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Psaltery
Psaltery
Psaltery
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Psaltery
Psaltery, built Venice in the 1700s
Psaltery 1700 – Venetian school
plucked string
Classification Chordophone
Hornbostel–Sachs classification314.122
(Box zither. Chordophone with one or more strings stretched between fixed points, a board for a string bearer, parallel to the plane of the strings, with a resonator box)
Related instruments
See Rotte (psaltery) for medieval harp psaltery & Ancient Greek harps for earlier psalterion

A psaltery (Ancient Greek: ψαλτήριον), or sawtry, an archaic form, is a fretboard-less box zither (a simple chordophone) and is considered the archetype of the zither and dulcimer. Plucked keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord were also inspired by it. Its resonance box is usually trapezoidal, rectangular or in the form of a "pig's head" and often richly decorated.

Etymology

[edit]
Psalterion harp vs Psaltery and rote
Art from Greek vase: a woman plays a psalterion harp
A woman playing a triangular harp, which was called by "Jewish, Christian and Greek sources" a psalterion.[2] Ancient Greek red-figured pelike from Anzi, Apulia, circa 320–310 BC.
Image of a King playing a triangular psaltery
Triangular psaltery or rotte. Not a harp, as the sound-box blocks the viewer from seeing through the instrument; also it has sound holes.
print of musician playing a harp-like psaltery
Resembling a harp, this was identified as a psaltery.[2] Print detailed enough to show bridges on the instrument's bottom and strings running in courses.
Psalteries in a triangular shape were confused with harps at times.[1] They used the top-horizontal side used to hold the tuning pegs.[1] These psalteries were known as the "rote" or a variation of that name.[1] The three sided instruments were popular in parts of the church for their symbolic three sides, reminder of the Trinity.[1]

The psaltery of Ancient Greece (epigonion) was a harp-like stringed instrument. The word psaltery derives from the Ancient Greek ψαλτήριον (psaltḗrion), 'stringed instrument, psaltery, harp'[3] and that from the verb ψάλλω (psállō), "to touch sharply, to pluck, pull, twitch" and in the case of the strings of musical instruments, "to play a stringed instrument with the fingers, and not with the plectrum."[4] The psaltery was originally made from wood, and relied on natural acoustics for sound production.

In the King James Bible psaltery, and its plural, psalteries, are used to translate several words from the Hebrew Bible whose meaning is now unknown.[5]

Characteristics

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While the Greek instruments were harps, psaltery came to mean instruments that were strung across a resonating wood box.[1] The box-zither psalteries may have a Phoenician origin.[1] The strings of the medieval instrument were usually made of metal, unlike the finger-plucked harp, strung with catgut, and played using a plectrum or "pick". The harp is strung with a single string for each tone, open to be plucked from either side of the instrument; a psaltery may have multiple strings for each tone, strung across a soundboard. The psaltery has been compared to the harpsichord[6] and dulcimer, though some forms of the latter are not plucked, but struck with hammers.[7]

Medieval and Renaissance psalteries

[edit]

From the 12th through the 15th centuries, psalteries are widely seen in manuscripts, paintings and sculpture throughout Europe.[8][2] Examples found in one reference book, the Groves New Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments, show examples in paintings from the 9th century Carolingian Empire Benedictine Psalter, in 13th-century Spain (in the Cantigas de Santa Maria), in Bohemia in the 14th century, in Italy in the 14th century, and Germany in the 15th century.[2]

Shapes included "triangular (rotte), trapezoidal, semitrapezoidal, wing shaped, or harp shaped".[1] The psalterion decacordum was shaped like a square and had ten strings strung vertically.[1] Stings could run in courses, as viewed in the middle-ages artwork.

Modern psaltery

[edit]

While psalteries had largely died out in Europe by the 19th century, the salterio remained common in Mexico well into the twentieth century and is still played in some regional styles.

The hammered dulcimer and related instruments, such as the santur, cimbalom, yangqin, and khim, appear very similar to psalteries, and it is often hard to tell which one historical images represent. They differ in that the player strikes the strings with small hammers rather than plucking them. As a result, they have much higher string tension and heavier frames.

In the 19th century, several related zithers came into use, notably the guitar zither and the autoharp. In the 20th century, the bowed psaltery came into wide use. It is set up in a triangular format so that the end portion of each string can be bowed.

