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Monkeys
Temporal range: Late Eocene – Present[1]
Bonnet macaque Macaca radiata Mangaon, Maharashtra, India
Bonnet macaque Macaca radiata Mangaon, Maharashtra, India
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
[a]
Groups included
Platyrrhini
Cercopithecidae
†Parapithecidae
†Proteopithecidae
†Oligopithecidae
†Amphipithecidae
†Eosimiidae
†Propliopithecoidea
†Pliopithecoidea
Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa
Hominoidea

Monkey is a common name that may refer to most mammals of the infraorder Simiiformes, also known as simians. Traditionally, all animals in the group now known as simians are counted as monkeys except the apes. Thus monkeys, in that sense, constitute an incomplete paraphyletic grouping; alternatively, if apes (Hominoidea) are included, monkeys and simians are synonyms.

In 1812, Étienne Geoffroy grouped the apes and the Cercopithecidae group of monkeys together and established the name Catarrhini, "Old World monkeys" ("singes de l'Ancien Monde" in French).[3][4][5] The extant sister of the Catarrhini in the monkey ("singes") group is the Platyrrhini (New World monkeys).[3] Some nine million years before the divergence between the Cercopithecidae and the apes,[6] the Platyrrhini emerged within "monkeys" by migration to South America[7][8] likely by ocean.[9][10] Apes are thus deep in the tree of extant and extinct monkeys, and any of the apes is distinctly closer related to the Cercopithecidae than the Platyrrhini are.

Many monkey species are tree-dwelling (arboreal), although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are mainly active during the day (diurnal). Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, especially the Old World monkeys.

Within suborder Haplorhini, the simians are a sister group to the tarsiers – the two members diverged some 70 million years ago.[11] New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians roughly 35 million years ago. Old World monkeys and apes emerged within the catarrhine monkeys about 25 million years ago. Extinct basal simians such as Aegyptopithecus or Parapithecus (35–32 million years ago) are also considered monkeys by primatologists.[9][12][13]

Lemurs, lorises, and galagos are not monkeys, but strepsirrhine primates (suborder Strepsirrhini). The simians' sister group, the tarsiers, are also haplorhine primates; however, they are also not monkeys.

Apes emerged within monkeys as sister of the Cercopithecidae in the Catarrhini, so cladistically they are monkeys as well. However, there has been resistance to directly designate apes (and thus humans) as monkeys, so "Old World monkey" may be taken to mean either the Cercopithecoidea (not including apes) or the Catarrhini (including apes).[14] The classification of apes as monkeys was realized by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in the 18th century.[15] Linnaeus placed this group in 1758 together with the tarsiers, in a single genus "Simia" (sans Homo), an ensemble now recognised as the Haplorhini.[16]

Monkeys, including apes, can be distinguished from other primates by having only two pectoral nipples, a pendulous penis, and a lack of sensory whiskers.

Historical and modern terminology

[edit]
The Barbary macaque is also known as the Barbary ape.

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word "monkey" may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published c. 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape.[17] In English, no clear distinction was originally made between "ape" and "monkey"; thus the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica entry for "ape" notes that it is either a synonym for "monkey" or is used to mean a tailless human-like primate.[18] Colloquially, the terms "monkey" and "ape" are widely used interchangeably.[19][20] Also, a few monkey species have the word "ape" in their common name, such as the Barbary ape.

Later in the first half of the 20th century, the idea developed that there were trends in primate evolution and that the living members of the order could be arranged in a series, leading through "monkeys" and "apes" to humans.[21] Monkeys thus constituted a "grade" on the path to humans and were distinguished from "apes".

Scientific classifications are now more often based on monophyletic groups, that is groups consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. The New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys are each monophyletic groups, but their combination was not, since it excluded hominoids (apes and humans). Thus, the term "monkey" no longer referred to a recognized scientific taxon. The smallest accepted taxon which contains all the monkeys is the infraorder Simiiformes, or simians. However this also contains the hominoids, so that monkeys are, in terms of currently recognized taxa, non-hominoid simians. Colloquially and pop-culturally, the term is ambiguous and sometimes monkey includes non-human hominoids.[22] In addition, arguments have been made for a monophyletic usage of the word "monkey" from the perspective that usage should reflect cladistics.[23][24]

Several science-fiction and fantasy stories have depicted non-human (fantastical or alien) antagonistic characters refer to humans as monkeys, usually in a derogatory manner, as a form of metacommentary.[25]

A group of monkeys may be commonly referred to as a tribe or a troop.[26]

Two separate groups of primates are referred to as "monkeys": New World monkeys (platyrrhines) from South and Central America and Old World monkeys (catarrhines in the superfamily Cercopithecoidea) from Africa and Asia. Apes (hominoids)—consisting of gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos, and humans—are also catarrhines but were classically distinguished from monkeys.[27][28] Tailless monkeys may be called "apes", incorrectly according to modern usage; thus the tailless Barbary macaque is historically called the "Barbary ape".[20]

Description

[edit]

As apes have emerged in the monkey group as sister of the old world monkeys, characteristics that describe monkeys are generally shared by apes as well. Williams et al. outlined evolutionary features, including in stem groupings, contrasted against the other primates such as the tarsiers and the lemuriformes.[29]

Monkeys range in size from the pygmy marmoset, which can be as small as 117 mm (4+5⁄8 in) with a 172 mm (6+3⁄4 in) tail and just over 100 g (3+1⁄2 oz) in weight,[30] to the male mandrill, almost 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long and weighing up to 36 kg (79 lb).[31] Some are arboreal (living in trees) while others live on the savanna; diets differ among the various species but may contain any of the following: fruit, leaves, seeds, nuts, flowers, eggs and small animals (including insects and spiders).[32]

Some characteristics are shared among the groups; most New World monkeys have long tails, with those in the Atelidae family being prehensile, while Old World monkeys have non-prehensile tails or no visible tail at all.[20] Old World monkeys have trichromatic color vision like that of humans, while New World monkeys may be trichromatic, dichromatic, or—as in the owl monkeys and greater galagos—monochromatic. Although both the New and Old World monkeys, like the apes, have forward-facing eyes, the faces of Old World and New World monkeys look very different, though again, each group shares some features such as the types of noses, cheeks and rumps.[32]

Classification

[edit]

The following list shows where the various monkey families (bolded) are placed in the classification of living (extant) primates.

