with heavy investments in pens and emplacements by the 1930s. During , it remained a key outpost until Soviet forces overran it in August 1945, ending its active naval use under foreign powers.

Contemporary Strategic Importance

Lüshunkou's Lüshun Naval Base remains a critical asset for the (), functioning as a primary facility for operations in the northern theater. The base supports the maintenance and deployment of naval assets, leveraging its deep-water, ice-free harbor capable of accommodating large warships year-round. Its location at the southern tip of the positions it as the primary maritime gateway to the , providing direct control over sea lanes essential for defending and the Tianjin industrial hub against potential threats from the . The associated Liaonan Shipyard, operational since the late and under PLAN oversight, contributes to China's naval modernization by constructing corvettes and other littoral combatants, including variants of the Type 056 class designed for , patrol, and coastal defense missions. This shipbuilding capacity enhances the PLAN's regional power projection, particularly in scenarios involving North Korean contingencies or tensions in the , where proximity to and the Korean amplifies Lüshunkou's role in integrated joint operations. Geopolitically, Lüshunkou bolsters China's anti-access/area-denial strategies in the Bohai Gulf, serving as a northern anchor for the 's despite the fleet's headquarters in . Infrastructure developments, including pier expansions and submarine support facilities observed in through the 2010s, underscore ongoing investments to sustain its defensive posture amid expanding PLAN blue-water ambitions elsewhere. However, its focus remains primarily defensive, prioritizing over expeditionary roles, with limited public disclosure on exact force deployments reflecting operational secrecy.

Tourism and Cultural Heritage

Major Attractions

Lüshunkou's major attractions center on its naval heritage, historical museums, and coastal natural sites, drawing visitors to explore remnants of its strategic past as Port Arthur. The Lüshun Museum, constructed in 1917 in European architectural style, spans 25,000 square meters and houses over 100,000 artifacts including bronzes, mummified remains, and foreign relics spanning ancient to modern eras. Entry is free, though foreigners require passport verification, with operations from 9:00 to 16:30 except Mondays. Nearby, the Memorial Tower of Sino-Soviet Friendship, a 22.2-meter white marble structure inscribed by , commemorates post-World War II alliances with carvings of and the . The Naval Port Park overlooks the ice-free Lüshun naval harbor, featuring a large "Lushunkou" stone inscription, a "" sculpture, and a 1890 breakwater built under for the . Visitors can view modern naval vessels from promenades, with the park open from 6:00 to 18:30 for a CNY 10 fee. Complementing this, the Lüshun Naval Weaponry Museum and Force Museum display approximately 1,000 items across categories like torpedoes, missiles, and helicopters in indoor halls and outdoor exhibits, highlighting naval evolution. Historical prisons and war sites include the Japan-Russia Prison Site , erected in 1902 with 253 cells and torture chambers, serving as a national cultural relic and education base attracting 300,000 annual visitors; it operates 8:00 to 17:00 for CNY 25. The White Jade Hill (Baiyu Hill), a 130-meter scenic area, offers views alongside the Naval Weapon Museum, Bird Garden, and Rock , accessible freely year-round. Unique natural attractions feature Snake Island, under 2 square kilometers and inhabited by over 100,000 vipers, paired with Asia's largest snake museum exhibiting pythons, turtles, and crocodiles under a "return to nature" theme; island access (January-March, July-September) costs CNY 120 including boat, museum CNY 38. The World Peace Park, opened in , displays bronze statues and poems from 96 world leaders, providing free access for reflection on global harmony. Coastal sites like Laotie Mountain mark the Yellow Sea-Bohai demarcation with seagull flocks and vistas for CNY 20.

Preservation of Colonial-Era Sites

The Taiyanggou Historic District in Lüshunkou features approximately 800 buildings constructed during the Russian (1898–1905) and Japanese (1905–1945) colonial periods, earning it a reputation as an "open-air architectural exposition" of European-style red-brick villas and other . While sites such as the Lüshun Museum—designed in 1915 by Japanese architect Shigemitsu Matsumuro with a Roman-style —and the Command Site have been preserved as museums, many others suffer from deterioration, , and improper reuse due to fragmented management and military ownership over 37% of the land. Preservation efforts include the 2005 reconstruction of Lüshun Railway Station to its original Russian design, featuring yellow walls, green roofs, and a domed tower, now a popular tourist spot. The Lüshun Russo-Japanese , originally built by in 1902 and expanded by in 1907, opened as a in 1971, received heritage designation in 1988, and attracts over 500,000 visitors annually, primarily focusing exhibits on Japanese wartime atrocities while minimizing the Russian colonial role to align with contemporary Sino-Russian relations. Of the roughly 300 Japanese religious structures once built, most were destroyed after 1945 amid historical animosity, leaving only six well-preserved, such as Nanzan Temple, repurposed for storage. These sites are often framed as "patriotic education bases" to emphasize China's "," prioritizing narratives of victimhood and resistance over architectural appreciation, which creates challenges like public neglect of Japanese-era buildings and debates over demolition, as seen with the intact but controversial 1907 Baiyushan Tower built using forced labor. Reutilization strategies propose military-themed , exhibitions on modern social life, and community centers to enhance vitality, though military restrictions limit access and integrated protection remains inadequate. Private initiatives, such as the Lüshun with its Russian-style housing over 20,000 items, demonstrate supplementary efforts to revitalize colonial-era spaces for .

