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An image of an AMD Radeon RX 6900 XT graphics card
A modern high-end consumer graphics card: a Radeon RX 6900 XT from AMD

A graphics card (also called a video card, display card, graphics accelerator, graphics adapter, VGA card/VGA, video adapter, or display adapter) is a computer expansion card that generates a feed of graphics output to a display device such as a monitor. Graphics cards are sometimes called discrete or dedicated graphics cards to emphasize their distinction to an integrated graphics processor on the motherboard or the central processing unit (CPU). A graphics processing unit (GPU) that performs the necessary computations is the main component in a graphics card, but the acronym "GPU" is sometimes also used to refer to the graphics card as a whole erroneously.[1]

Most graphics cards are not limited to simple display output. The graphics processing unit can be used for additional processing, which reduces the load from the CPU.[2] Additionally, computing platforms such as OpenCL and CUDA allow using graphics cards for general-purpose computing. Applications of general-purpose computing on graphics cards include AI training, cryptocurrency mining, and molecular simulation.[3][4][5]

Usually, a graphics card comes in the form of a printed circuit board (expansion board) which is to be inserted into an expansion slot.[6] Others may have dedicated enclosures, and they are connected to the computer via a docking station or a cable. These are known as external GPUs (eGPUs).

Graphics cards are often preferred over integrated graphics for increased performance. A more powerful graphics card will be able to render more frames per second.

History

[edit]

Graphics cards, also known as video cards or graphics processing units (GPUs), have historically evolved alongside computer display standards to accommodate advancing technologies and user demands. In the realm of IBM PC compatibles, the early standards included Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA), Color Graphics Adapter (CGA), Hercules Graphics Card, Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), and Video Graphics Array (VGA). Each of these standards represented a step forward in the ability of computers to display more colors, higher resolutions, and richer graphical interfaces, laying the foundation for the development of modern graphical capabilities.

In the late 1980s, advancements in personal computing led companies like Radius to develop specialized graphics cards for the Apple Macintosh II. These cards were unique in that they incorporated discrete 2D QuickDraw capabilities, enhancing the graphical output of Macintosh computers by accelerating 2D graphics rendering. QuickDraw, a core part of the Macintosh graphical user interface, allowed for the rapid rendering of bitmapped graphics, fonts, and shapes, and the introduction of such hardware-based enhancements signaled an era of specialized graphics processing in consumer machines.

The evolution of graphics processing took a major leap forward in the mid-1990s with 3dfx Interactive's introduction of the Voodoo series, one of the earliest consumer-facing GPUs that supported 3D acceleration. The Voodoo's architecture marked a major shift in graphical computing by offloading the demanding task of 3D rendering from the CPU to the GPU, significantly improving gaming performance and graphical realism.

The development of fully integrated GPUs that could handle both 2D and 3D rendering came with the introduction of the NVIDIA RIVA 128. Released in 1997, the RIVA 128 was one of the first consumer-facing GPUs to integrate both 3D and 2D processing units on a single chip. This innovation simplified the hardware requirements for end-users, as they no longer needed separate cards for 2D and 3D rendering, thus paving the way for the widespread adoption of more powerful and versatile GPUs in personal computers.

In contemporary times, the majority of graphics cards are built using chips sourced from two dominant manufacturers: AMD and Nvidia. These modern graphics cards are multifunctional and support various tasks beyond rendering 3D images for gaming. They also provide 2D graphics processing, video decoding, TV output, and multi-monitor setups. Additionally, many graphics cards now have integrated sound capabilities, allowing them to transmit audio alongside video output to connected TVs or monitors with built-in speakers, further enhancing the multimedia experience.

Within the graphics industry, these products are often referred to as graphics add-in boards (AIBs).[7] The term "AIB" emphasizes the modular nature of these components, as they are typically added to a computer's motherboard to enhance its graphical capabilities. The evolution from the early days of separate 2D and 3D cards to today's integrated and multifunctional GPUs reflects the ongoing technological advancements and the increasing demand for high-quality visual and multimedia experiences in computing.

Discrete vs integrated graphics

[edit]
Classical desktop computer architecture with a distinct graphics card over PCI Express. Typical bandwidths for given memory technologies, missing are the memory latency. Zero-copy between GPU and CPU is not possible, since both have their distinct physical memories. Data must be copied from one to the other to be shared.
Integrated graphics with partitioned main memory: a part of the system memory is allocated to the GPU exclusively. Zero-copy is not possible, data has to be copied, over the system memory bus, from one partition to the other.
Integrated graphics with unified main memory, to be found AMD "Kaveri" or PlayStation 4 (HSA)

As an alternative to the use of a graphics card, video hardware can be integrated into the motherboard, CPU, or a system-on-chip as integrated graphics. Motherboard-based implementations are sometimes called "on-board video". Some motherboards support using both integrated graphics and a graphics card simultaneously to feed separate displays. The main advantages of integrated graphics are: low cost, compactness, simplicity, and low energy consumption. Integrated graphics often have less performance than a graphics card because the graphics processing unit inside integrated graphics needs to share system resources with the CPU. On the other hand, a graphics card has a separate random access memory (RAM), cooling system, and dedicated power regulators. A graphics card can offload work and reduce memory-bus-contention from the CPU and system RAM, therefore, the overall performance for a computer could improve, in addition to increased performance in graphics processing. Such improvements to performance can be seen in video gaming, 3D animation, and video editing.[8][9]

Both AMD and Intel have introduced CPUs and motherboard chipsets that support the integration of a GPU into the same die as the CPU. AMD advertises CPUs with integrated graphics under the trademark Accelerated Processing Unit (APU), while Intel brands similar technology under "Intel Graphics Technology".[10]

Power demand

[edit]

As the processing power of graphics cards increased, so did their demand for electrical power. Current high-performance graphics cards tend to consume large amounts of power. For example, the thermal design power (TDP) for the GeForce Titan RTX is 280 watts.[11] When tested with video games, the GeForce RTX 2080 Ti Founder's Edition averaged 300 watts of power consumption.[12] While CPU and power supply manufacturers have recently aimed toward higher efficiency, power demands of graphics cards continued to rise, with the largest power consumption of any individual part in a computer.[13][14] Although power supplies have also increased their power output, the bottleneck occurs in the PCI-Express connection, which is limited to supplying 75 watts.[15]

Modern graphics cards with a power consumption of over 75 watts usually include a combination of six-pin (75 W) or eight-pin (150 W) sockets that connect directly to the power supply. Providing adequate cooling becomes a challenge in such computers. Computers with multiple graphics cards may require power supplies over 750 watts. Heat extraction becomes a major design consideration for computers with two or more high-end graphics cards.[citation needed]

As of the Nvidia GeForce RTX 30 series, Ampere architecture, a custom flashed RTX 3090 named "Hall of Fame" has been recorded to reach a peak power draw as high as 630 watts. A standard RTX 3090 can peak at up to 450 watts. The RTX 3080 can reach up to 350 watts, while a 3070 can reach a similar, if not slightly lower, peak power draw. Ampere cards of the Founders Edition variant feature a "dual axial flow through"[16] cooler design, which includes fans above and below the card to dissipate as much heat as possible towards the rear of the computer case. A similar design was used by the Sapphire Radeon RX Vega 56 Pulse graphics card.[17]

Size

[edit]

Graphics cards for desktop computers have different size profiles, which allows graphics cards to be added to smaller-sized computers. Some graphics cards are not of the usual size, and are named as "low profile".[18][19] Graphics card profiles are based on height only, with low-profile cards taking up less than the height of a PCIe slot. Length and thickness can vary greatly, with high-end cards usually occupying two or three expansion slots, and with modern high-end graphics cards such as the RTX 4090 exceeding 300mm in length.[20] A lower profile card is preferred when trying to fit multiple cards or if graphics cards run into clearance issues with other motherboard components like the DIMM or PCIE slots. This can be fixed with a larger computer case such as mid-tower or full tower. Full towers are usually able to fit larger motherboards in sizes like ATX and micro ATX.[citation needed]

GPU sag

[edit]

In the late 2010s and early 2020s, some high-end graphics card models have become so heavy that it is possible for them to sag downwards after installing without proper support, which is why many manufacturers provide additional support brackets.[21] GPU sag can damage a GPU in the long term.[21]

Multicard scaling

[edit]