Cladogram with extinct families

[edit]

Below is a cladogram with some extinct monkey families.[33][34][35] Generally, extinct non-hominoid simians, including early catarrhines are discussed as monkeys as well as simians or anthropoids,[27][9][28] which cladistically means that Hominoidea are monkeys as well, restoring monkeys as a single grouping. It is indicated approximately how many million years ago (Mya) the clades diverged into newer clades.[36][37][38][39] It is thought the New World monkeys started as a drifted "Old World monkey" group from the Old World (probably Africa) to the New World (South America).[9]

Haplorhini (64)

Tarsiiformes

Simian

Eosimiidae s.s. (†37)

Phileosimias (†46)

Amphipithecidae (†35)

(45)

Parapithecoidea (†30)

Proteopithecidae (†34)

Crown
Platyrrhini (30)
(29)

Chilecebus (†20)

(26)

Tremacebus (†20)

(24)

Homunculus (†16)

Dolichocebus (†20)

Crown Platyrrhini (New World Monkeys)

Catarrhini (35)

Oligopithecidae (†34)

(35)

Propliopithecoidea (†30)

(34)

Pliopithecoidea (†6)

(32)

Micropithecus (†15)

Crown
Hominoidea (30)
(29)

Saadanioidea (†28)

Cercopithecoidea (24)

Victoriapithecinae(†19)

Crown Cercopithecoidea (Old World Monkeys)

Catharrhini (31)
Simians (40)
(Monkeys, Anthropoids, 47)

Relationship with humans

[edit]
Macaque on a "Please do not feed monkeys" sign in Ko Chang, Thailand.
Sign at a store in Swyambhunath, Bagmati, Nepal, which reads "Monkey's Food is Available here". Some places use their monkey population as a tourist attraction.

The many species of monkey have varied relationships with humans. Some are kept as pets, others used as model organisms in laboratories or in space missions. They may be killed in monkey drives (when they threaten agriculture) or used as service animals for the disabled.

In some areas, some species of monkey are considered agricultural pests, and can cause extensive damage to commercial and subsistence crops.[40][41] This can have important implications for the conservation of endangered species, which may be subject to persecution. In some instances farmers' perceptions of the damage may exceed the actual damage.[42] Monkeys that have become habituated to human presence in tourist locations may also be considered pests, attacking tourists.[43]

Public exhibition

[edit]

Many zoos have maintained a facility in which monkeys and other primates are kept within enclosures for public entertainment. Commonly known as a monkey house (primatarium), sometimes styled Monkey House, notable examples include London Zoo's Monkey Valley;[44][45] Zoo Basel's Monkey house/exhibit; the Monkey Tropic House at Krefeld Zoo; Bronx Zoo's Monkey House; Monkey Jungle, Florida; Lahore Zoo's Monkey House; Monkey World, Dorset, England; and Edinburgh Zoo's Monkey House. Former cinema, The Scala, Kings Cross spent a short time as a primatarium.[46]

As service animals for disabled people

[edit]
See also: Service animal § Helper monkey

Some organizations train capuchin monkeys as service animals to assist quadriplegics and other people with severe spinal cord injuries or mobility impairments. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with disabled people. Around the house, the monkeys assist with daily tasks such as feeding, fetching, manipulating objects, and personal care.[47]

Helper monkeys are usually trained in schools by private organizations, taking seven years to train, and are able to serve 25–30 years (two to three times longer than a guide dog).[48]

In 2010, the U.S. federal government revised its definition of service animal under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Non-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA.[49] The American Veterinary Medical Association does not support the use of non-human primates as assistance animals because of animal welfare concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates may transfer dangerous diseases to humans.[50]

In experiments

[edit]
Main article: Animal testing on non-human primates

The most common monkey species found in animal research are the grivet, the rhesus macaque, and the crab-eating macaque, which are either wild-caught or purpose-bred.[51][52] They are used primarily because of their relative ease of handling, their fast reproductive cycle (compared to apes) and their psychological and physical similarity to humans. Worldwide, it is thought that between 100,000 and 200,000 non-human primates are used in research each year,[52] 64.7% of which are Old World monkeys, and 5.5% New World monkeys.[53] This number makes a very small fraction of all animals used in research.[52] Between 1994 and 2004 the United States has used an average of 54,000 non-human primates, while around 10,000 non-human primates were used in the European Union in 2002.[53]

In space

[edit]
Sam, a rhesus macaque, was flown to a height of 88,500 m (290,400 ft) by NASA in 1959
Main article: Monkeys and apes in space

A number of countries have used monkeys as part of their space exploration programmes, including the United States and France. The first monkey in space was Albert II, who flew in the US-launched V-2 rocket on June 14, 1949.[54]

As food

[edit]
Main article: Monkey meat

Monkey brains are eaten as a delicacy in parts of South Asia, Africa and China.[55] Monkeys are sometimes eaten in parts of Africa, where they can be sold as "bushmeat". In traditional Islamic dietary laws, the eating of monkeys is forbidden.[56]

Literature

[edit]
Illustration of Indian monkeys known as bandar from the illuminated manuscript Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur)

Sun Wukong (the "Monkey King"), a character who figures prominently in Chinese mythology, is the protagonist in the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West.

Monkeys are prevalent in numerous books, television programs, and movies. The television series Monkey and the literary characters Monsieur Eek and Curious George are all examples.

Informally, "monkey" may refer to apes, particularly chimpanzees, gibbons, and gorillas. Author Terry Pratchett alludes to this difference in usage in his Discworld novels, in which the Librarian of the Unseen University is an orangutan who gets very violent if referred to as a monkey. Another example is the use of Simians in Chinese poetry.

The winged monkeys are prominent characters in L. Frank Baum's Wizard of Oz books and in the 1939 film based on Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.

Religion and worship

[edit]
Abhinandananatha with his symbol of monkey below his idol

Monkey is the symbol of fourth Tirthankara in Jainism, Abhinandananatha.[57][58]

Hanuman, a prominent deity in Hinduism, is a human-like monkey god who is believed to bestow courage, strength and longevity to the person who thinks about him or Rama.

In Buddhism, the monkey is an early incarnation of Buddha but may also represent trickery and ugliness. The Chinese Buddhist "mind monkey" metaphor refers to the unsettled, restless state of human mind. Monkey is also one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolizing greed, with the tiger representing anger and the deer lovesickness.

The Sanzaru, or three wise monkeys, are revered in Japanese folklore; together they embody the proverbial principle to "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil".[59]

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature.[60] They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted monkeys in their art.[61]

The Tzeltal people of Mexico worshipped monkeys as incarnations of their dead ancestors.

Zodiac

[edit]
Monkeys as Judges of Art, an ironical 1889 painting by Gabriel von Max.

The Monkey (猴) is the ninth in the twelve-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. The next time that the monkey will appear as the zodiac sign will be in the year 2028.[62]

See also

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Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Literature cited

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Monkey

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Monkeys are of the infraorder Simiiformes excluding the superfamily Hominoidea, encompassing monkeys (Catarrhini, found in and ) and (Platyrrhini, native to Central and ). Unlike apes, monkeys possess tails for balance and prehension in many , exhibit narrower chests, and are typically smaller in stature with more quadrupedal locomotion. Comprising over 250 species, monkeys represent the most diverse subgroup of anthropoids, adapted to a wide array of ecological niches in tropical forests, savannas, and montane habitats. Their defining traits include forward-facing eyes for stereoscopic vision, grasping hands and feet with opposable thumbs, and relatively large brains relative to body size, facilitating complex social structures, problem-solving, and in some cases rudimentary tool use. Old World monkeys often feature cheek pouches for food storage and more terrestrial habits, while New World monkeys frequently have prehensile tails and wider-spaced nostrils. Monkeys' evolutionary success stems from versatile diets—ranging from fruits and leaves to insects and small vertebrates—and sophisticated communication via vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions, which underpin matrilineal societies and cooperative behaviors observed across genera. Many species face population declines due to deforestation, poaching, and the pet trade, underscoring their ecological importance in seed dispersal and forest regeneration. In biomedical research, certain monkeys like rhesus macaques serve as models for human physiology owing to genetic and anatomical parallels, though such applications demand rigorous ethical oversight.