[edit]
  • Psaltery in the shape called a "pig's head" psaltery, a very common psaltery shape in manuscripts.[2]
    Psaltery in the shape called a "pig's head" psaltery, a very common psaltery shape in manuscripts.[2]
  • Gorleston-on-Sea, England. Psaltery player from the Gorleston Psalter, c. 1310–1326.
    Gorleston-on-Sea, England. Psaltery player from the Gorleston Psalter, c. 1310–1326.
  • (Kingdom of Bohemia, 14th century). Picture of an unusual type of psaltery, found in Central Europe. Labeled "Bohemian wing" psaltery in Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments.[2]
    (Kingdom of Bohemia, 14th century). Picture of an unusual type of psaltery, found in Central Europe. Labeled "Bohemian wing" psaltery in Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments.[2]
  • 18th century Spanish psaltery. Trapezoidal psaltery.
    18th century Spanish psaltery. Trapezoidal psaltery.
  • Carolingian Empire. Page from the Benedictine Psalter (842–850). David playing a four-sided psaltery, psalterium quadratum or psalterium decochordum.[2]
    Carolingian Empire. Page from the Benedictine Psalter (842–850). David playing a four-sided psaltery, psalterium quadratum or psalterium decochordum.[2]
  • 1020–1050, Germany. Musician with psaltery from Werdener Psalter.
    1020–1050, Germany. Musician with psaltery from Werdener Psalter.
  • Spain. Three shapes of psalteries (bottom row) from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Códice Rico.
    Spain. Three shapes of psalteries (bottom row) from the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Códice Rico.
  • Germany, 15th century. Angel playing a pig's head psaltery.
    Germany, 15th century. Angel playing a pig's head psaltery.
  • France
    France
  • France. 1145–1155. Elder of the Apocalypse
    France. 1145–1155. Elder of the Apocalypse
  • France, Notre Dame Cathedral
    France, Notre Dame Cathedral
  • Spain. Burgos Cathedral.
    Spain. Burgos Cathedral.
  • Spain, 13th century. Cancioneiro da Ajuda, folio 59, musicians with psaltery and clappers
    Spain, 13th century. Cancioneiro da Ajuda, folio 59, musicians with psaltery and clappers
  • Triangular psaltery, Palatine Chapel, ca. 1140 A.D.
    Triangular psaltery, Palatine Chapel, ca. 1140 A.D.
  • Woman playing psaltery, circa 1570 A.D.
    Woman playing psaltery, circa 1570 A.D.
  • Psaltery notes, Museum musicum theoreticalo practicum page 72
    Psaltery notes, Museum musicum theoreticalo practicum page 72
  • 1280 A.D. Rotte. Cantigas de Santa Maria
    1280 A.D. Rotte. Cantigas de Santa Maria
  • 1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria
    1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria
  • 1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria.
    1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria.
  • 1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria.
    1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria.
  • Circa 1408–1410, Italy. David playing a psaltery, painting by Lorenzo Monaco.
    Circa 1408–1410, Italy. David playing a psaltery, painting by Lorenzo Monaco.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Psaltery

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from Grokipedia
The psaltery is an ancient stringed belonging to the family, consisting of a flat wooden soundboard or resonant box over which numerous strings—typically made of gut, metal, , or silver—are stretched parallel to the body and plucked with the fingers or a to produce a soft, melodic tone. It appeared in various forms across cultures, with European variants emerging prominently from the onward, often trapezoidal, rectangular, triangular, or wing-shaped, and featuring single, double, or triple courses of strings tuned diatonically or chromatically. Historically, the psaltery traces its roots to ancient civilizations, with the term deriving from the Greek psallein (to pluck) and entering Christian literature through the translation of the around the 3rd century BCE, where it was associated with psalmody and worship. In medieval , it gained widespread use from the 11th to the 16th century, depicted in iconography such as the (c. 1257–1283) and referenced in literature like Geoffrey Chaucer's (late 14th century), serving both religious and secular purposes as an accompaniment to vocals or solo performance. By around 1500, it began to evolve into other instruments, influencing the development of the , hammer , , and even aspects of the piano through keyboard adaptations. The instrument's construction varied regionally: southern European models were often trapezoidal with multiple strings per note (3–4), while northern types were triangular or wing-shaped with single or double strings, all anchored by tuning pegs and featuring soundholes for . Played typically on the lap, a table, or held against the chest with a , it lacked a dedicated but was versatile for monophonic or polyphonic , producing a distinctive silvery suited to medieval and styles. Modern revivals, often simplified for accessibility, continue its legacy in ensembles and folk traditions.