Some graphics cards can be linked together to allow scaling graphics processing across multiple cards. This is done using either the PCIe bus on the motherboard or, more commonly, a data bridge. Usually, the cards must be of the same model to be linked, and most low end cards are not able to be linked in this way.[22] AMD and Nvidia both have proprietary scaling methods, CrossFireX for AMD, and SLI (since the Turing generation, superseded by NVLink) for Nvidia. Cards from different chip-set manufacturers or architectures cannot be used together for multi-card scaling. If graphics cards have different sizes of memory, the lowest value will be used, with the higher values disregarded. Currently, scaling on consumer-grade cards can be done using up to four cards.[23][24][25] The use of four cards requires a large motherboard with a proper configuration. Nvidia's GeForce GTX 590 graphics card can be configured in a four-card configuration.[26] As stated above, users will want to stick to cards with the same performances for optimal use. Motherboards including ASUS Maximus 3 Extreme and Gigabyte GA EX58 Extreme are certified to work with this configuration.[27] A large power supply is necessary to run the cards in SLI or CrossFireX. Power demands must be known before a proper supply is installed. For the four card configuration, a 1000+ watt supply is needed.[27] With any relatively powerful graphics card, thermal management cannot be ignored. Graphics cards require well-vented chassis and good thermal solutions. Air or water cooling are usually required, though low end GPUs can use passive cooling. Larger configurations use water solutions or immersion cooling to achieve proper performance without thermal throttling.[28]

SLI and Crossfire have become increasingly uncommon as most games do not fully utilize multiple GPUs, due to the fact that most users cannot afford them.[29][30][31] Multiple GPUs are still used on supercomputers (like in Summit), on workstations to accelerate video[32][33][34] and 3D rendering,[35][36][37][38][39] visual effects,[40][41] for simulations,[42] and for training artificial intelligence.

3D graphics APIs

[edit]

A graphics driver usually supports one or multiple cards by the same vendor and has to be written for a specific operating system. Additionally, the operating system or an extra software package may provide certain programming APIs for applications to perform 3D rendering.

3D rendering API availability across operating systems
OS Vulkan Direct3D Metal OpenGL OpenGL ES OpenCL
Windows Yes Microsoft No Yes Yes Yes
macOS, iOS and iPadOS MoltenVK No Apple MacOS iOS/iPadOS Apple
Linux Yes Alternative
Implementations 		No Yes Yes Yes
Android Yes No No Nvidia Yes Yes
Tizen In development No No No Yes —
Sailfish OS In development No No No Yes —

Usage

[edit]

GPUs are designed with specific usages in mind, such product lines are categorized here :

  1. Gaming
  2. Cloud gaming
  3. Workstation
  4. Cloud Workstation
  5. Artificial Intelligence Cloud
  6. Automated/Driverless car

Industry

[edit]

As of 2016, the primary suppliers of the GPUs (graphics chips or chipsets) used in graphics cards are AMD and Nvidia. In the third quarter of 2013, AMD had a 35.5% market share while Nvidia had 64.5%,[43] according to Jon Peddie Research. In economics, this industry structure is termed a duopoly. AMD and Nvidia also build and sell graphics cards, which are termed graphics add-in-boards (AIBs) in the industry. (See Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units and Comparison of AMD graphics processing units.) In addition to marketing their own graphics cards, AMD and Nvidia sell their GPUs to authorized AIB suppliers, which AMD and Nvidia refer to as "partners".[44] The fact that Nvidia and AMD compete directly with their customer/partners complicates relationships in the industry. AMD and Intel being direct competitors in the CPU industry is also noteworthy, since AMD-based graphics cards may be used in computers with Intel CPUs. Intel's integrated graphics may weaken AMD, in which the latter derives a significant portion of its revenue from its APUs. As of the second quarter of 2013, there were 52 AIB suppliers.[44] These AIB suppliers may market graphics cards under their own brands, produce graphics cards for private label brands, or produce graphics cards for computer manufacturers. Some AIB suppliers such as MSI build both AMD-based and Nvidia-based graphics cards. Others, such as EVGA, build only Nvidia-based graphics cards, while XFX, now builds only AMD-based graphics cards. Several AIB suppliers are also motherboard suppliers. Most of the largest AIB suppliers are based in Taiwan and they include ASUS, MSI, GIGABYTE, and Palit. Hong Kong–based AIB manufacturers include Sapphire and Zotac. Sapphire and Zotac also sell graphics cards exclusively for AMD and Nvidia GPUs respectively.[45]

Market

[edit]

Graphics card shipments peaked at a total of 114 million in 1999. By contrast, they totaled 14.5 million units in the third quarter of 2013, a 17% fall from Q3 2012 levels.[43] Shipments reached an annual total of 44 million in 2015.[citation needed] The sales of graphics cards have trended downward due to improvements in integrated graphics technologies; high-end, CPU-integrated graphics can provide competitive performance with low-end graphics cards. At the same time, graphics card sales have grown within the high-end segment, as manufacturers have shifted their focus to prioritize the gaming and enthusiast market.[45][46]

Beyond the gaming and multimedia segments, graphics cards have been increasingly used for general-purpose computing, such as big data processing.[47] The growth of cryptocurrency has placed a severely high demand on high-end graphics cards, especially in large quantities, due to their advantages in the process of cryptocurrency mining. In January 2018, mid- to high-end graphics cards experienced a major surge in price, with many retailers having stock shortages due to the significant demand among this market.[46][48][49] Graphics card companies released mining-specific cards designed to run 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and without video output ports.[5] The graphics card industry took a setback due to the 2020–21 chip shortage.[50]

Parts

[edit]
A Radeon HD 7970 with the main heatsink removed, showing the major components of the card. The large, tilted silver object is the GPU die, which is surrounded by RAM chips, which are covered in extruded aluminum heatsinks. Power delivery circuitry is mounted next to the RAM, near the right side of the card.

A modern graphics card consists of a printed circuit board on which the components are mounted. These include:

Graphics processing unit

[edit]
Main article: graphics processing unit

A graphics processing unit (GPU), also occasionally called visual processing unit (VPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the building of images in a frame buffer intended for output to a display. Because of the large degree of programmable computational complexity for such a task, a modern graphics card is also a computer unto itself.

A half-height graphics card

Heat sink

[edit]

A heat sink is mounted on most modern graphics cards. A heat sink spreads out the heat produced by the graphics processing unit evenly throughout the heat sink and unit itself. The heat sink commonly has a fan mounted to cool the heat sink and the graphics processing unit. Not all cards have heat sinks, for example, some cards are liquid-cooled and instead have a water block; additionally, cards from the 1980s and early 1990s did not produce much heat, and did not require heat sinks. Most modern graphics cards need proper thermal solutions. They can be water-cooled or through heat sinks with additional connected heat pipes usually made of copper for the best thermal transfer.[citation needed]

Video BIOS

[edit]

The video BIOS or firmware contains a minimal program for the initial set up and control of the graphics card. It may contain information on the memory and memory timing, operating speeds and voltages of the graphics processor, and other details which can sometimes be changed.[citation needed]

Modern Video BIOSes do not support full functionalities of graphics cards; they are only sufficient to identify and initialize the card to display one of a few frame buffer or text display modes. It does not support YUV to RGB translation, video scaling, pixel copying, compositing or any of the multitude of other 2D and 3D features of the graphics card, which must be accessed by software drivers.[citation needed]

Video memory

[edit]
Type Memory clock rate (MHz) Bandwidth (GB/s)
DDR 200–400 1.6–3.2
DDR2 400–1066 3.2–8.533
DDR3 800–2133 6.4–17.066
DDR4 1600–4866 12.8–25.6
DDR5 4000-8800 32-128
GDDR4 3000–4000 160–256
GDDR5 1000–2000 288–336.5
GDDR5X 1000–1750 160–673
GDDR6 1365–1770 336–672
HBM 250–1000 512–1024

The memory capacity of most modern graphics cards ranges from 2 to 24 GB.[51] But with up to 32 GB as of the late 2010s, the applications for graphics use are becoming more powerful and widespread. Since video memory needs to be accessed by the GPU and the display circuitry, it often uses special high-speed or multi-port memory, such as VRAM, WRAM, SGRAM, etc. Around 2003, the video memory was typically based on DDR technology. During and after that year, manufacturers moved towards DDR2, GDDR3, GDDR4, GDDR5, GDDR5X, and GDDR6. The effective memory clock rate in modern cards is generally between 2 and 15 GHz.[citation needed]

Video memory may be used for storing other data as well as the screen image, such as the Z-buffer, which manages the depth coordinates in 3D graphics, as well as textures, vertex buffers, and compiled shader programs.