Terminology and Etymology

Historical and Folk Usage

In ancient Egypt, baboons—particularly the hamadryas species (Papio hamadryas)—held sacred status and were associated with deities like , the god of wisdom and writing, due to their perceived intelligence and vocalizations resembling writing sounds. From the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2125 BCE), wall paintings depict human-monkey interactions, including monkeys performing tricks or serving as pets for elites, with mummified remains discovered in tombs like that of (18th Dynasty, c. 1427–1401 BCE), underscoring their ritual importance. In Hindu tradition, monkeys feature prominently in the Ramayana epic (composed c. 500 BCE–100 BCE, with older oral roots), where Hanuman, a vanara leader embodying strength, devotion, and agility, aids the god Rama in battle against the demon Ravana; temples dedicated to Hanuman, such as those in India dating to the Gupta period (c. 4th–6th centuries CE), reflect ongoing veneration of monkeys as symbols of loyalty and martial prowess. In Chinese folklore, the Monkey King Sun Wukong from the 16th-century novel Journey to the West (drawing on Tang-era tales, c. 7th–9th centuries CE) exemplifies trickster archetypes, while the monkey's role in the zodiac—ninth animal in the cycle established by the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)—associates it with cleverness, adaptability, and occasional mischief, influencing annual celebrations like those in 1980 or 1992. Across Asian and African folktales, monkeys often appear as cunning protagonists or antagonists, as in Jataka stories (Buddhist narratives compiled c. BCE–500 CE) like "The Monkey and the Crocodile," where a monkey outwits predators through intellect, reinforcing motifs of survival via guile. In , monkeys symbolized exoticism and folly in medieval art, such as illuminated manuscripts depicting them mimicking human vices, while from the Renaissance onward (c. 15th–16th centuries), they served as noble pets or trained performers, as illustrated in the Baburnama (c. 1580s) showing Indian bandar monkeys taught tricks for entertainment. By the 19th century, street performers in cities like Washington, D.C., used capuchin or rhesus monkeys with barrel organs for public amusement, a practice peaking from the 1870s to 1930s before welfare concerns curtailed it.

Scientific Definition and Distinctions

In biological , monkeys are defined as a group of within the order , suborder Haplorhini (tarsiers and anthropoids), and infraorder Simiiformes, excluding the superfamily Hominoidea (apes and humans). This encompasses approximately divided into New World monkeys (parvorder Platyrrhini) and Old World monkeys (superfamily Cercopithecoidea). The emphasizes tailed, arboreal or terrestrial adapted for diverse habitats, with forward-facing eyes, grasping extremities, and enhanced compared to other mammals. Taxonomically, "monkey" forms a paraphyletic assemblage rather than a monophyletic clade, as New World and Old World monkeys diverged from a common ancestor around 40 million years ago, while Old World monkeys share a more recent common ancestor with apes (approximately 25-30 million years ago), rendering apes nested within the broader simian lineage. This distinction arises from phylogenetic analysis using molecular and fossil evidence, highlighting convergent evolutionary traits like tail presence across monkey lineages despite separate origins. Monkeys are distinguished from prosimians (suborder , including lemurs, lorises, and galagos) by several key traits: dry noses (lacking a rhinarium), reliance on stereoscopic over olfaction, larger encephalization quotients (brain-to-body ratios averaging 2-4 times higher), and nail-tipped digits instead of grooming claws. Prosimians retain primitive features like a toothcomb for grooming and often nocturnal habits tied to smaller body sizes (typically under 5 kg), whereas monkeys are predominantly diurnal with flexible locomotion suited to visual . In contrast to apes (Hominoidea), monkeys generally retain functional tails for balance and prehension (absent in all apes except fossil forms), exhibit narrower rib cages and less robust shoulder girdles limiting brachiation, and display dental adaptations like bilophodont molars in Old World species for folivorous diets, differing from the Y-5 molar pattern in apes. Apes, with body masses often exceeding 20 kg, evolved taillessness and enhanced suspensory capabilities around 20 million years ago, reflecting divergence within Catarrhini. These morphological distinctions align with ecological shifts: monkeys favor quadrupedalism on branches or ground, while apes emphasize arm-swinging and upright postures in forested canopies.

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Size Variation

Monkeys exhibit diverse morphologies adapted to arboreal, terrestrial, or semi-aquatic habitats, featuring forward-directed eyes for , grasping hands and feet with opposable digits, and tails absent in apes but present in all for balance or manipulation. Locomotion typically involves on branches or ground, with some like spider monkeys employing suspensory behaviors via elongated limbs and prehensile tails. Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) possess catarrhine noses with downward-facing nostrils close together, two premolars per quadrant, non-prehensile tails, and ischial callosities—toughened gluteal aiding prolonged sitting on hard surfaces. (Platyrrhini) differ with platyrrhine noses opening or , three premolars, absent callosities, and prehensile tails in genera like Ateles and Cebus for grasping foliage or objects. These traits reflect evolutionary divergences, with forms often showing greater terrestrial adaptations and in canine and body bulk. Body size spans three orders of magnitude, from the pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea), the smallest monkey at 100–150 grams and 12–15 cm head-body length, to the mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx), the largest, with males attaining 32–54 kg and 70–95 cm head-body length. Females in dimorphic species like mandrills weigh 10–15 kg, roughly one-third of male mass, correlating with polygynous mating systems and male-male competition. Size gradients align with ecological niches: smaller species favor high-canopy insectivory via gum-feeding, while larger ones exploit tougher vegetation or ground foraging.

Sensory and Physiological Adaptations

Monkeys rely predominantly on vision as their primary sensory modality, an adaptation facilitating arboreal navigation and foraging in complex environments. Old World monkeys exhibit routine trichromatic color vision, with three types of cone photoreceptors sensitive to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths, enabling precise detection of ripe fruits and foliage against varied backgrounds. New World monkeys, however, display polymorphic vision: most individuals are dichromatic, lacking consistent red-green discrimination, though heterozygous females in species like spider monkeys can achieve functional trichromacy via allelic variation in X-linked opsin genes. This divergence reflects evolutionary pressures, with Old World trichromacy stabilizing around 30-40 million years ago amid African forest expansion. Auditory adaptations support intraspecific communication through vocalizations, with monkeys detecting frequencies up to 40-50 kHz in species like , exceeding human ranges for locating conspecifics in dense . Olfaction, while reduced relative to prosimians, aids in fruit detection and social recognition; for instance, monkeys integrate cues with vision during , responding to volatile compounds from ripe at distances of several . Tactile sensitivity in hands and feet, enhanced by dermatoglyphic patterns and Meissner corpuscles, enables precise manipulation of objects and grip on irregular substrates. Physiologically, in families like Atelidae and possess prehensile tails—elongated, muscular appendages with tactile pads and vascular networks that grasp branches with forces up to 10-20 kg, functioning as a fifth limb for suspensory locomotion and stability in canopy gaps. This trait, absent in monkeys, correlates with elongated tail vertebrae and flow for during suspension. species compensate with ischial callosities, keratinized pads on the gluteal region providing insulation and protection during extended perching, as observed in baboons sitting for hours on savanna substrates. Thermoregulation involves behavioral and sparse , supplemented by eccrine sweat glands concentrated on palms and soles; in prehensile-tailed , glandular distribution extends along the tail for localized cooling during . Digestive adaptations include enlarged in folivorous species like colobus monkeys for microbial fermentation of fibrous leaves, yielding volatile fatty acids that supply up to 30% of energy needs.