Origins and Etymology

Ancient Origins

The psaltery traces its earliest documented origins in the world to the epigonion, a multi-stringed harp-like instrument invented by the musician Epigonus of Ambracia around the 6th century BCE. This device consisted of up to 40 metal strings stretched across a flat soundboard, plucked either by fingers or plectra to produce a wide range of tones, serving as a precursor to later psaltery designs. In ancient Hebrew tradition, instruments akin to the psaltery appear in biblical texts, where the King James Version translates the Hebrew "nevel" (often interpreted as a psaltery or ) and "kinnor" (a ) in references to temple worship. For instance, Psalm 33:2 calls to "praise the LORD with harp: sing unto him with the psaltery and an instrument of ten strings," while Psalm 144:9 similarly invokes a "new song" accompanied by such devices. These stringed instruments, typically featuring gut strings and played in ensembles, symbolized divine praise and held a central role in Jewish liturgical music from the time of the First Temple onward. Archaeological evidence from the points to even earlier stringed instruments that influenced psaltery development, such as Mesopotamian harp-like forms. Influences contributed through the Sumerian balag, a large arched harp—likely plucked—employed in religious rituals to invoke deities, as detailed in tablets from the BCE. While ancient instruments like the balag were more harp-like than the flat zithers of later psalteries, trade routes across these regions facilitated the exchange of designs, blending various stringed forms that prefigured the psaltery's structural evolution.

Linguistic Development

The term "psaltery" derives from the psaltērion, meaning a stringed instrument, which itself stems from the verb psállō, "to pluck" or "to twang." This Greek root evolved into the Latin psalterium, referring to a similar plucked instrument used in religious contexts, and subsequently entered as psalterie around the . By the early , the word appeared in English as salteriun in Latin-influenced texts, transitioning to the more familiar psaltery form by circa 1300. In medieval translations, particularly the Bible, the term psalterium was applied to various Hebrew instruments like the nebel (often a or -like device), creating terminological confusion and leading to interchangeable usage with "harp" (cithara) or "lyre" () in European vernaculars. This ambiguity arose because the translators equated the Greek psaltērion with multiple Semitic stringed instruments mentioned in the , such as kinnor and nebel, without precise distinctions based on form or playing method. Such conflations persisted in early , where the psaltery symbolized accompaniment for psalmody, blurring lines with other chordophones in textual descriptions. The word entered English usage prominently in the , as evidenced by Geoffrey Chaucer's references in , where the psaltery appears as a plucked instrument played for melodic accompaniment, such as in . Chaucer's depictions reflect its integration into as a courtly or domestic instrument, distinct from emerging terms like "" (from German citer, denoting flat-bodied variants) or "" (from Latin dulce melos, emphasizing hammered playing). By the , "psaltery" has been refined to specifically denote trapezoidal or wing-shaped plucked s, separating it from bowed or struck relatives through standardized musicological nomenclature. Linguistic variants proliferated across medieval and the ; for instance, adapted it as saltāri or psalteri, derived directly from Latin psaltērium for psalm-accompanying instruments in monastic texts. In Arabic-influenced regions, the term evolved into sanṭīr, a borrowing from the Greek psaltērion via Persian intermediaries, which shaped the nomenclature for the hammered sanṭūr (), a related trapezoidal . This variant highlights exchanges, where the root psall- retained its connotation of plucking while adapting to regional forms.

Instrument Design

Physical Structure

The psaltery is characterized by a flat wooden soundboard mounted on a shallow box, forming a compact, portable instrument typically measuring 50 to 80 cm in length. Early forms were often a simple wooden board without an enclosed box, while later versions included the resonator for enhanced sound projection. The overall shape varies, commonly trapezoidal, rectangular, or the distinctive "pig's head" or "pig-snout" form with curved sides, which optimizes placement for scaling. The soundboard, often crafted from softwoods such as or for optimal vibration, is glued to sides and back made of harder woods like to provide structural integrity. Strings are anchored via hitch pins on one end and tuning pins on the other, stretched parallel across the soundboard without a fretboard, distinguishing the psaltery from necked instruments like lutes. Tension is maintained by one or two bridges—typically long, fixed wooden ridges positioned parallel to the sides or centrally—positioned beneath the strings to elevate and transmit vibrations to the soundboard. Sound holes, such as rosettes or simple apertures, are incorporated into the soundboard to enhance within the enclosed box. In its ancient forms, the psaltery featured simple frames with strings of gut or horsehair, evolving in medieval construction to a more robust box with metal wires, often brass or iron, for a brighter, sustained tone. Acoustically, the instrument relies on the efficient transfer of string vibrations through the bridges to the soundboard, which amplifies the sound via the resonator box, yielding a soft, harp-like timbre without the need for external amplification.