RAMDAC

[edit]

The RAMDAC, or random-access-memory digital-to-analog converter, converts digital signals to analog signals for use by a computer display that uses analog inputs such as cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays. The RAMDAC is a kind of RAM chip that regulates the functioning of the graphics card. Depending on the number of bits used and the RAMDAC-data-transfer rate, the converter will be able to support different computer-display refresh rates. With CRT displays, it is best to work over 75 Hz and never under 60 Hz, to minimize flicker.[52] (This is not a problem with LCD displays, as they have little to no flicker.[citation needed]) Due to the growing popularity of digital computer displays and the integration of the RAMDAC onto the GPU die, it has mostly disappeared as a discrete component. All current LCD/plasma monitors and TVs and projectors with only digital connections work in the digital domain and do not require a RAMDAC for those connections. There are displays that feature analog inputs (VGA, component, SCART, etc.) only. These require a RAMDAC, but they reconvert the analog signal back to digital before they can display it, with the unavoidable loss of quality stemming from this digital-to-analog-to-digital conversion.[citation needed] With the VGA standard being phased out in favor of digital formats, RAMDACs have started to disappear from graphics cards.[citation needed]

A Radeon HD 5850 with a DisplayPort, HDMI and two DVI ports

Output interfaces

[edit]
Video-in video-out (VIVO) for S-Video (TV-out), Digital Visual Interface (DVI) for high-definition television (HDTV), and DE-15 for Video Graphics Array (VGA)

The most common connection systems between the graphics card and the computer display are:

Video Graphics Array (VGA) (DE-15)

[edit]
Video Graphics Array (DE-15)
Main article: Video Graphics Array

Also known as D-sub, VGA is an analog-based standard adopted in the late 1980s designed for CRT displays, also called VGA connector. Today, the VGA analog interface is used for high definition video resolutions including 1080p and higher. Some problems of this standard are electrical noise, image distortion and sampling error in evaluating pixels. While the VGA transmission bandwidth is high enough to support even higher resolution playback, the picture quality can degrade depending on cable quality and length. The extent of quality difference depends on the individual's eyesight and the display; when using a DVI or HDMI connection, especially on larger sized LCD/LED monitors or TVs, quality degradation, if present, is prominently visible. Blu-ray playback at 1080p is possible via the VGA analog interface, if Image Constraint Token (ICT) is not enabled on the Blu-ray disc.

Digital Visual Interface (DVI)

[edit]
Digital Visual Interface (DVI-I)
Main article: Digital Visual Interface

Digital Visual Interface is a digital-based standard designed for displays such as flat-panel displays (LCDs, plasma screens, wide high-definition television displays) and video projectors. There were also some rare high-end CRT monitors that use DVI. It avoids image distortion and electrical noise, corresponding each pixel from the computer to a display pixel, using its native resolution. Most manufacturers include a DVI-I connector, allowing (via simple adapter) standard RGB signal output to an old CRT or LCD monitor with VGA input.

Video-in video-out (VIVO) for S-Video, composite video and component video

[edit]
VIVO connector
Main article: Video-in video-out

These connectors are included to allow connection with televisions, DVD players, video recorders and video game consoles. They often come in two 10-pin mini-DIN connector variations, and the VIVO splitter cable generally comes with either 4 connectors (S-Video in and out plus composite video in and out), or 6 connectors (S-Video in and out, component YPBPR out and composite in and out).

High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)

[edit]
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
Main article: HDMI

HDMI is a compact audio/video interface for transferring uncompressed video data and compressed/uncompressed digital audio data from an HDMI-compliant device ("the source device") to a compatible digital audio device, computer monitor, video projector, or digital television.[53] HDMI is a digital replacement for existing analog video standards. HDMI supports copy protection through HDCP.

DisplayPort

[edit]
DisplayPort
Main article: DisplayPort

DisplayPort is a digital display interface developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). The interface is primarily used to connect a video source to a display device such as a computer monitor, though it can also be used to transmit audio, USB, and other forms of data.[54] The VESA specification is royalty-free. VESA designed it to replace VGA, DVI, and LVDS. Backward compatibility to VGA and DVI by using adapter dongles enables consumers to use DisplayPort fitted video sources without replacing existing display devices. Although DisplayPort has a greater throughput of the same functionality as HDMI, it is expected to complement the interface, not replace it.[55][56]

USB-C

[edit]
Main article: USB-C

USB-C is a extensible connector used for USB, display port, thunderbolt, power delivery. The USB-C is a 24 pin reversible connector that supersedes previous USB connectors. Some newer graphics cards use USB-C ports for versatility.[57]

Other types of connection systems

[edit]
Type Connector Description
Composite video
For display on analog systems with SD resolutions (PAL or NTSC)[58] the RCA connector output can be used. The single pin connector carries all resolution, brightness and color information, making it the lowest quality dedicated video connection.[59] Depending on the card the SECAM color system might be supported, along with non-standard modes like PAL-60 or NTSC50.
S-Video
For display on analog systems with SD resolutions (PAL or NTSC), the S-video cable carries two synchronized signal and ground pairs, termed Y and C, on a four-pin mini-DIN connector. In composite video, the signals co-exist on different frequencies. To achieve this, the luminance signal must be low-pass filtered, dulling the image. As S-Video maintains the two as separate signals, such detrimental low-pass filtering for luminance is unnecessary, although the chrominance signal still has limited bandwidth relative to component video.
7P
Non-standard 7-pin mini-DIN connectors (termed "7P") are used in some computer equipment (PCs and Macs). A 7P socket accepts and is pin compatible with a standard 4-pin S-Video plug.[60] The three extra sockets may be used to supply composite (CVBS), an RGB or YPbPr video signal, or an I²C interface.[60][61]
8-pin mini-DIN
A MiniDIN-8 Diagram
 The 8-pin mini-DIN connector is used in some ATI Radeon video cards.[62]
Component video
It uses three cables, each with an RCA connector (YCBCR for digital component, or YPBPR for analog component); it is used in older projectors, video-game consoles, and DVD players.[63] It can carry SDTV 480i/576i and EDTV 480p/576p resolutions, and HDTV resolutions 720p and 1080i, but not 1080p due to industry concerns about copy protection. Its graphics quality is equivalent to HDMI for the resolutions it carries,[64] but for best performance for Blu-ray, other 1080p sources like PPV, or 4K Ultra HD, a digital display connector is required.
DB13W3
An analog standard once used by Sun Microsystems, SGI and IBM.
DMS-59
A connector that provides a DVI or VGA output on a single connector.
DE-9
The historical connector used by EGA and CGA graphics cards is a female nine-pin D-subminiature (DE-9). The signal standard and pinout are backward-compatible with CGA, allowing EGA monitors to be used on CGA cards and vice versa.

Motherboard interfaces

[edit]
Main articles: Bus (computing) and Expansion card
ATI Graphics Solution Rev 3 from 1985/1986, supporting Hercules graphics. As can be seen from the PCB the layout was done in 1985, whereas the marking on the central chip CW16800-A says "8639" meaning that chip was manufactured week 39, 1986. This card is using the ISA 8-bit (XT) interface.

Chronologically, connection systems between graphics card and motherboard were, mainly:

  • S-100 bus: Designed in 1974 as a part of the Altair 8800, it is the first industry-standard bus for the microcomputer industry.
  • ISA: Introduced in 1981 by IBM, it became dominant in the marketplace in the 1980s. It is an 8- or 16-bit bus clocked at 8 MHz.
  • NuBus: Used in Macintosh II, it is a 32-bit bus with an average bandwidth of 10 to 20 MB/s.
  • MCA: Introduced in 1987 by IBM it is a 32-bit bus clocked at 10 MHz.
  • EISA: Released in 1988 to compete with IBM's MCA, it was compatible with the earlier ISA bus. It is a 32-bit bus clocked at 8.33 MHz.
  • VLB: An extension of ISA, it is a 32-bit bus clocked at 33 MHz. Also referred to as VESA.
  • PCI: Replaced the EISA, ISA, MCA and VESA buses from 1993 onwards. PCI allowed dynamic connectivity between devices, avoiding the manual adjustments required with jumpers. It is a 32-bit bus clocked 33 MHz.
  • UPA: An interconnect bus architecture introduced by Sun Microsystems in 1995. It is a 64-bit bus clocked at 67 or 83 MHz.
  • USB: Although mostly used for miscellaneous devices, such as secondary storage devices or peripherals and toys, USB displays and display adapters exist. It was first used in 1996.
  • AGP: First used in 1997, it is a dedicated-to-graphics bus. It is a 32-bit bus clocked at 66 MHz.
  • PCI-X: An extension of the PCI bus, it was introduced in 1998. It improves upon PCI by extending the width of bus to 64 bits and the clock frequency to up to 133 MHz.
  • PCI Express: Abbreviated as PCIe, it is a point-to-point interface released in 2004. In 2006, it provided a data-transfer rate that is double of AGP. It should not be confused with PCI-X, an enhanced version of the original PCI specification. This is standard for most modern graphics cards.