Evolutionary History

Fossil Record and Origins

The origins of monkeys trace back to the broader radiation of anthropoid primates during the late Eocene epoch, approximately 40 million years ago, with early fossil evidence from and indicating small, arboreal forms that shared key traits such as forward-facing eyes and grasping hands. These stem anthropoids, exemplified by Eosimias from dated to about 45 million years ago, exhibited monkey-like features including relatively large orbits and dental patterns adapted for frugivory, though they lacked the specialized bilophodont molars of later Old World monkeys. In , the Fayum Depression in Egypt has yielded s like Catopithecus and Proteopithecus from around 37-40 million years ago, representing early catarrhines—ancestors to both Old World monkeys and apes—with enlarged braincases and reduced snouts distinguishing them from earlier prosimians. The divergence between (Platyrrhini) and the catarrhine lineage (leading to monkeys and apes) is estimated to have occurred around 35-40 million years ago, based on molecular clocks and sparse calibrations, with likely reaching via transatlantic from African ancestors. The earliest for appears in the late Eocene of , where Perupithecus ucayalensis s, including teeth dated to approximately 36 million years ago, display platyrrhine characteristics such as a third upper molar and dental arcade suited to folivorous diets. Later sites in , like Branisella at 26 million years ago, confirm diversification, but the Peruvian finds push the arrival and initial radiation back significantly, challenging prior timelines reliant on younger records. For Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea), the fossil record emerges more clearly in the early Miocene of East Africa, with primitive forms like those from the Nakwai Formation in Kenya dated to about 22 million years ago; these specimens, including Ngawipithecus vosseleri, feature simple dentition without the advanced bilophodonty seen in modern cercopithecoids, suggesting an initial radiation phase before specialization. Earlier potential cercopithecoid relatives, such as those from the Eragaleit locality dated to 25.2 million years ago, indicate a late Oligocene origin near the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, coexisting with propliopithecids like Aegyptopithecus (33 million years ago), which may represent a stem group bridging early catarrhines to true monkeys. This African-centric record underscores a gradual evolutionary progression from generalized anthropoids to the tailed, quadrupedal monkeys dominant today, with no evidence of multiple independent origins despite debates over Asian influences in stem forms. Gaps in the fossil record, particularly pre-Miocene for definitive monkeys, highlight reliance on dental morphology for classification, as postcranial remains are rare.

Phylogenetic Relationships

Molecular phylogenies consistently place monkeys within the primate suborder Haplorhini, specifically in the infraorder Simiiformes, which diverged from tarsiers approximately 63-68 million years ago. Simiiformes divides into two monophyletic parvorders: Platyrrhini (New World monkeys, including families Cebidae, Atelidae, Pitheciidae, and Aotidae) and Catarrhini (Old World monkeys plus apes and humans). Platyrrhini forms a distinct clade characterized by features such as laterally directed orbits and a 2:1:3:3 dental formula, supported by analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences. The divergence between Platyrrhini and occurred around 43 million years ago, based on Bayesian supermatrix approaches incorporating fossil calibrations and models from over 60 genes across 219 . Within , monkeys (superfamily Cercopithecoidea, families Cercopithecidae) diverged from Hominoidea (apes and humans) approximately 29 million years ago, with molecular evidence from concatenated DNA datasets confirming the monophyly of Cercopithecidae and its subfamilies and . As defined excluding Hominoidea, monkeys constitute a paraphyletic assemblage, since the last common ancestor of Platyrrhini and Cercopithecoidea also gave rise to the ape lineage after the Platyrrhini split. This relationship is corroborated by phylogenomic studies using whole-genome data, which resolve Simiiformes topology with high bootstrap support and highlight slower molecular evolutionary rates in anthropoids relative to strepsirrhines, influencing divergence time estimates. Fossil evidence, including early platyrrhine remains from South America dated to 36 million years ago, aligns with molecular dates suggesting an African origin for Platyrrhini followed by dispersal across the Atlantic.

Classification

Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecoidea)

Old World monkeys constitute the primate superfamily Cercopithecoidea, characterized by catarrhine nostrils that are close together and directed downward, distinguishing them from platyrrhine New World monkeys. This superfamily encompasses a single extant family, Cercopithecidae, which includes 22 genera and 133 species, representing the largest family within the order Primates. These monkeys are native to Africa and Asia, occupying diverse habitats from tropical forests to savannas and montane regions. The family Cercopithecidae is subdivided into two primary subfamilies based on morphological and ecological differences: Cercopithecinae and Colobinae. Cercopithecinae, the cheek-pouched monkeys, comprise omnivorous species with expandable cheek pouches for storing food, simple stomachs, and include genera such as Macaca (macaques), Papio (baboons), and Mandrillus (mandrills). This subfamily features 13 genera and approximately 76 species, often exhibiting terrestrial habits and complex social structures. In contrast, consists of folivorous species adapted for leaf-eating, with sacculated, multichambered stomachs for fermenting fibrous and lacking cheek pouches. Key genera include Colobus, , and Trachypithecus, totaling around 80 across fewer genera, primarily arboreal and with narrower snouts and smaller incisors compared to cercopithecines. Both subfamilies share non-prehensile tails, opposable thumbs, and ischial callosities—hardened skin pads on the for sitting—hallmarks of cercopithecid . Taxonomic classification within Cercopithecoidea relies on dental morphology, such as bilophodont molars for grinding , and cranial features like downward-oriented nasal openings. Genetic studies confirm the monophyly of Cercopithecidae, with divergence from hominoids estimated around 25-30 million years ago, though precise counts vary due to ongoing taxonomic revisions based on molecular .