Strings and Tuning Systems

Medieval and later psalteries typically employed metal wire strings, ranging from 10 to 40 in number, though earlier archaic forms featured fewer, between 5 and 13 strings, to provide a limited diatonic range. These strings are arranged in single, double, or triple courses—parallel sets of strings tuned to the same pitch—to amplify volume and sustain, as evidenced in medieval and reconstructions. For instance, a 19th-century reconstruction based on medieval designs uses 19 single-course metal wires stretched across the soundboard. Lower strings occasionally served as bourdons, tuned several tones below the main scale for foundation. Tuning adjustments are made using wrest pins or pegs anchored along one side of the instrument, allowing precise tension control to set pitches. Standard medieval configurations employ a aligned with the church modes of the period, reflecting the modal structures prevalent in contemporary sacred and . tension, governed by factors including and , ensures pitch stability under playing conditions, with shorter, thicker wires for bass notes and longer, thinner ones for treble. Materials varied, with silver recommended for optimal by 13th-century writers like Bartholomaeus Anglicus, alongside alternatives of , , or ; iron wires were also employed, particularly for bass courses. In the , chromatic limitations of diatonic setups prompted innovations, including extra courses dedicated to accidentals or split bridges that enabled shifts without retuning the entire instrument. These adaptations, seen in evolving designs from the 15th and 16th centuries, expanded the psaltery's versatility for polyphonic and more harmonically complex music, though they increased construction complexity.

Historical Development

Medieval Europe

The psaltery rose to prominence in medieval Europe after the 11th century, emerging as a favored stringed instrument in both secular courts and ecclesiastical environments. It appears extensively in illuminated manuscripts, including the 13th-century Cantigas de Santa Maria, where it is illustrated in ensemble performances during royal festivities and devotional scenes. Earlier depictions occur in Carolingian Psalters, such as the 9th-century Stuttgart Psalter, highlighting its role in visualizing psalm recitation. Regional adaptations reflected local and craftsmanship, with English variants often adopting a distinctive "pig's head" or trapezoidal shape featuring a protruding hitchpin rail for enhanced resonance. In and Norman , triangular forms prevailed, as seen in ceiling paintings from the in , where the instrument's angled frame facilitated compact tuning pegs along the top edge. These psalteries were part of the era's musical landscape, used in courtly and chamber ensembles. The instrument held deep iconographic significance, frequently portrayed with King David as the archetypal psalmist, as in 15th-century Italian panel paintings and psalter illuminations symbolizing royal and spiritual authority. In monastic contexts, it provided accompaniment to plainchant, enriching liturgical psalmody with its resonant tones. Certain medieval designs incorporated triple strings per course. As the progressed, the psaltery's fixed diatonic tuning proved limiting for the chromatic demands of , necessitating cumbersome retunings that hindered its versatility. By around 1500, it yielded to keyboard instruments like the , which evolved from psaltery principles but offered mechanical key action for easier chromatic navigation and ensemble integration.

Renaissance and Decline

During the , the psaltery evolved to better support the era's intricate polyphonic music, with builders expanding the instrument's range through additional string courses and chromatic adaptations. Iconographic evidence, such as the detailed depiction in Hans Memling's 1480s triptych Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels, shows a trapezoidal psaltery with approximately 61 strings, suggesting a possible chromatic arrangement capable of spanning up to four octaves diatonic or two octaves fully chromatic to facilitate accidentals like B♭ and F♯. Plucking techniques advanced as well, with players using quills, plectra, or fingertips to produce clearer tones for polyphonic lines; a 16th-century Italian painting by Girolamo da Santacroce illustrates a performer employing a alongside finger plucking on a multi-course psaltery. These manual methods directly influenced the quill-plucking jacks in emerging keyboard instruments, as the psaltery's flat soundboard and string layout provided a foundational model for mechanical adaptation. In 16th-century , the psaltery's design contributed significantly to the 's development, serving as its primary ancestor by combining plucked strings with a resonating box; early prototypes like the clavicembalum (documented in 1397) evolved into the by adding a keyboard to automate plucking, allowing for greater speed and polyphonic complexity in . By the , the psaltery's popularity waned in mainstream European music, gradually supplanted by the and keyboard instruments like the and later the , which offered superior dynamics, expressiveness through touch sensitivity, and portability for ensemble playing. Its predominantly diatonic stringing proved inadequate for the era's increasingly chromatic harmonies and improvisational demands, limiting its versatility compared to these newer alternatives. Despite its decline in courtly and contexts, the psaltery persisted in scattered European folk traditions through the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in rural settings where simpler diatonic forms suited modal melodies and communal . Variants akin to the Baltic psaltery family, such as the Lithuanian , maintained use in , preserving the instrument's plucked construction amid broader orchestral shifts. In the , the Romantic era's fascination with medieval aesthetics and national folk heritage sparked renewed interest in ancient instruments like the psaltery, though practical revivals remained limited, with most efforts focusing on documentation rather than widespread performance until the early .