The following table is a comparison between features of some interfaces listed above.

See also: List of device bandwidths § Computer buses
Bus Width (bits) Clock rate (MHz) Bandwidth (MB/s) Style
ISA XT 8 4.77 8 Parallel
ISA AT 16 8.33 16 Parallel
MCA 32 10 20 Parallel
NUBUS 32 10 10–40 Parallel
EISA 32 8.33 32 Parallel
VESA 32 40 160 Parallel
PCI 32–64 33–100 132–800 Parallel
AGP 1x 32 66 264 Parallel
AGP 2x 32 66 528 Parallel
AGP 4x 32 66 1000 Parallel
AGP 8x 32 66 2000 Parallel
PCIe x1 1 2500 / 5000 250 / 500 Serial
PCIe x4 1 × 4 2500 / 5000 1000 / 2000 Serial
PCIe x8 1 × 8 2500 / 5000 2000 / 4000 Serial
PCIe x16 1 × 16 2500 / 5000 4000 / 8000 Serial
PCIe ×1 2.0[65] 1 500 / 1000 Serial
PCIe ×4 2.0 1 × 4 2000 / 4000 Serial
PCIe ×8 2.0 1 × 8 4000 / 8000 Serial
PCIe ×16 2.0 1 × 16 5000 / 10000 8000 / 16000 Serial
PCIe ×1 3.0 1 1000 / 2000 Serial
PCIe ×4 3.0 1 × 4 4000 / 8000 Serial
PCIe ×8 3.0 1 × 8 8000 / 16000 Serial
PCIe ×16 3.0 1 × 16 16000 / 32000 Serial
PCIe ×1 4.0 1 2000 / 4000 Serial
PCIe ×4 4.0 1 × 4 8000 / 16000 Serial
PCIe ×8 4.0 1 × 8 16000 / 32000 Serial
PCIe ×16 4.0 1 × 16 32000 / 64000 Serial
PCIe ×1 5.0 1 4000 / 8000 Serial
PCIe ×4 5.0 1 × 4 16000 / 32000 Serial
PCIe ×8 5.0 1 × 8 32000 / 64000 Serial
PCIe ×16 5.0 1 × 16 64000 / 128000 Serial

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Mueller, Scott (2005) Upgrading and Repairing PCs. 16th edition. Que Publishing. ISBN 0-7897-3173-8
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Graphics card

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A graphics card, also known as a video card, is an expansion card inserted into a computer's motherboard that generates a feed of output images to a display device such as a monitor, offloading graphics rendering tasks from the central processing unit (CPU) to accelerate visual processing. It contains a specialized electronic circuit called a graphics processing unit (GPU), which is a single-chip processor designed to rapidly manipulate memory and perform parallel computations for creating 2D or 3D graphics, video, and animations. The core function of a graphics card is to handle mathematically intensive operations like , , and polygon transformations, enabling high-frame-rate rendering for applications such as gaming, , and scientific visualization. Key components include the GPU chip itself, which features thousands of smaller processing cores optimized for parallel tasks; video RAM (VRAM), such as high-bandwidth , for storing image data; and supporting elements such as modules (VRMs), cooling fans or heatsinks, and output ports like or . Graphics cards come in two main types: integrated GPUs, which are built into the (or CPU in some designs) and share system for basic tasks; and discrete GPUs, standalone cards with dedicated VRAM that provide superior performance for demanding workloads. Historically, graphics cards evolved from simple frame buffers in the , which relied heavily on CPU assistance for wireframe rendering, to sophisticated hardware in the with the introduction of 3D acceleration chips like the Voodoo series, marking the shift toward dedicated pipelines for rasterization and lighting. The term "GPU" was coined by in 1999 with the , the first card to integrate a complete on a single chip, paving the way for programmable shaders in the early and unified architectures by that extended GPUs beyond graphics to general-purpose computing (GPGPU). Today, graphics cards power not only entertainment but also , , and , with recent advancements like NVIDIA's Blackwell architecture in 2025 enhancing AI-driven features such as neural rendering and ray tracing for more realistic visuals.

Types

Discrete Graphics Cards

A discrete graphics card is a standalone hardware accelerator consisting of a separate (PCB) that houses a dedicated (GPU), its own (VRAM), and specialized power delivery components, enabling high-performance rendering for demanding visual and computational workloads. Unlike integrated solutions, these cards operate independently of the (CPU), offloading complex graphics tasks such as , ray tracing, and to achieve superior speed and efficiency. This dedicated architecture allows for greater processing bandwidth and memory isolation, making discrete cards essential for applications requiring real-time visual fidelity. The primary advantages of discrete graphics cards include significantly higher computational power, often exceeding integrated options by orders of magnitude in graphics-intensive scenarios, along with support for advanced customizable cooling systems like multi-fan designs or liquid cooling to manage output. Additionally, their facilitates easy upgradability, permitting users to enhance graphics performance without replacing the CPU, , or other system components, which extends the lifespan of a PC build. These benefits come at the cost of higher power consumption and physical space requirements, but they enable tailored configurations for peak performance. Discrete graphics cards excel in use cases demanding intensive graphics processing, such as high-end gaming rigs for immersive 4K experiences with ray tracing, professional workstations for real-time 8K rendering and effects, and AI training setups leveraging parallel compute capabilities for model development. Representative examples include NVIDIA's RTX 50 series, such as the RTX 5090, which delivers over 100 teraflops of AI-accelerated for next-generation gaming and as of 2025, and AMD's RX 9000 series, like the RX 9070 XT, offering 16GB of GDDR6 for high-fidelity visuals in professional simulations. These cards provide a stark contrast to integrated graphics processors, which function as a lower-power alternative suited for basic display and light tasks. Installation of a discrete graphics card typically involves inserting the card into a compatible PCIe x16 slot on the , securing it with screws, and connecting supplemental power cables from the power supply unit if the card's exceeds the slot's provision. Following hardware setup, users must download and install manufacturer-specific s—such as NVIDIA's Game Ready Drivers or AMD's Adrenalin Software—to ensure full feature support and OS compatibility across Windows, , or other platforms. Proper configuration is crucial for optimizing and enabling technologies like for seamless integration with the system.

Integrated Graphics Processors

Integrated graphics processors (iGPUs) are graphics processing units embedded directly into the (CPU) die or integrated as part of the , enabling visual output without requiring a separate graphics card. Prominent examples include Intel's UHD Graphics series, found in Core processors, and AMD's Radeon Graphics, integrated into such as those based on the Vega or RDNA architectures. These solutions are designed for general-purpose , providing essential rendering capabilities for operating systems, video playback, and basic applications. The primary advantages of iGPUs lie in their cost-effectiveness and energy efficiency, as they eliminate the need for additional hardware, reducing overall system expenses and power consumption—particularly beneficial for laptops and budget desktops. Their seamless integration with the CPU allows for faster data sharing and simpler thermal management, contributing to compact designs in mobile devices. However, limitations include reliance on shared system RAM for memory allocation, which can lead to performance bottlenecks during intensive tasks, and inherently lower computational power compared to discrete GPUs for complex rendering. The evolution of iGPUs began in the late 1990s with basic 2D acceleration and rudimentary 3D support in chipsets, such as Intel's 810 platform released in 1999, which introduced integrated rendering pipelines for entry-level visuals. By the early 2010s, on-die integration advanced significantly, with AMD's Llano APUs in 2011 and Intel's processors marking the shift to unified CPU-GPU architectures for improved efficiency. Modern developments, as of 2025, enable support for 4K video decoding, hardware-accelerated encoding, and light gaming, exemplified by Intel's Arc-based iGPUs in Core Ultra series processors like Lunar Lake, which leverage Xe architecture for enhanced ray tracing and AI upscaling. In terms of performance, contemporary iGPUs deliver playable frame rates in gaming scenarios, typically achieving 30-60 FPS in titles like at low to medium settings, though they fall short of discrete GPUs for high-end 3D workloads requiring sustained high resolutions or complex effects.