New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini)

Platyrrhini, commonly known as New World monkeys, constitute a parvorder of anthropoid primates endemic to Central and South America, distinguished from Old World monkeys by their broadly separated, forward-facing nostrils, dental formula featuring three premolars per quadrant (as opposed to two in catarrhines), and absence of cheek pouches or ischial callosities. These traits reflect adaptations to arboreal lifestyles in Neotropical forests, with many species possessing prehensile tails for enhanced locomotion and grasping. Molecular and fossil evidence supports their African origins, followed by a single transatlantic rafting event to South America approximately 35–40 million years ago during the late Eocene or early Oligocene, enabling subsequent radiation into diverse ecological niches. The phylogenetic classification of Platyrrhini remains subject to refinement through genomic analyses, with consensus recognizing five extant families that diverged rapidly during the Oligocene-Miocene transition, around 25–30 million years ago. These families encompass over 100 species across approximately 16 genera, exhibiting varied body sizes from the diminutive pygmy marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea, weighing 100–150 grams) to larger forms like the muriqui (Brachyteles spp., up to 15 kilograms). Key distinguishing features include specialized claw-like nails in callitrichids for gouging tree exudates, robust jaws in pitheciids for seed predation, and elongated limbs in atelids for suspensory locomotion.
  • Callitrichidae: Comprising marmosets and tamarins, this family includes four genera (Callithrix, Cebuella, Leontopithecus, Saguinus) with about 27–40 species; these smallest New World monkeys feature claws on most digits for vertical clinging and leaping, cooperative breeding systems, and diets heavy in tree sap and insects; body masses range from 100–600 grams.
  • Cebidae: Encompassing capuchins (Cebus, Sapajus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri), along with allies, this family has two main genera with 15–20 species; noted for dexterous hands enabling tool use (e.g., nut-cracking in capuchins) and omnivorous foraging, with body sizes up to 5 kilograms.
  • Aotidae: The night monkeys (Aotus genus, 8–10 species) are the only nocturnal anthropoids, characterized by large eyes for low-light vision, monogamous pair bonds, and body masses of 0.5–1.5 kilograms; they inhabit understory forests and feed primarily on fruits and insects.
  • Pitheciidae: Including titis (Callicebus/Plecturocebus), sakis (Pithecia), and uakaris (Cacajao), with four genera and around 29–45 species; these seed-eating specialists have strong jaws and non-prehensile tails, with body sizes from 0.7–3.5 kilograms, adapted to floodplain and terra firme forests.
  • Atelidae: The most diverse family, with three subfamilies (Alouattinae: howlers Alouatta; Atelinae: spider monkeys Ateles, woolly monkeys Lagothrix; Brachytelinae: muriquis Brachyteles), totaling 19–25 species; distinguished by fully prehensile tails functioning as a fifth limb, folivorous-frugivorous diets, and suspensory locomotion, with masses up to 10–15 kilograms in howlers and spider monkeys.
Fossil records, including early Miocene forms like Branisella in (dated ~26 million years ago), corroborate this diversification, with primitive platyrrhines showing mosaic traits blending callitrichid-like small size and cebid-like dentition. Ongoing cladistic analyses, integrating mitochondrial genomes and morphological , refine interfamilial relationships, often placing Atelidae and as sister groups basal to and +Aotidae.

Extinct Families and Cladistics

In cladistic phylogeny, monkeys as traditionally delimited—comprising New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) and Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea)—form a paraphyletic group because they exclude the sister clade of hominoids (apes and humans), which diverged from the common ancestor of Old World monkeys within the monophyletic Catarrhini. The broader monophyletic Simiiformes (higher primates or anthropoids) includes platyrrhines, cercopithecoids, and hominoids, with molecular and fossil evidence supporting a divergence of platyrrhines from catarrhines around 40-35 million years ago in the Eocene-Oligocene transition. This paraphyly arises from prioritizing morphological distinctions like tail presence and nostril orientation over shared ancestry, whereas cladistics emphasizes monophyletic clades defined by synapomorphies such as forward-facing nostrils and enhanced visual acuity in Simiiformes. Extinct families in the lineage primarily stem from early catarrhine radiations in during the and . The Propliopithecidae, known from the Fayum Depression in dated 33-28 million years ago, include genera like zeuxis, which exhibited arboreal adaptations and dental traits intermediate between stem anthropoids and crown catarrhines, positioning them as a basal group ancestral to both cercopithecoids and hominoids. The Pliopithecidae, with fossils from (23-5 million years ago), represent early diverging catarrhines with small-bodied, gibbon-like forms such as Pliopithecus, characterized by primitive dental arcades and postcranial features suggesting stem positions relative to modern monkeys, though some analyses debate their exact affinity due to potential convergent traits with New World forms. Parapithecidae, another family (30-28 million years ago), featured short-faced skulls and bunodont dentition in genera like Apidium, often classified as stem catarrhines or platyrrhine relatives based on parsimony analyses of cranial and postcranial synapomorphies. For New World monkeys, extinct families document early platyrrhine diversification post-rafting from Africa around 35-30 million years ago, with limited fossil record due to South America's isolation until the Great American Biotic Interchange. The Perupithecidae, from Miocene deposits in Peru (approximately 20-15 million years ago), comprise small, squirrel-like primates with genera such as Perupithecus, exhibiting primitive platyrrhine traits like 2:1:3:3 dental formula and arboreal locomotion inferred from limb proportions. Fossil evidence also indicates parapithecid-like forms in South America, such as Perdita from Ucayali, Peru, suggesting multiple transatlantic dispersal events by stem anthropoids, with dental microwear indicating soft-fruit diets akin to early platyrrhines. These families highlight cladistic branching where platyrrhines form a monophyletic clade distinct from catarrhines, supported by molecular clock estimates and biogeographic modeling, though incomplete fossils necessitate caution in resolving exact polytomies.

Distribution and Ecology

Geographic Ranges

Old World monkeys, belonging to the superfamily Cercopithecoidea and family Cercopithecidae, are native to and , spanning tropical, subtropical, and even temperate zones. Their distribution extends from savannas and dry grasslands in northward to parts of , eastward across the for some like the , and throughout from the to , including islands like and the , and as far north as the temperate forests of for such as the . Baboons (genus Papio), for instance, occupy a broad African range from West Africa through East Africa and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, adapting to diverse habitats from woodlands to semi-deserts. New World monkeys, classified under the parvorder Platyrrhini, are endemic to the Neotropical region, with native ranges confined to tropical and subtropical forests from southern Mexico southward through Central America into South America, reaching as far as northern Argentina and including Caribbean islands via historical dispersals. Species such as howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) and spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) are distributed across this continuum, with some genera like woolly monkeys (Lagothrix) concentrated in the Amazon basin north of the Amazon River and west of major tributaries like the Orinoco, extending to the eastern Andean slopes. Owl monkeys (Aotus spp.) further exemplify the range, inhabiting diverse ecosystems from Central American lowlands to South American montane forests. Globally, monkey distributions show no native overlap between and lineages, reflecting ancient vicariance and rafting events that separated their ancestries; neither group occurs naturally in , , most of , or , where other like lemurs fill ecological niches. While introduced populations exist in places like or to translocation, these do not alter native biogeographic patterns.