Historical Controversies

Atrocities and Massacres

The Port Arthur Massacre occurred from November 21 to 23, 1894, immediately following the Japanese capture of Lüshunkou (then known as Port Arthur) from forces during the . Japanese troops under the command of Lieutenant General Yamaji Motoharu entered the city after a brief , encountering minimal organized resistance as many Chinese soldiers had fled or surrendered. Accounts describe Japanese forces systematically killing disarmed Chinese soldiers and civilians, including bayoneting wounded prisoners and executing groups in public spaces. Eyewitness reports from Western journalists, such as correspondent James Creelman of The World, detailed scenes of widespread violence, including the mutilation of bodies and the killing of non-combatants, which he conveyed to Japanese officials to the conduct. Japanese justifications portrayed the killings as reprisals against Chinese troops accused of treachery, such as feigning surrender before attacking, with claims that civilian deaths were incidental or exaggerated. However, contemporary dispatches and diplomatic confirm indiscriminate elements, contributing to international condemnation despite Japan's overall successes. Estimates of the death toll vary significantly due to limited forensic evidence and propagandistic influences on reporting; Japanese sources minimized civilian casualties to around 200-300 combatants, while Western and Chinese accounts range from 2,600 to over 20,000 total victims, including soldiers and inhabitants. Historians often cite a midpoint of 5,000-6,000 killed, primarily disarmed troops but encompassing civilians caught in the violence, based on aggregated eyewitness testimonies and post-event surveys. The massacre damaged 's international reputation temporarily but did not alter the war's outcome or the , which ceded Port Arthur to Japan. No other large-scale massacres are verifiably documented in Lüshunkou during subsequent Japanese control from to 1905 or the later lease period until , though the city served as a base for operations in amid broader regional conflicts involving civilian hardships.

Debates on Colonial Legacies

The colonial legacies of Lüshun (formerly Port Arthur) encompass both infrastructural advancements and profound impositions of foreign rule, sparking debates in over how to reconcile modernization benefits with the era's imperialist violence and loss of sovereignty. Russian administration from 1898 to 1905 introduced a garden-city layout, fortified the harbor, and initiated railway construction, elements credited with laying foundations for Dalian's urban grid and radial patterns, though primarily serving tsarist strategic interests rather than local welfare. Japanese rule from 1905 to expanded these developments, erecting over 300 shrines, Western-style buildings, and expanding the city core, yet these are overshadowed by documented atrocities, including the 1894 Lüshun Massacre (with estimates of 2,600 to 20,000 Chinese deaths) and wartime prisoner abuses. In contemporary Chinese discourse, these legacies are framed through the lens of the "," prioritizing narratives of victimhood and resistance over neutral appreciation of architectural or planning innovations. The Lüshun Russo-Japanese Prison Museum, constructed in 1902 under Russian auspices and expanded by , exemplifies this: opened as a public site in 1971 and designated a patriotic base in 1995, it attracts over 500,000 annual visitors—95% domestic—focusing on Japanese wartime crimes while minimizing Russian-era critiques amid Sino-Russian alliance dynamics. Preservation efforts, such as rebuilding the Russian Lüshun Railway Station in 2005 or maintaining eclectic colonial structures in the Taiyanggou Scenic Area, serve by highlighting "exotic charm" and "time-travel" aesthetics, yet provoke contention when perceived as glorifying invaders; for instance, the Tang Little district closed in 2021 following public backlash for allegedly dishonoring war victims. Debates intensify around Japanese heritage, deemed more contentious due to recency and bloodier associations, with post-1945 demolitions or neglect of most sites reflecting anti-imperial sentiment, contrasted by selective retention for economic value. Russian contributions, like Square's planning, face fewer demolitions but dilemmas in "sinicization" versus authentic conservation, as Dalian's historic districts lack national "Famous Historic and Cultural City" status, leading to commercial overuse or disconnection from modern urban fabric. Critics argue that emphasizing exploitation ignores causal links between colonial engineering—such as advanced European sanitation and —and Dalian's enduring livability, while official rhetoric aligns preservation with , creating for visitors who admire the sites' beauty despite condemnatory labels.

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  72. https://www.digiedupro.com/dalian-jiaotong-university/
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  76. https://www.dlufl.edu.cn/en/info/1015/1515.htm
  77. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Port-Arthur
  78. https://www.navalgazing.net/Lushunkou-and-Weihaiwei
  79. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/january-2/russian-fleet-surrenders-at-port-arthur
  80. https://ww2db.com/facility/Ryojun_Guard_District
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  82. https://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/liaoning/dalian/lushun.htm
  83. https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/dalian/naval-port-park-87726?curr=USD&locale=en-XX
  84. https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/dalian/dalian-lvshun-submarine-force-museum-18355222?curr=USD&locale=en-XX
  85. https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/dalian/museum-of-lvshun-prison-87736?curr=USD&locale=en-XX
  86. https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/attraction/dalian/lushun-baiyu-hill-92196?curr=USD&locale=en-XX
  87. https://www.trip.com/travel-guide/destination/lvshunkou-district-120470/
  88. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation?paperid=86872
  89. https://built-heritage.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43238-025-00210-2
  90. https://www.historyskills.com/classroom/modern-history/port-arthur-massacre-1894/
  91. http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/136576.htm
  92. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003292661-21/martyrs-military-heroes-massacre-victims-christian-hess
  93. https://built-heritage.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s43238-023-00106-z
  94. https://www.theworldofchinese.com/2022/05/where-empires-meet-l%C3%BCshuns-complex-colonial-legacies/
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