Plucked Variants

The plucked psaltery, a member of the family, features strings stretched across a flat soundboard and is played by plucking with the fingers or a , producing a bright, resonant tone from metal strings. In medieval , the diatonic trapezoidal form was prevalent, characterized by a wedge-shaped body with 10 to 20 wire strings arranged in single, double, or triple courses, tuned to a for melodic playing. This design evolved from earlier board-like versions with gut strings to more resonant trapezoidal or "pig's head" shapes using metal wires, often silver, bronze, or brass, which yielded a distinctive bell-like when plucked. The queen's psaltery, a favored courtly variant of the trapezoidal type, typically incorporated around 20 strings and was associated with royal musicians, as evidenced by records of specialized players in late medieval . Chromatic adaptations of the plucked psaltery appeared in later developments, incorporating additional strings or pins to provide sharps and flats beyond the diatonic scale, allowing for more complex harmonies while retaining the core plucking mechanism. Regional subtypes further diversified the instrument; Similarly, the Mexican salterio, introduced post-1500 via Spanish colonization, persisted as a plucked variant with typically around 90 strings (with multiple per course) arranged in Renaissance tuning systems, maintaining diatonic courses for traditional folk and religious music. Related plucked instruments from the 19th century built on psaltery principles, blending zither-like with hybrid features. The , a simplified , combined a fretted neck for melodic playing with unfretted bass strings across a flat body, facilitating chordal in . The , another chorded variant, incorporated damping bars over multiple strings to enable instant chords when pressed, serving primarily as an accompaniment tool in folk traditions and deriving from 19th-century German designs akin to the psaltery. across these plucked forms emphasized a wooden soundboard with hitch pins and tuning pegs for metal strings, plucked via to evoke clear, sustained tones without reliance on or percussion.

Bowed and Struck Forms

The emerged as a 20th-century innovation, patented in 1925 by the German instrument maker Clemens Neuber as the "violin zither," featuring a triangular frame with diatonic strings played using a bow to produce sustained drone-like tones. This design typically incorporates 16 to 20 strings tuned in a , allowing for melodic lines and harmonic overtones through bowing, and it gained popularity among folk musicians in the 1930s. Unlike its plucked ancestors, the bowed form emphasizes continuous vibration for ethereal, violin-esque sounds suitable for modal folk traditions. Struck variants of the psaltery evolved into instruments like the , which traces its development to the in , adapting the plucked psaltery's framework through influences from the Persian santur, a trapezoidal struck with hammers. The hammered dulcimer features strings stretched over a resonant trapezoidal body, struck with lightweight hammers to generate bright, rapid articulations, marking a shift from plucking to percussion for ensemble and dance music. Global adaptations highlight the struck psaltery's versatility, as seen in the Indian , a hammered instrument with over 100 strings arranged in a chromatic layout across bridges on a rectangular frame, enabling intricate performances in . Similarly, the Chinese , a introduced to southern coastal regions during the around the late 16th to via Persian trade routes, features triple or quadruple strings per course on a trapezoidal body, adapted for pentatonic scales in traditional ensembles. Acoustically, bowing on psaltery derivatives produces sustained tones with rich and enables glissandi by sliding the bow across strings, contrasting the percussive, sharp attacks of struck variants that emphasize rhythmic clarity but limit note duration compared to the original plucked psaltery's softer decays. These differences arise from the excitation methods: in maintains longer, while impact in striking initiates quick transients suited to idiomatic repertoires.