Habitat Preferences and Adaptations

Old World monkeys occupy a broad spectrum of habitats across Africa and Asia, including tropical rainforests, savannas, shrublands, and mountainous regions, reflecting the widest habitat diversity among nonhuman primates. Species such as geladas and certain baboons thrive in treeless areas with rocky cliffs for nocturnal refuge, while patas monkeys exhibit terrestrial adaptations suited to open savannas, emphasizing quadrupedal locomotion for foraging across grasslands. These variations correlate with morphological traits in forelimbs that facilitate diverse locomotor strategies, from arboreal suspension in forested colobines to pronograde quadrupedalism in terrestrial cercopithecines. New World monkeys, in contrast, are restricted to Central and South America, spanning from Mexico to Argentina, and predominantly inhabit arboreal niches within a range of forest types, including seasonally flooded Amazonian and Orinoco systems. Most are diurnal and tree-dwelling, with genera like howler monkeys (Alouatta) extending into dry deciduous forests, riverine zones, and even savanna-like woodlands alongside wet evergreen canopies. Their ecological success hinges on arboreal lifestyles, supported by features such as prehensile tails in many species for enhanced stability and manipulation during canopy traversal. Key adaptations across monkey taxa enable exploitation of varied microhabitats, including limb modifications , leaping, and brachiation in arboreal settings, which conserve and facilitate location in dense canopies. Terrestrial forms, prevalent among some lineages, feature robust builds for ground-based predation avoidance and resource access in open terrains. Vocalization patterns also reflect habitat acoustics, with dwellers favoring high-fidelity calls suited to humid, vegetated over open habitats. While most prefer equatorial warm zones, outliers like highland geladas demonstrate physiological tolerances for cooler, elevated environments through specialized on grasses and social .

Behavior and Social Structure

Social Organization and Hierarchies

Old World monkeys predominantly form multi-male, multi-female troops or one-male groups, with female philopatry leading to matrilineal dominance hierarchies where rank is inherited from mothers, influencing access to food and mates. In cercopithecines such as macaques, hierarchies are often despotic and linear, maintained through coalitions, aggression, and reconciliation, with adult males dominating females and immatures; reversals occur but stability prevails, as seen in captive groups with low agonistic rates (0.13 interactions per hour among females). Colobines like colobus monkeys typically organize into one-male units, where resident males defend related females, and takeovers trigger infanticide to accelerate female cycling. New World monkeys display more varied and often less rigid structures, including territorial pairs in titis and sakis with cooperative care, or fission-fusion communities in spider monkeys where males remain philopatric and females forage independently, reducing hierarchy steepness. Callitrichids such as marmosets form one-female groups with multiple males aiding in twinned offspring rearing, emphasizing egalitarianism over strict dominance. Overall, hierarchies in both clades are shaped by ecological pressures like predation and resource defensibility, with steeper gradients in terrestrial Old World species correlating to immune modulation and reproductive success. Self-organizing processes, including agonistic interactions and alliances, underpin hierarchy emergence in wild troops, independent of imposed structures, as demonstrated in longitudinal studies of primates. In hamadryas baboons, multi-tiered bands exceed 700 individuals, with males coercing females across nested units, contrasting female-bonded gelada herds of similar scale but reversed philopatry.

Diet, Foraging, and Locomotion

Monkeys exhibit omnivorous diets comprising fruits, leaves, , nuts, , eggs, and small vertebrates such as , with dietary composition varying by , , and season. monkeys (Cercopithecidae) frequently consume more foliage, , and grasses, supplemented by and occasional meat, while colobine possess specialized multichambered stomachs enabling efficient of fibrous leaves and even lichens during winter scarcity in high-altitude habitats. (Platyrrhini) emphasize ripe fruits and , with some folivorous exceptions like howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.), though overall they incorporate less mature vegetation than their counterparts due to differences in gut and digestive . Foraging strategies in monkeys are shaped by ecological pressures, including patch distribution, predation risk, and group dynamics, often involving selective processing of food items to maximize nutrient intake. Many species, such as vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus spp.), employ social learning during ontogeny, with juveniles observing and imitating adults to refine handling techniques for embedded or protected foods like seeds or tubers. In competitive settings, individuals heighten attention to conspecifics' methods, accelerating skill acquisition for extractive foraging—such as cracking nuts or washing items to remove grit—as observed in macaques. Baboons (Papio spp.) and vervets adapt to anthropogenic resources by targeting crops primarily in mornings when availability peaks, demonstrating opportunistic shifts that exacerbate human-wildlife conflict. Locomotion among monkeys centers on , adapted for both arboreal and terrestrial environments, with dominance facilitating in leaps and climbs. monkeys display locomotor versatility tied to , from semi-arboreal pronograde in forest-dwellers to galloping on savannas in like patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas), supported by robust forelimbs and ischial callosities for prolonged sitting and terrestrial . exhibit greater suspensory adaptations, including arm-swinging (brachiation) and vertical clinging-and-leaping, in ateline genera (e.g., monkeys, Ateles spp.) by prehensile tails functioning as fifth limbs for suspension and precise grasping during in canopy gaps. Across both groups, morphological traits like opposable thumbs in aid in manipulation, though prehensile tails are absent in lineages, limiting their reliance on tail-assisted suspension.

Cognitive Abilities and Tool Use

Monkeys exhibit cognitive abilities including spatial learning, working memory, and problem-solving, as demonstrated in controlled experiments with species such as rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). In finger maze tests, adult rhesus monkeys navigate complex paths to retrieve rewards, showing retention of spatial information over multiple trials that improves with practice but declines under delays exceeding 30 seconds, indicative of reliance on working memory rather than long-term storage. Similarly, macaques perform touchscreen-based tasks varying in difficulty, from simple discrimination to multi-step reasoning, with success rates correlating to prefrontal cortex engagement and individual experience, though error rates increase with abstract rule shifts. Rhesus monkeys also demonstrate visual memory by recalling and reproducing simple geometric shapes on touchscreens after brief exposures, with accuracy above chance for delays up to 100 seconds, suggesting short-term iconic memory akin to eidetic recall but limited to basic forms without semantic interpretation. In spatial problem-solving paradigms, macaque monkeys solve detour tasks requiring inhibition of direct responses and logical inference, achieving over 80% success in working memory components but faltering in novel transitive inference without prior training. Field studies link domain-general cognition—encompassing inhibitory control, spatial navigation, and associative learning—to reproductive success in wild capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.), where high performers sire more offspring, implying evolutionary selection for flexible intelligence in foraging contexts. Tool use among monkeys is opportunistic and species-specific, primarily observed in New World capuchins rather than Old World taxa, contrasting with the habitual, culturally transmitted behaviors in apes. Bearded capuchins (Sapajus libidinosus) in Brazil's Cerrado use unmodified stones to crack nuts, selecting hammers weighing 0.5–5 kg based on nut hardness, with archaeological evidence of tool accumulation spanning millennia. These monkeys also employ sticks and stones for digging tubers and insects, with stone tools used in 51.4% of excavation bouts observed in 2024 field data from Fazenda Boa Esperança, demonstrating sequential modification like sharpening via rubbing. Laboratory training extends this to novel implements; rhesus monkeys learn to manipulate 25-cm rakes or pliers for food retrieval after 50–100 trials, with neural imaging revealing premotor cortex activation during planning but no spontaneous innovation beyond conditioning. Such tool use imposes ecological costs, as in West African sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys), where stone-handling for encased prey depletes local populations of snails and nuts, potentially driving scarcity documented in 2017 surveys. Unlike great apes, monkey tool repertoires rarely exceed 3–5 types per group and lack multi-generational teaching, with acquisition tied to individual trial-and-error rather than social learning, as evidenced by capuchin juveniles failing to imitate adults without direct rewards. Comparative analyses across primates indicate monkey cognition clusters below apes in executive function hierarchies, with g-factor variances explained more by sensory-motor skills than abstract reasoning.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Mating Systems and Parental Care