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The development of cards began in the early 1980s with the introduction of the (CGA) in 1981, which marked the first standard for color on personal computers, supporting resolutions up to 320x200 with a palette of 16 colors from a total of 4 available simultaneously. This utilized a frame buffer—a dedicated area storing for the display—to enable basic , fundamentally shifting from text-only displays to visual . In 1982, the emerged as a third-party innovation, providing high-resolution at 720x348 while maintaining compatibility with IBM's Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA), thus addressing the need for sharper text and simple in professional applications without color. These early cards relied on scan converters to transform vector or outline into raster images stored in the frame buffer, a process essential for rendering on cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors. The rise of PC gaming and (CAD) software in the 1980s and 1990s drove demand for enhanced graphics capabilities, as titles like (1984) and early CAD tools such as required better and resolution for immersive experiences and precise modeling. By the mid-1990s, this momentum led to multimedia accelerators like the ( Graphics Engine), released in 1995, which was among the first consumer-oriented chips to integrate 2D acceleration, basic , and video playback support, featuring a 64-bit interface for smoother motion handling. The same year saw the debut of early application programming interfaces (APIs) like DirectX 1.0 from , providing developers with standardized tools for accessing in Windows environments, thereby facilitating the transition from software-rendered to hardware-assisted graphics. Breakthroughs in 3D acceleration defined the late 1990s, with 3dfx's Voodoo Graphics card launching in November 1996 as a dedicated 3D-only accelerator that offloaded polygon rendering and texture mapping from the CPU, dramatically improving frame rates in games like Quake through its Glide API. Building on this, NVIDIA's RIVA 128 in 1997 introduced a unified architecture combining high-performance 2D and 3D processing on a single chip with a 128-bit memory bus, enabling seamless handling of resolutions up to 1024x768 while supporting Direct3D, which broadened accessibility for both gaming and professional visualization. These innovations laid the groundwork for frame buffers to evolve into larger video RAM pools, optimizing scan conversion for real-time 3D scenes and fueling the PC's emergence as a viable platform for graphics-intensive applications.

Modern Evolution

The of graphics cards, beginning in the early , marked a shift toward programmable and versatile architectures that extended beyond fixed-function rendering pipelines. NVIDIA's 3, released in , introduced the first consumer-level programmable vertex and shaders, enabling developers to customize shading effects for more realistic visuals in games and applications. This innovation laid the groundwork for greater flexibility in graphics processing, allowing for dynamic lighting and texture manipulation that previous fixed pipelines could not achieve. By the mid-2000s, the industry transitioned to unified shader architectures, where a single pool of processors could handle vertex, , and tasks interchangeably, improving efficiency and scalability. pioneered this with the G80 architecture in the 8800 series launched in 2006, which supported 10 and unified processing cores for balanced workload distribution. Concurrently, 's acquisition of in October 2006 for $5.4 billion consolidated graphics expertise, paving the way for ATI's evolution into 's lineup and fostering competition in unified designs. followed with its TeraScale architecture in the in 2007, adopting a similar unified approach to enhance performance in high-definition gaming. Entering the , advancements focused on compute capabilities and memory enhancements to support emerging workloads like general-purpose GPU (GPGPU) computing. NVIDIA's introduction of in 2006 with the G80 enabled parallel programming for non-graphics tasks, such as scientific simulations, while the Khronos Group's standard in 2009 provided cross-vendor support, allowing and others to leverage GPUs for . Hardware tessellation units, debuted in 11-compatible GPUs around 2009-2010, dynamically subdivided polygons for detailed surfaces in real-time, with NVIDIA's Fermi architecture ( GTX 400 series) and 's () leading early implementations. Video RAM capacities expanded significantly, progressing from GDDR5 in the early to GDDR6 by 2018, offering up to 50% higher bandwidth for 4K gaming and VR applications. The 2020s brought integration of AI and ray tracing hardware, transforming graphics cards into hybrid compute engines. NVIDIA's RTX 20-series, launched in September 2018, incorporated dedicated RT cores for real-time ray tracing, simulating accurate light interactions, alongside tensor cores for AI-accelerated upscaling via Deep Learning Super Sampling (DLSS). entered the fray with its architecture in the in 2020, adding ray accelerators for hardware-accelerated ray tracing to compete in photorealistic rendering. DLSS evolved rapidly, reaching version 4 by 2025 with multi-frame generation and enhanced super resolution powered by fifth-generation tensor cores, enabling up to 8x performance uplifts in ray-traced games on RTX 50-series GPUs. Key trends included adoption of PCIe 4.0 interfaces starting with 's VII in 2019 for doubled bandwidth over PCIe 3.0, followed by PCIe 5.0 support in consumer GPUs starting with NVIDIA's GeForce RTX 50 series in 2025, building on platforms like Intel's that introduced PCIe 5.0 slots in 2021, though full utilization awaited higher-bandwidth needs. Amid the cryptocurrency mining boom from 2017 to 2022, which strained GPU supplies due to Ethereum's proof-of-work demands, manufacturers emphasized energy-efficient designs, reducing power per transistor via 7nm and smaller processes to balance performance and sustainability. By 2025, held approximately 90% dominance in the AI GPU market, driven by its Hopper and Blackwell architectures tailored for workloads.

Physical Design

Form Factors and Dimensions

Graphics cards are designed in various form factors to accommodate different PC sizes and configurations, primarily defined by their slot occupancy, length, height, and thickness. Single-slot designs occupy one expansion slot on the and are typically compact, featuring a single fan or , making them suitable for slim or office-oriented builds. Dual-slot cards, the most common for and gaming applications, span two slots and support larger heatsinks with two or three fans for improved thermal performance. High-end models often extend to three or four slots to house massive coolers, enabling better heat dissipation in demanding workloads. These form factors ensure compatibility with standard motherboards, which provide multiple PCIe slots for installation. Low-profile variants, limited to about 69mm in height, fit small form factor (SFF) PCs and often use half-height brackets for constrained cases. For multi-GPU setups like legacy SLI configurations, specialized brackets align cards physically and maintain spacing, preventing interference while supporting parallel operation in compatible systems. Overall lengths vary significantly; mid-range cards measure approximately 250-320mm, while 2025 flagships like the RTX 5090 Founders Edition reach 304mm, with partner models exceeding 350mm to incorporate expansive cooling arrays. A key structural challenge in larger cards is GPU sag, where the weight of heavy coolers—often exceeding 1kg in high-end designs—causes the card to bend under gravity, potentially stressing the PCIe slot over time. This issue became prevalent with the rise of dual-GPU cards in the , as thicker heatsinks and denser components increased mass. Solutions include adjustable support brackets that prop the card from below, distributing weight evenly and preserving PCIe connector integrity without impeding airflow. These brackets, often made of aluminum or acrylic, attach to the case frame and have been widely adopted since the mid- for cards over 300mm long. Typical dimensions for a mid-range graphics card, such as the RTX 5070, are around 242mm in length, 112mm in height, and 40mm in thickness (dual-slot), influencing case selection by requiring at least 250mm of clearance in the GPU mounting area. Larger dimensions in high-end models can restrict airflow within the chassis, as extended coolers may block adjacent fans or radiators, necessitating cases with optimized ventilation paths. For instance, cards over 300mm often demand mid-tower or full-tower cases to maintain . Recent trends emphasize adaptability across device types. In laptops, thinner designs use (MXM) standards, with modules measuring 82mm x 70mm or 105mm, enabling upgradable graphics in compact while integrating cooling for sustained performance. For servers, modular form factors like NVIDIA's MGX platform allow customizable GPU integration into rackmount systems, supporting up to eight cards in scalable configurations without fixed desktop constraints. These evolutions prioritize fitment and while addressing heat dissipation through integrated cooling structures.

Cooling Systems

Graphics cards generate significant heat due to high power draw from the and other components, necessitating effective cooling to maintain performance and longevity. Cooling systems for graphics cards primarily fall into three categories: , air-based, and liquid-based. relies on natural and without moving parts, typically used in low-power integrated or entry-level discrete cards where (TDP) remains below 75W, allowing operation without fans for silent performance. Air cooling, the most common for discrete graphics cards, employs heatsinks with fins, heat pipes, and fans to dissipate heat; these systems dominate consumer GPUs due to their balance of cost and efficacy. cooling, often implemented via all-in-one (AIO) loops or custom setups, circulates through a block on the GPU die and a with fans, excelling in high-TDP scenarios exceeding 300W by providing superior . Key components in these systems include heat pipes, which use phase-change principles to transport heat from the GPU die to fins via evaporating and condensing fluid; vapor chambers, flat heat pipes that spread heat evenly across a larger area for uniform cooling; thermal pads for insulating non-critical areas while conducting heat from memory chips; and copper baseplates in modern 2025 models for direct contact and high thermal conductivity. For instance, NVIDIA's Blackwell architecture GPUs, such as the RTX 5090, feature advanced vapor chambers and multiple heat pipes designed for high thermal loads, improving cooling efficiency over predecessors. Thermal challenges arise from junction temperatures reaching up to 90°C in GPUs and 110°C in models under load, where exceeding these limits triggers throttling to reduce clock speeds and prevent damage, particularly in cards with TDPs over 110W. Blower-style air coolers, which exhaust hot air directly out the case via a single radial fan, suit multi-GPU setups by avoiding heat recirculation but generate more noise; in contrast, open-air designs with multiple axial fans offer quieter operation and 10-15°C better cooling in well-ventilated cases, though they may raise ambient temperatures. Innovations address these issues through undervolting, which lowers voltage to cut power consumption and by up to 20% without loss, extending boost clocks; integrated RGB lighting on fans for aesthetic appeal without compromising airflow; and like fluid dynamic bearings in 2025 fans for durability. Efficient 2025 GPUs, such as NVIDIA's RTX 5090, maintain core temperatures around 70°C under sustained load with these systems, minimizing throttling.