Playing Techniques

Traditional Plucking

Traditional plucking on the psaltery involved using the fingers or a to sound the strings, with finger plucking—employing the flesh or nails—producing softer dynamics suitable for intimate settings, while a or metal enabled louder, more precise attacks for ensemble performance. Historical illustrations, such as those in the (c. 1257–1283), depict players using quills in one or both hands, often combining them with for varied articulation. The right hand typically handled the on the upper strings, while the left provided bass notes or drones, facilitating simple as seen in medieval . Players adopted a seated posture, holding the instrument on the lap or a table with the strings facing toward them, allowing easy access to the soundboard; standing performers occasionally used straps for support, as evidenced in the Heidelberger Totentanz (1488). Fourteenth-century illustrations, including works by Tommaso del Mazza (c. 1377–1392), confirm plectrum use in this configuration, emphasizing the instrument's portability and direct plucking interface. The psaltery was strung with metal wires, such as silver or , which influenced the bright, resonant tone achieved through these methods. Musically, traditional playing emphasized diatonic scales aligned with church modes, as documented in the Berkeley Manuscript (), where tunings incorporated for accidentals like B-flat to fit modal structures. Techniques included arpeggiation for chordal and ostinato patterns via sustained left-hand drones, enabling support for monophonic melodies in sacred or courtly contexts, as implied in Cantigas depictions. Expressive control was achieved primarily through variations in plucking force, modulating volume from delicate whispers to resonant strums, though options for were limited due to the fixed string positions. The instrument's typical range spanned 2 to 3 octaves in medieval forms, providing sufficient breadth for modal melodies and basic without chromatic complexity.

Modern Adaptations

In the mid-20th century, the emerged as a significant modern adaptation during the American folk revival, with its popularization traced to the 1940s when a music teacher developed it as a tool for instructing proper techniques. This innovation transformed the traditionally plucked instrument into one playable with a bow, enabling new expressive possibilities. Players employ short, quick bow strokes on individual strings to articulate melodies, particularly in faster passages, while longer, firmer strokes across multiple strings produce sustained harmonies and richer tones suitable for slower pieces. Hybrid playing methods have further expanded the psaltery's versatility, notably through combinations of plucking and to achieve cleaner, more controlled notes by muting unwanted string vibrations immediately after sounding them. Electronic amplification has become common in performance settings, with magnetic or piezo pickups installed under the soundboard to capture string vibrations for stage use, allowing the instrument's delicate tone to project in contexts without altering its acoustic character. Notable modern revivalists include composer Nathan Davis, who incorporates in contemporary works with varied stroke techniques for dynamic expression, and Rick Long, a specialist in instructional methods. In ensembles, such as those adapting Irish tunes, the provides a droning, bagpipe-like quality to accompany fiddles and harps. Educational adaptations have made the psaltery accessible to through simplified diatonic models, often tuned in a single key like to facilitate learning without complex chromatic navigation, as seen in fan-patterned designs that mimic the harmonious structure of the . These models are commonly taught in workshops, where participants explore basic bowing and plucking via hands-on sessions focused on folk tunes and rounds. Additionally, variants like the Reverie Harp—a pentatonically tuned plucked psaltery—have been integrated into programs since the late , promoting relaxation through intuitive strumming and plucking that requires no prior skill, fostering emotional expression and stress reduction in clinical settings.

Cultural and Musical Significance

Depictions in Art and Religion

The psaltery holds a prominent place in medieval , often portrayed as a symbol of divine and the biblical King 's authorship of the . In illuminated manuscripts such as the Boulogne Psalter (c. 999), David is depicted playing a "psalteriu," interpreted by art historians as a representation of the psaltery, emphasizing its role in sacred music and praise. These depictions, common in Gothic psalters, illustrate the instrument's trapezoidal form plucked with fingers or quills, blending artistic realism with theological symbolism. In religious contexts, the psaltery carried profound significance across Abrahamic traditions. Within , it evoked the , particularly David's , as seen in where the instrument signifies prophetic song and ecclesiastical devotion; patristic texts linked it to divine musicianship, portraying as a prototype for Christian kings. In , the psaltery—corresponding to the biblical nebel—was integral to temple rituals, accompanying psalmody in Levitical worship and serving as a tool for expressing joy and reverence during sacrifices and festivals. Islamic art features related forms like the qānūn in paintings from the Safavid era (16th-17th centuries), depicted in courtly gatherings to evoke refined entertainment and cultural continuity from ancient Persian traditions. Literary references further highlight the psaltery's noble and symbolic resonance. In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (late ), the instrument appears in the General Prologue as a "gay sautrye," preferred by the philosophically inclined over richer attire, evoking elegance in aristocratic pilgrimage settings. Symbolically, in Dante Alighieri's (early ), the psaltery aligns with celestial music in Paradiso, where harmonious and hymns represent divine concord, echoing the instrument's plucked strings as a metaphor for heavenly order and reconciliation. Renaissance art often associated the psaltery with female musicians, contrasting it with more assertive instruments played by men and reinforcing gender stereotypes of domestic grace. In Luca della Robbia's Cantoria relief (1432-1438) for , young girls pluck psalteries amid choral scenes, symbolizing passive, harmonious , while boys handle louder and percussion. This iconography, drawn from conduct literature like Baldassare Castiglione's Il Cortegiano (1528), confined women to gentle stringed instruments like the psaltery in private or allegorical contexts, highlighting its role in ideals of refined, contained expression.