Monkeys exhibit diverse mating systems, from promiscuous polygynandry to monogamous pair bonds, reflecting evolutionary transitions from an ancestral polygynandrous state with derived shifts to harem-polygyny in some Old World lineages approximately 16-11 million years ago and to monogamy in select New World clades around 26-22 million years ago. These variations arise from ecological factors like resource distribution and predation risk, influencing group composition and reproductive competition. Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) predominantly feature polygynous or polygynandrous systems; colobines and guenons often form one-male, multi-female harems where a resident male monopolizes , while cercopithecines such as macaques and baboons live in multi-male, multi-female groups promoting multiple , -male contest , and during cyclical estrus. New World monkeys (Platyrrhini) show comparable in like capuchins, monkeys, and howlers, with multi-male groups or one-male units facilitating and ; however, pair-living prevails in titi monkeys and monkeys, characterized by long-term bonds, male territorial defense, and occasional extra-pair copulations that challenge strict . Parental care centers on maternal investment, with females gestating offspring for 129-226 days—shorter in diminutive callitrichids like golden lion tamarins (129 days) and longer in larger forms such as spider monkeys (226 days)—and typically birthing singletons, except callitrichids which produce twins or triplets to maximize reproductive output under cooperative conditions. Mothers carry clinging infants ventrally initially, transitioning to dorsal carriage, nurse for 3-12 months depending on species size, and wean gradually while foraging. Paternal care remains minimal in promiscuous systems due to uncertain paternity, but intensifies where bonds ensure it; in monogamous New World pairs like titi and owl monkeys, males carry infants extensively post-maternal attachment, sharing locomotor burdens and enhancing survival. In Old World multimale groups, such as savanna baboons, genetic sires preferentially intervene in offspring conflicts, reducing aggression from rivals and boosting juvenile fitness by up to 20% in supportive interactions. Callitrichid fathers and siblings provide alloparental carrying and thermoregulation for multiples, enabling maternal interbirth intervals as short as 6 months. Infanticide by incoming males occurs in several group-living species, prompting female counterstrategies like mating confusion to accelerate conception and deter killers.

Growth, Maturity, and Lifespan

Monkeys undergo extended postnatal growth phases typical of , with infants relying heavily on maternal transport, , and protection for the initial months post-birth. lengths differ phylogenetically: monkeys like macaques have periods of 146-180 days, yielding single precocial that rapidly develop motor skills but continue organ maturation for months. , such as capuchins, gestate for 150-165 days (22-23 weeks), with newborns exhibiting similar dependency despite some precocity in sensory systems. Growth accelerates in infancy through juvenile stages, involving skeletal elongation, muscle development, and social learning, often spanning 1-3 years before subadult transitions, though full physical maturity lags behind sexual capability. Sexual maturity onset varies by taxon, body size, and sex, generally occurring later in larger species and males due to energetic costs of reproduction and dispersal. Female Old World vervet monkeys attain maturity around 2.8-3 years, enabling first breeding shortly thereafter, while males mature later amid hierarchical competition. In New World capuchins, females reach maturity at 4-5 years but often delay first reproduction to 7-8 years; males require 7 years for full reproductive competence. Howler monkeys, another New World group, follow similar patterns with females maturing by 3-4 years after 185-190 day gestations. Lifespans reflect environmental pressures, with wild monkeys averaging 10-25 years due to predation, , and scarcity, versus extended captive durations from reduced mortality risks. Captive capuchins survive 30-45 years, outlasting wild counterparts at 15-25 years; vervets endure ~12 years wild but up to 33 captive. Howlers achieve ~20 years wild, with captivity adding 5-10 years via medical interventions. These disparities underscore causal factors like stability over innate limits.

Conservation Status

Habitat destruction, primarily driven by , , and infrastructure development, constitutes the leading threat to monkey populations worldwide. According to assessments, affects 76% of primate species, including numerous monkeys, while and wood harvesting impact 60%, leading to forest fragmentation that isolates groups and reduces viable habitats. In tropical regions, has fragmented 46% of forests, compelling monkeys such as capuchins and macaques to navigate smaller, degraded patches prone to like increased predation and disease exposure. Hunting for bushmeat, pet trade, and traditional medicine exacerbates declines, particularly in Africa and Asia where monkeys like colobus and langurs are targeted. Bushmeat hunting has decimated populations of vulnerable species such as the red colobus, with studies in Cameroon showing differential impacts where smaller, more tolerant monkeys like putty-nosed survive better than larger ones like drills. Illegal trade further strains species, as evidenced by the long-tailed macaque's role in biomedical demand alongside wild capture. Emerging threats include zoonotic diseases transmitted via human proximity and climate change altering forest canopies, forcing arboreal monkeys to ground-level foraging and heightening vulnerability. Human-induced activities like road-building and mining compound these, disrupting migration and increasing conflict in urban-adjacent areas. Population trends indicate widespread decline, with approximately 60% of primate species, encompassing monkeys, classified as threatened and 75% experiencing reductions due to cumulative pressures. For instance, the long-tailed macaque population has fallen 50% to 70% in recent decades amid habitat loss and exploitation, prompting Endangered status updates as of 2025. While some adaptable urban monkeys like rhesus macaques show localized stability or increases, global monkey abundances continue to erode, with over 400 primate species monitored showing predominantly decreasing trajectories per IUCN data.

Management Strategies and Controversies

![Please_do_not_feed_monkeys_Koh_Chang.jpg][float-right] Management strategies for monkey populations emphasize mitigating human-wildlife conflicts, especially crop raiding and urban intrusions, through non-lethal deterrents like physical barriers, devices such as firecrackers or guard dogs, and translocation to isolated habitats. These approaches aim to reduce encounters without population reduction, though their long-term varies due to monkeys' adaptability and habituation to deterrents. Population control measures include surgical sterilization to curb rates, as implemented in Himachal Pradesh, , where authorities sterilized over 150,000 rhesus macaques since to address agricultural losses. In invasive contexts, such as Caribbean islands, is employed; for example, Sint Maarten approved a 2023 plan to eradicate its entire vervet monkey population (Chlorocebus sabaeus) to protect crops, estimating 37,000 individuals contributing to significant economic damage. Similarly, Florida manages invasive rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) via and , citing ecological disruption and risks like B virus transmission to humans. Controversies arise over ethical and practical dimensions of these tactics. Sterilization faces for failing to diminish immediate conflict, as treated monkeys retain raiding behaviors and survive , potentially exacerbating issues before . Culling proposals provoke opposition from welfare organizations; urged halting Sint Maarten's , advocating coexistence strategies despite documented crop losses exceeding millions annually in affected regions. In , public backlash halted in Silver Springs State Park in 2013, prioritizing sentiment over of native species displacement and vectors, illustrating tensions between conservation imperatives and anthropocentric views. Translocation often relocates problems without resolving underlying habitat pressures, leading to high recidivism rates. These debates underscore causal factors like habitat fragmentation driving conflicts, with empirical favoring integrated approaches combining enforcement of feeding bans and habitat restoration over isolated interventions.