Power Requirements

Graphics cards vary significantly in their power consumption, measured as (TDP), which represents the maximum heat output and thus the electrical power draw under typical loads. Entry-level discrete graphics cards often have a TDP as low as 75 W, sufficient for basic tasks and light gaming when powered solely through the PCIe slot. In contrast, high-end models in 2025, such as the RTX 5090, reach TDPs of 575 W to support demanding workloads like 4K ray-traced gaming and AI acceleration. To deliver this power beyond the standard 75 W provided by the PCIe slot, graphics cards use auxiliary connectors. The 6-pin PCIe connector supplies up to 75 W, commonly found on mid-range cards from earlier generations. The 8-pin variant doubles this to 150 W, enabling higher performance in modern setups. Introduced in as part of the PCIe 5.0 standard, the 12VHPWR (12 Volt High Power) 16-pin connector supports up to 600 W through a single cable, essential for flagship cards like the RTX 5090, which uses the revised 12V-2x6 connector or equivalents like four 8-pin cables via adapters. The 12V-2x6 is the standard for high-power modern NVIDIA GPUs including the RTX 50 series, featuring enhanced sense pins for better safety and detection, reducing melting risks compared to the original 12VHPWR. Integrating a high-TDP graphics card requires a robust unit (PSU) to ensure stability. For GPUs consuming 450-600 W, a PSU of 1000 W or more is recommended. NVIDIA recommends at least a 1000 W PSU for systems with the RTX 5090, with higher wattage advised for overclocked GPUs or configurations with high-end CPUs. This provides headroom for system stability, accommodates transient power spikes, ensures operation at optimal efficiency (50-70% load), and supports power-hungry CPUs alongside the GPU. This power consumption generates substantial heat, which cooling systems must dissipate effectively. Modern graphics cards exhibit power trends influenced by dynamic boosting, where consumption spikes transiently during peak loads to achieve higher clock speeds. NVIDIA's GPU Boost technology monitors power and thermal limits, potentially throttling clocks if exceeded, leading to brief surges that can approach or surpass the TDP. Users can tune these via software tools like NVIDIA-SMI, which allows setting custom power limits to balance performance and efficiency, or third-party applications such as MSI Afterburner for granular control. Safety considerations are paramount with high-power connectors like 12VHPWR, which include protection to prevent damage from faults. However, post-2022 incidents revealed risks of connector melting due to improper seating or bending, often from poor causing partial contact and localized overheating. Manufacturers now emphasize secure installation and native cabling over adapters to mitigate these issues, with revised 12V-2x6 variants improving sense pins for better detection.

Core Components

Graphics Processing Unit

The graphics processing unit (GPU) serves as the computational heart of a graphics card, specialized for parallel processing tasks inherent to rendering complex visuals. Modern GPUs employ highly parallel architectures designed to handle massive workloads simultaneously, featuring thousands of smaller processing cores that operate in unison. In NVIDIA architectures, such as the Blackwell series introduced in 2025, the fundamental building block is the streaming multiprocessor (SM), which integrates multiple CUDA cores for executing floating-point operations, along with dedicated units for specialized tasks. Similarly, AMD's RDNA 4 architecture, powering the Radeon RX 9000 series in 2025, organizes processing around compute units (CUs), each containing 64 stream processors optimized for graphics workloads, with configurations scaling up to 64 CUs in high-end models like the RX 9070 XT. These architectures enable GPUs to process vertices, fragments, and pixels in parallel, far surpassing the capabilities of general-purpose CPUs for graphics-intensive applications. A key evolution in GPU design since 2018 has been the integration of dedicated ray tracing cores, first introduced by in the Turing to accelerate real-time ray tracing simulations for realistic , shadows, and reflections. These RT cores handle the computationally intensive traversals and ray-triangle intersections, offloading work from the main cores and enabling hybrid rendering pipelines that combine traditional rasterization with ray-traced effects. In 2025 flagships like 's GeForce RTX 5090, core counts exceed 21,000 cores, while equivalents feature over 4,000 stream processors across their CUs, with boost clock speeds typically ranging from 2.0 to 3.0 GHz to balance performance and . This scale allows high-end GPUs in 2025 to deliver over 100 TFLOPS of FP32 compute performance, while mid-range models achieve around 30 TFLOPS, establishing benchmarks for smooth 4K rendering in gaming and professional visualization. The within a GPU encompasses stages like rasterization, which converts 3D primitives into 2D fragments; texturing, which applies surface details; and , which computes final colors and effects for each . Prior to 2001, these stages relied on fixed-function hardware, limiting flexibility to predefined operations set by the manufacturer. The shift to programmable pipelines began post-2001 with NVIDIA's GeForce 3 and ATI's 8500, introducing vertex and shaders that allowed developers to write custom code for these stages, transforming GPUs into versatile programmable processors. By 2025, these pipelines are fully programmable, supporting advanced techniques like variable-rate to optimize performance by varying computation per pixel based on visibility. Contemporary GPUs are fabricated using advanced processes, with NVIDIA's Blackwell GPUs on TSMC's custom 4N node and AMD's RDNA 4 on TSMC's 4nm-class , enabling denser integration for higher efficiency. Die sizes for 2025 flagships typically range from 350 to 750 mm², accommodating the expanded core arrays and specialized hardware while managing challenges. For instance, AMD's Navi 48 die measures approximately 390 mm², supporting efficient scaling across market segments. This integration with high-bandwidth video memory ensures seamless data flow to the processing cores, minimizing bottlenecks in memory-intensive rendering tasks.

Video Memory

Video memory, commonly referred to as VRAM, is the dedicated (RAM) integrated into graphics cards to store and quickly access graphical data during rendering processes. It serves as a high-speed buffer separate from the system's main RAM, enabling the () to handle large datasets without relying on slower system memory transfers. This separation is crucial for maintaining performance in graphics-intensive tasks, where data locality reduces latency and improves throughput. Modern graphics cards primarily use two main types of video memory: GDDR (Graphics Double Data Rate) variants and HBM (High Bandwidth Memory). GDDR6X, introduced in 2020 by Micron in collaboration with for the RTX 30 series, employs PAM4 signaling to achieve higher data rates than standard GDDR6, reaching up to 21 Gbps per pin. , standardized by in 2022 and first deployed in high-end GPUs like 's H100, uses stacked DRAM dies connected via through-silicon vias (TSVs) for ultra-high bandwidth in compute-focused applications. Capacities have scaled significantly, starting from 8 GB in mid-range consumer cards to over 48 GB in professional models by 2025, such as the Radeon Pro W7900 with 48 GB GDDR6. High-end configurations, like 's RTX 4090 with 24 GB GDDR6X, support demanding workloads including 4K gaming and AI training. Bandwidth is a key performance metric for video memory, determined by the memory type, clock speed, and bus width. High-end cards often feature a 384-bit memory bus, enabling bandwidth exceeding 700 GB/s; for instance, the RTX 4090 achieves 1,008 GB/s with GDDR6X at 21 Gbps. Professional cards frequently incorporate Error-Correcting Code (ECC) support in their GDDR memory to detect and correct data corruption, essential for reliability in scientific simulations and data centers, as seen in AMD's Radeon Pro series. VRAM plays a pivotal role in graphics rendering by storing textures, frame buffers, and Z-buffers, which hold depth information for occlusion culling. Textures, which define surface details, can consume substantial VRAM due to their high resolution and mipmapping chains. Frame buffers capture rendered pixels for each frame, while Z-buffers manage 3D scene depth to prevent overdraw. Exhaustion of VRAM forces the GPU to swap data with system RAM, leading to performance degradation such as in games, where frame times spike due to increased latency. The , integrated into the GPU die, manages data flow between the VRAM modules and processing cores, handling addressing, error correction, and refresh cycles to optimize access patterns. Users can overclock VRAM using software tools like MSI Afterburner, which adjusts memory clocks beyond factory settings for potential bandwidth gains, though this risks instability without adequate cooling. Historically, graphics memory evolved from standard to specialized GDDR types for higher speeds and efficiency, addressing the growing demands of parallel processing in GPUs. Recent trends emphasize stacked architectures like HBM for AI and , where massive parallelism requires terabytes-per-second bandwidth to avoid bottlenecks in training large models. By 2025, HBM3 and emerging GDDR7 continue this shift, prioritizing density and power efficiency for data-center GPUs.