Contemporary Revival

The psaltery experienced a notable resurgence in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, particularly through the and folk revival movements. In the , interest grew within folk scenes, where musicians like Bill Schilling incorporated the instrument into performances alongside hammered dulcimers and other traditional tools, drawing from the broader folk revival's emphasis on acoustic stringed instruments. ensembles further propelled its revival; for instance, the vocal group Anonymous 4 featured the psaltery in recordings such as Wolcum Yule (1999), where harpist Andrew Lawrence-King used it to accompany Celtic and British carols, highlighting its role in authentic medieval soundscapes. The variant, a 20th-century innovation popularized in the U.S. from the 1940s onward, saw increased adoption in the through luthiers like those at Riverboat Music, who offered accessible models that fueled a boom in amateur and therapeutic music-making. In contemporary applications, the psaltery has found niches in for its ethereal, meditative tones. Composers like Chris Collins integrate medieval psaltery into relaxation tracks, such as the album Druid (2018), blending it with harps, flutes, and drones to evoke fantasy landscapes suitable for practices. Similarly, Michael Tanner's Suite for Psaltery & (2015) draws on 1970s aesthetics, using for ambient Sussex-inspired pieces. The instrument appears in and scores for fantasy genres, providing pastoral or archaic textures; for example, it features in royalty-free medieval tracks designed for historical and fantasy media, as offered by libraries like Pond5. World fusion experiments, though less common, include occasional pairings with non-Western elements, such as drone-based improvisations echoing structures in experimental works. Contemporary manufacturing has democratized access to the psaltery, with builders offering DIY for models. Companies like Musicmakers provide 16- to 32-string kits starting under $200, using woods like and for assembly in 20-30 hours. Similarly, A Psimple Psaltery and James Jones Instruments supply plans and pre-cut components, enabling hobbyists to build triangular or trapezoidal forms. Online communities, including groups like Bowed Psaltery Friends (with thousands of members sharing techniques and tunes), have fostered growth since the early . Festivals such as the annual Bowed Psaltery Symphony in (since the 2010s) and the Down Home Psaltery Festival in bring players together for workshops and performances, emphasizing communal playing. Despite this revival, the psaltery faces challenges from its limited historical , primarily diatonic medieval tunes that restrict chromatic expression without modifications. Efforts to expand it include new compositions; composer Nathan Davis's Neutral Buoyant (2023) explores the bowed psaltery's textural range through electronic processing and improvisations, aiming for broader classical integration. Arrangements of , like J.M. Bolton's Early Music for the Bowed Psaltery (2015) with 30 medieval pieces, and modern hymn collections further support adoption, though sustained innovation remains key to wider cultural impact.