Human Interactions

Biomedical and Scientific Research

Non-human , particularly monkeys such as rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), have been employed in biomedical to their close physiological, genetic, and neurological similarities to humans, studies that cannot replicate with equivalent . These similarities include comparable , immune responses, and susceptibilities, which have facilitated advancements in understanding and developing interventions. involving these animals has contributed to , therapies, and physiological insights, though alternatives like computational models or smaller mammals are where feasible, with reserved for cases requiring high translational relevance. In vaccine development, rhesus monkeys played a pivotal in polio eradication efforts. Jonas Salk's inactivated polio , licensed in 1955, relied on rhesus monkey kidney cells for propagation and monkey models for and testing, enabling mass production that vaccinated millions and reduced U.S. cases from 35,000 annually to near zero by 1961. However, early production inadvertently contaminated some vaccine lots with simian 40 (SV40) inherent to rhesus kidneys, prompting a 1963 shift to African green monkeys, which are not natural SV40 hosts; subsequent epidemiological data have not conclusively linked SV40 to increased human cancer rates despite long-term monitoring. Similar applications extended to HIV/AIDS research, where primate models replicate viral pathogenesis and test antiretroviral strategies unavailable in simpler systems. Neuroscience investigations leverage monkeys' advanced cognition and cortical architecture for probing brain function, including visual processing, decision-making, and motor control. For instance, rhesus macaques have been instrumental in mapping neural circuits via invasive recordings and , yielding insights into disorders like Parkinson's, where dopamine gene therapies restored motor function in affected animals. These models bridge gaps left by human ethical constraints and rodent dissimilarities, supporting developments in and . Scientific beyond includes , where U.S. programs from 1948 onward suborbital and orbital effects on . On May 28, 1959, rhesus monkey Able and Baker survived a 1,500-mile ballistic flight aboard a AM-18 , validating systems for missions; Able died post-flight from complications, while Baker lived until 1984. NASA's Mercury-Redstone 2 mission on January 31, 1961, carried chimpanzee Ham to 157 miles altitude, confirming behavioral responses under g-forces and acceleration, directly informing Alan Shepard's suborbital flight weeks later. Such experiments demonstrated primate resilience to microgravity and radiation but highlighted logistical challenges, including high training demands and variable outcomes. Ethical frameworks govern primate use, mandating minimization, refinement, and replacement per principles like the 3Rs, with institutional review ensuring scientific necessity outweighs welfare costs. Critics contend some protocols prioritize convenience over alternatives, citing instances of suboptimal housing or endpoints, yet empirical evidence affirms unique contributions to human health gains, such as organ transplant rejection mechanisms derived from primate xenotransplantation models. Regulatory oversight in facilities like U.S. national primate centers enforces standards, though debates persist on scaling back amid advancing in vitro technologies.

Economic Utilization and Conflicts

Monkeys have been economically utilized in the pet trade, where species such as capuchins, marmosets, squirrel monkeys, and tamarins are frequently advertised online for sale, contributing to a global market driven by demand for exotic companions. In the United States alone, legal sales of captive-bred primates, including these species, generated an estimated $187 million in one reported period, though illegal trade supplements this figure. Tourism featuring monkeys, such as feeding sites in Bali's Sacred Monkey Forest Sanctuary or Nepal's Swayambhunath temple, generates revenue through visitor fees and food sales, with monkeys drawing crowds due to their cultural significance in epics like the Ramayana. Historically, in regions like India, monkeys known as bandar have been trained for street performances and tricks, providing income to handlers as depicted in Mughal-era manuscripts. In Southeast Asia, some long-tailed macaques are trained to harvest coconuts, aiding commercial plantations by climbing trees and picking fruit, which supports exports to international markets despite ethical concerns over chaining and overwork. These utilizations, however, often intersect with conflicts, as provisioned monkeys in tourist areas become aggressive, leading to attacks on visitors and that deter ; for instance, in Thailand's Lopburi, thousands of macaques have invaded urban areas, forcing businesses to close and repelling . The primary economic conflicts arise from monkeys raiding agricultural crops, imposing substantial costs on farmers worldwide. In a study from Ethiopia, baboon and monkey raids resulted in the loss of 792.05 quintals of crops valued at $40,346.43, with 47% of affected farmers reporting increased conflict frequency. In Sri Lanka, toque macaques damage commercial farms and property in rural districts like Kurunegala, prompting farmers to switch crops or incur mitigation expenses, exacerbating human-monkey tensions. Over half of surveyed farmers experiencing monkey damage in invasive contexts altered their farming practices entirely or partially, highlighting the adaptive economic burdens. These conflicts are intensified by habitat loss pushing monkeys into human-dominated landscapes, where their opportunistic foraging directly competes with agricultural productivity.

Cultural, Religious, and Symbolic Roles

In Hinduism, monkeys hold profound religious significance primarily through Hanuman, a vanara deity depicted as a monkey-like figure in the epic Ramayana, symbolizing unwavering devotion, superhuman strength, and loyalty to Lord Rama. Hanuman's legend, dating back over two millennia, portrays him leading an army of monkeys to aid in the rescue of Rama's wife Sita, establishing monkeys as sacred emissaries of divine service. This reverence manifests in practices where wild monkeys, often rhesus macaques, are fed and protected at temples across India, viewed as incarnations or descendants of Hanuman's followers, though such protections have led to human-wildlife conflicts due to population growth. In Nepal, the , known as the Temple, houses colonies of rhesus macaques considered sacred by both and Buddhists, with legends attributing their origin to Hanuman's lice transforming into monkeys to guard the site. These monkeys, numbering in the hundreds as of 2011, roam freely and are fed by pilgrims, reinforcing their holy status despite occasional aggressive interactions with visitors. Symbolically, monkeys represent intelligence, mischief, and adaptability across cultures, often embodying human-like cunning and playfulness in folklore. In Chinese tradition, the Monkey ranks ninth in the zodiac, associated with those born in years like 1900, 1912, or 2024, characterized as clever, versatile, and opportunistic, drawing from mythological figures like Sun Wukong, the trickster king from Journey to the West. In Mesoamerican Maya cosmology, as detailed in the Popol Vuh, howler and spider monkeys appear as precursors to humanity, embodying artistic and communicative traits in creation narratives. The "" motif—representing "see no evil, hear no , speak no evil"—originates from Japanese and , possibly linked to 17th-century carvings at Nikko Toshogu , symbolizing ethical restraint amid , with monkeys chosen for their mimetic behaviors. In broader symbolism, monkeys denote resilience and transformation, as seen in spirit animal interpretations emphasizing environmental adaptability, though such views stem from anecdotal rather than empirical studies.

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