Firmware

The firmware of a graphics card, known as (VBIOS), consists of low-level software embedded in the card's that initializes the (GPU) and associated hardware during system startup. This firmware executes before the operating system loads, ensuring the GPU is configured for basic operation and providing essential structures for subsequent handoff. For GPUs, the VBIOS includes the BIOS Information Table (BIT), a structured set of pointers to initialization scripts, performance parameters, and hardware-specific configurations that guide the boot process. Similarly, GPUs rely on comparable firmware structures to achieve initial hardware readiness. VBIOS is stored in an (Electrically Erasable Programmable ) chip directly on the graphics card, allowing for reprogramming while maintaining data persistence without power. During boot, it performs the () to verify GPU functionality, programs initial clock frequencies via (PLL) tables, and establishes fan control curves based on temperature thresholds to prevent overheating. For power management, VBIOS defines performance states (P-states), such as NVIDIA's P0 for maximum performance or lower states for efficiency, including associated clock ranges and voltage levels; AMD equivalents use power play tables to set engine and memory clocks at startup. It also supports reading (EDID) from connected monitors via the (DDC) to identify display capabilities like resolutions and refresh rates, enabling proper output configuration. Updating VBIOS involves flashing a new image using vendor tools, such as NVIDIA's nvflash utility or AMD's ATIFlash, often integrated with OEM software like ASUS VBIOS Flash Tool, to address bugs, improve compatibility, or adjust limits. However, the process carries significant risks, including power interruptions or incompatible files that can brick the card by corrupting the EEPROM, rendering it non-functional until recovery via external programmers. Following vulnerabilities in the 2010s that exposed firmware to tampering, modern implementations incorporate digital signing and Secure Boot mechanisms; NVIDIA GPUs, for example, use a hardware root of trust to verify signatures on firmware images, preventing unauthorized modifications and integrating with UEFI for chain-of-trust validation during boot. OEM customizations tailor VBIOS variants to specific platforms, with desktop versions optimized for higher power delivery and cooling headroom, while laptop editions incorporate stricter thermal profiles, reduced power states, and hybrid graphics integration to align with mobile constraints like battery life and shared chassis heat. These differences ensure compatibility but limit cross-platform flashing without risking instability. The VBIOS briefly interacts with OS drivers post-initialization to transfer control, enabling advanced runtime features.

Display Output Hardware

Display output hardware in graphics cards encompasses the specialized chips and circuits responsible for and converting digital video signals from the GPU into formats suitable for transmission to displays. These components handle the final stages of signal preparation, ensuring compatibility with various output standards while maintaining image integrity. Historically, this hardware included analog conversion mechanisms, but contemporary designs emphasize digital to support high-resolution, multi-display setups. The Digital-to-Analog Converter () was a core element in early display output hardware, functioning to translate digital pixel data stored in video into analog voltage levels for CRT and early LCD monitors. By accessing a programmable color in , the generated precise analog signals for red, green, and blue channels, enabling resolutions up to 2048x1536 at 75 Hz with clock speeds reaching 400 MHz in high-end implementations during the . It played a crucial role in VGA and early DVI-I outputs, where analog components were required for legacy compatibility. As digital interfaces proliferated, RAMDACs became largely obsolete in cards by the early , supplanted by fully digital pipelines that eliminated the need for analog conversion. The transition was driven by the adoption of standards like DVI-D and , which transmit uncompressed video digitally without signal degradation over distance. Modern GPUs retain minimal analog support only for niche VGA ports via integrated low-speed DACs, but primary outputs rely on digital encoders. For digital outputs, (TMDS) encoders and transmitters form the backbone of , serializing parallel RGB data into high-speed differential pairs while minimizing . These encoders apply 8b/10b encoding to convert 24-bit (8 bits per channel) video data into 30-bit streams, with serialization at up to 10 times the —enabling support for at 60 Hz with 36-bit or higher in 1.3 and beyond. Integrated within the GPU's display engine, they handle and channel balancing for reliable transmission over DVI and ports. Content protection is integral to these digital encoders through (HDCP), which applies AES-128 in counter mode to video streams before TMDS encoding, preventing unauthorized copying of premium audiovisual material. HDCP occurs between the graphics card (as transmitter) and display (as receiver), generating a 128-bit exchanged via TMDS control packets; then XORs the key stream with data in 24-bit blocks across the three TMDS channels. This ensures compliance for 4K and 8K content delivery, with re-authentication triggered by link errors detected through error-correcting codes in data islands. Multi-monitor configurations leverage the display output hardware's ability to drive multiple independent streams, with daisy-chaining via Multi-Stream Transport (MST) in enabling up to 4 native displays and extending to 6-8 total through chained hubs on 2025-era cards like NVIDIA's RTX 50 series. The hardware manages bandwidth allocation across streams, supporting simultaneous 4K outputs while synchronizing timings to prevent tearing. This scalability is vital for professional workflows, where the GPU's display controller pipelines parallel signal generation without taxing the core rendering units. Display scalers within the output hardware perform real-time resolution upscaling and format adaptation, interpolating lower-resolution content to match native display panels—such as bilinear or Lanczos algorithms to upscale to 4K—while converting color spaces like RGB to for efficient transmission over bandwidth-limited links. These circuits apply matrix transformations to separate (Y) from (CbCr), reducing data volume by subsampling chroma channels (e.g., 4:2:2 format) without perceptible loss in perceived quality. Hardware acceleration ensures low-latency processing, often integrated with the TMDS encoder for seamless pipeline operation in video playback and gaming scenarios.

Connectivity

Host Bus Interfaces

Host bus interfaces connect graphics cards to the , enabling data transfer between the GPU and the CPU, system memory, and other components. These interfaces have evolved to support increasing bandwidth demands driven by advancements in graphics processing and computational workloads. Early standards like PCI and AGP laid the foundation for dedicated graphics acceleration, while modern PCIe dominates due to its scalability and performance. The Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, introduced in June 1992 by and managed by the , served as the initial standard for graphics cards, providing a shared 32-bit bus at 33 MHz for up to 133 MB/s bandwidth. PCI allowed graphics adapters to integrate with general-purpose expansion slots but suffered from bandwidth limitations for tasks. To address this, developed the (AGP) in 1996 as a dedicated interface for video cards, offering point-to-point connectivity to main memory with bandwidths of 266 MB/s (1x mode) in AGP 1.0, increasing to 533 MB/s (2x) and 1.07 GB/s (4x) in AGP 2.0, specifically targeting 3D acceleration. AGP improved latency and texture data access compared to PCI, becoming the standard for consumer graphics cards through the early 2000s. The (PCIe) interface, introduced by in 2003 with version 1.0, replaced AGP and PCI by using serial lanes for higher throughput and full-duplex communication. Each subsequent version has doubled the data rate per lane while maintaining . PCIe 2.0 (2007) reached 5 GT/s, PCIe 3.0 (2010) 8 GT/s, PCIe 4.0 (2017) 16 GT/s, and PCIe 5.0 (2019 specification, with updates through 2022) 32 GT/s. Graphics cards typically use x16 configurations, providing up to 64 GB/s of bandwidth in PCIe 5.0, sufficient for high-resolution gaming and AI workloads.
PCIe VersionRelease YearData Rate per Lane (GT/s)x16 Bandwidth (GB/s, bidirectional)
1.020032.5~8
2.020075.0~16
3.020108.0~32
4.0201716.0~64
5.0201932.0~128
Power delivery via the PCIe slot is standardized at 75 W through three 12 V rails and a 3.3 V rail, with higher-power graphics cards requiring auxiliary connectors like 6-pin (up to 75 W additional) or 8-pin (up to 150 W) from the power supply. For systems without internal PCIe slots, such as laptops, serves as an alternative for external GPUs (eGPUs). Introduced in eGPU enclosures like Alienware's Graphics Amplifier in late 2014, 3 and later versions provide PCIe tunneling over , supporting up to 40 Gbps bandwidth for portable graphics acceleration. Another external option is OCuLink, a direct PCIe connection using small form-factor connectors, providing up to PCIe 4.0 x4 (64 Gbps) bandwidth for eGPUs in desktop and portable setups since 2024. Looking ahead, PCIe 6.0, finalized in 2022, doubles bandwidth to 64 GT/s per lane (up to 256 GB/s for x16) using PAM4 signaling, with products launching in 2025 for and high-end consumer applications (as of November 2025). In modular systems, the Open Compute Project's OCP Accelerator Module (OAM), specified since 2019, offers a standardized form factor for integrating GPUs and accelerators with up to 700 W TDP and flexible interconnects like PCIe or Ethernet.