References

  1. https://antiqua.music.iastate.edu/instrument/psaltery
  2. https://www.oed.com/dictionary/psaltery_n
  3. https://earlymusicmuse.com/psaltery/
  4. https://open.bu.edu/bitstream/2144/10028/1/themusicofisrael00maxw.pdf
  5. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+33%3A2%2C+Psalm+144%3A9&version=KJV
  6. https://jewish-music.huji.ac.il/media/2377/download?attachment
  7. https://www.etymonline.com/word/psaltery
  8. https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12412-psaltery
  9. https://www.katapi.org.uk/MusicOfTheBible/Ch3.htm
  10. https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/millers-prologue-and-tale
  11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/738808
  12. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/psalter
  13. https://en.santurasangita.com/santour
  14. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/santur
  15. https://omeka-s.grinnell.edu/s/MusicalInstruments/item/636
  16. https://organology.net/instrument/psaltry/
  17. https://acoustics.org/pressroom/httpdocs/147th/Rossing_Psaltery3.htm
  18. https://curt.bouterse.com/medieval-instruments-ii-psalteries/
  19. http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/misc/modes.html
  20. https://caslabs.case.edu/medren/medieval-instruments/psaltery/
  21. https://www.worthpoint.com/dictionary/p/entertainment/string/psaltery-stringed-musical-instrument
  22. https://curt.bouterse.com/alfonso-x-instruments-then-now-i/
  23. https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=9104
  24. https://diabolus.org/workshop/psaltery-pigsnout/psaltery-pigsnout.php
  25. https://warfare.6te.net/12/Cappella_Palatina-ceiling-Musician_Tuning_a_Triangular_Psaltery.htm
  26. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/rangercollege-musicappreciation/chapter/overview-of-medieval-music/
  27. https://www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/103S12
  28. http://pre-elizabethanengland.blogspot.com/2013/06/the-psaltery.html
  29. https://www.museodellamusica.com/en/instruments/6/psaltery
  30. https://www.mic.lt/en/discourses/lithuanian-music-link/no-23-january-december-2020/eirimas-velicka-singing-with-wood-baltic-psaltery-family/
  31. https://townwaits.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/richard_rastall_thesis.pdf
  32. https://songbirdhd.com/7-types-of-hammered-dulcimers-around-the-world/
  33. https://www.milenio.com/estados/musica-tradicion-atltzayanca-cuna-salterio-mexico
  34. https://loopholes.blog/2023/03/baltic-psaltery/
  35. https://www.baltimorerecorders.org/html/instruments/psalterys.html
  36. https://www.corvus.org.uk/index.php?page=18
  37. https://songbirdhd.com/where-did-the-hammered-dulcimer-originate/
  38. https://www.si.edu/spotlight/hammered-dulcimer/history
  39. https://wegotguru.wordpress.com/2017/07/06/all-about-santoor-the-100-strings-instrument/
  40. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/500595
  41. http://www.windridgefarm.us/bowedpsaltery.htm
  42. https://diabolus.org/guide/psaltery.htm
  43. http://www.apsimplepsaltery.com/phantasy-psalteries/what-is-a-psaltery/
  44. https://www.doverlibrary.org/what-is-that-thing/
  45. https://stringsmagazine.com/composer-nathan-davis-reveals-the-bowed-psaltery-on-neutral-bouyant/
  46. https://balticpsalteries.com/product/sound-pickups/
  47. https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLkUdHV8P_EugVRQyv2FOyArQqRnRr_oaK
  48. https://bowedpsalterymusic.jigsy.com/about
  49. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1U2HN4OpBfg
  50. https://www.michaeljking.com/diatonic-bowed-psaltery.htm
  51. http://billschilling.org/workshops.htm
  52. https://www.harpkit.com/resources/how-to-play-the-reverie-harp
  53. https://www.christianiconography.info/david.html
  54. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1022&context=studiaantiqua
  55. https://www.britannica.com/art/qanun
  56. https://anthology.lib.virginia.edu/work/Chaucer/chaucer-prologue
  57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3364995
  58. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/cumr/1995-v16-n1-cumr0466/1014420ar.pdf
  59. http://billschilling.org/billwithcarol.htm
  60. https://www.amazon.com/Wolcum-Yule-Celtic-British-Lawrence-King/dp/B0000AZKK4
  61. https://riverboatmusic.com/bowed_psaltery/bowed_psaltery.htm
  62. https://insighttimer.com/indiemusicbox/guided-meditations/druid-relaxing-new-age-fantasy-music
  63. https://www.amazon.com/Suite-Psaltery-Dulcimer-Michael-Tanner/dp/B000057132
  64. https://www.pond5.com/nl/royalty-free-music/item/108113326-medieval-psaltery-and-lute-30-second-edit
  65. https://www.nathandavis.com/psaltery
  66. https://www.harpkit.com/bowed-psaltery-kit
  67. http://www.apsimplepsaltery.com/
  68. https://www.facebook.com/groups/bowedpsalteryfriends/
  69. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V7mhYfI62FM
  70. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tG95E2U8kuM
  71. https://www.amazon.com/Early-Music-Psaltery-Bolton-2015-01-04/dp/B01FJ68D5I
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