Display Interfaces

Display interfaces on graphics cards provide the physical and protocol standards for transmitting video signals from the GPU to external displays, monitors, or other output devices. These interfaces have evolved from analog to digital technologies to support higher resolutions, refresh rates, and advanced features like (HDR) imaging. Analog interfaces, once dominant, have largely been supplanted by digital ones due to limitations in signal quality over distance and support for modern content.

Analog Interfaces

The (VGA) interface, introduced by in 1987, uses a DE-15 ( 15-pin) connector and transmits analog RGB video signals. It supports resolutions from 640×480 at 60 Hz (its namesake VGA mode) up to 2048×1536 at 75 Hz, depending on cable quality and signal integrity. However, VGA has been fading from graphics cards since the early , as digital interfaces offer superior image quality without the susceptibility to and signal degradation.

Digital Interfaces

Digital interfaces transmit uncompressed or compressed video data via serial links, enabling higher bandwidth and features like embedded audio and content protection. The (DVI), developed by the Digital Display Working Group in 1999, uses a digital-only (Transition-Minimized Differential Signaling) protocol. Single-link DVI supports up to 3.96 Gbps (165 MHz pixel clock), sufficient for resolutions like 1920×1200 at 60 Hz. Dual-link DVI doubles this to 7.92 Gbps (330 MHz pixel clock), handling up to 2560×1600 at 60 Hz. DVI remains on some legacy cards but is increasingly rare on new graphics hardware. High-Definition Multimedia Interface (), standardized by the HDMI Forum starting in 2002, integrates video, audio, and control signals over a single cable. 2.1, released in 2017, provides up to 48 Gbps bandwidth via Fixed Rate Link (FRL) signaling, supporting 8K at 60 Hz with 4:4:4 and . It includes Audio Return Channel (ARC) for bidirectional audio and enhanced eARC for uncompressed formats like . 2.0, its predecessor from 2013, offers 18 Gbps bandwidth, enabling 4K at 60 Hz with 4:4:4 . DisplayPort (DP), developed by VESA since 2006, employs a packetized protocol for scalable bandwidth. 2.0, released in 2019 and updated to 2.1 in 2022, delivers up to 80 Gbps (UHBR20 mode with four 20 Gbps lanes), supporting 16K (15360×8640) at 60 Hz using (DSC). It natively includes adaptive sync technologies like Adaptive-Sync (the basis for AMD FreeSync) for tear-free gaming. Earlier versions like DP 1.4 provide 32.4 Gbps for 8K at 60 Hz. Graphics cards often include multiple DisplayPort connectors to support parallel use for multi-monitor setups, such as connecting three or more displays directly. On consumer-grade cards like the NVIDIA GeForce RTX and AMD Radeon RX series, all ports share consistent specifications without primary or secondary distinctions.

Other Interfaces

USB-C with DisplayPort Alt Mode, standardized by VESA in 2014, repurposes the connector for video output by tunneling signals alongside USB data and power delivery. It supports full DP bandwidth (up to 80 Gbps in DP 2.0/2.1 configurations) over passive cables up to 2 meters, enabling single-cable solutions for 8K video and multi-monitor setups. Video-In Video-Out (VIVO), a legacy feature on select high-end graphics cards from the to (e.g., series), uses a 9-pin or 10-pin for analog TV signal capture and output. It handles (Y/C separated /) and (combined signal), typically supporting /PAL standards up to 720×480 or 720×576 resolutions for and broadcast applications. VIVO has been discontinued on modern cards due to the rise of digital capture methods.

Key Features

Multi-Stream Transport (MST), introduced in 1.2 (2010), allows a single cable to carry up to 63 independent audio/video streams, enabling daisy-chaining of multiple displays (e.g., three monitors at 60 Hz from one DP 1.4 port). This is particularly useful for professional multi-monitor setups. High Dynamic Range (HDR) support enhances contrast and color by transmitting metadata for dynamic tone mapping. It became available in HDMI 2.0a (April 2015) and DisplayPort 1.4 (March 2016), requiring at least 18 Gbps bandwidth for 4K HDR at 60 Hz with 10-bit color. Both interfaces now support HDR10 and Dolby Vision in later revisions.

Compatibility and Limitations

Adapters like DVI-to-HDMI or DP-to-VGA convert signals but may reduce bandwidth or require active electronics for digital-to-analog conversion, limiting resolutions (e.g., VGA adapters cap at 1920×1200). Bandwidth constraints affect high-end use; for instance, HDMI 2.0's 18 Gbps supports 4K@60Hz but not 4K@120Hz without compression, while DP 2.0's higher throughput avoids such bottlenecks. All modern interfaces include HDCP for protected content.
InterfaceMax BandwidthExample Max ResolutionKey Features
VGAAnalog (variable MHz clock)2048×1536@75HzDE-15 connector, no audio
DVI (Dual-Link)7.92 Gbps2560×1600@60HzTMDS signaling, optional analog
48 Gbps8K@60Hz (4:4:4)eARC, Dynamic HDR, audio/video
DisplayPort 2.080 Gbps16K@60Hz (with DSC)MST, Adaptive-Sync, tunneling
USB-C Alt ModeUp to 80 Gbps (DP 2.0)8K@60HzPower delivery, USB data
VIVOAnalog (/PAL)720×480@60Hz/composite I/O

Performance and Scaling

Multi-GPU Configurations

Multi-GPU configurations enable the combination of multiple graphics cards to increase rendering performance, primarily through specialized interconnects and rendering modes that distribute workloads across GPUs. These setups require compatible hardware, such as motherboards with multiple PCIe slots and bridging connectors, along with software support from drivers and applications. NVIDIA's (SLI), introduced in 2004, linked multiple GPUs using a high-speed bridge to divide rendering tasks. It supported up to four cards in configurations like 2x2 or 4x1 setups. However, SLI support for new profiles ended on January 1, 2021, with no updates for newer games, and bridges were removed starting with the RTX 40 series, limiting it to legacy RTX 20 series and older hardware. Key modes included Alternate Frame Rendering (AFR), where GPUs alternate complete frames for balanced load distribution, and Split Frame Rendering (), which divides the screen into regions for each GPU with dynamic balancing to handle uneven scenes. AMD's , launched in 2005, provided a similar multi-GPU solution for cards, supporting two to four identical GPUs from the same series via a bridge or direct PCIe connection. The brand was retired in 2017, with ongoing support limited to 11 applications on older hardware; 12 uses mGPU branding but relies on inconsistent developer profiles. It employed modes such as Alternate Frame Rendering (AFR), where GPUs render successive frames, and Split Frame Rendering (SFR) for partitioning the , with driver profiles optimizing compatibility for 9-12 and applications. In modern systems, NVIDIA's offers a high-bandwidth interconnect exceeding 1.8 TB/s bidirectional throughput, primarily for compute workloads like AI training rather than gaming, enabling seamless scaling across dozens of GPUs in environments. Traditional SLI and have declined in gaming due to CPU bottlenecks, where single-threaded game engines limit scaling efficiency, and inconsistent developer support for multi-GPU parallelism in APIs like DirectX 12. Historical performance scaling in multi-GPU setups using SLI or typically yielded 1.5x to 1.8x gains over a single GPU in supported titles at high resolutions (pre-2021), though results varied by game and mode. However, issues like micro-stuttering—brief frame time inconsistencies from asynchronous rendering—can degrade smoothness, particularly in AFR modes without explicit application optimization. With the discontinuation of hardware-based multi-GPU for gaming, such scaling is no longer viable in modern titles. As of 2025, software-based alternatives have emerged for dual-GPU gaming, such as Lossless Scaling, a tool that uses a secondary GPU for AI-driven frame generation and upscaling to boost frame rates without requiring bridged hardware or developer support. This approach can achieve 2x-3x effective FPS improvements in various games by offloading tasks, though it depends on the secondary GPU's capabilities and may introduce minor latency. Alternatives to bridged multi-GPU include integrated multi-GPU (mGPU) in APUs, where the CPU's integrated graphics pairs with a discrete GPU via Dual Graphics for modest performance boosts in light workloads. External GPUs (eGPUs) connected via 3/4 allow multi-GPU extension from laptops, though bandwidth limitations cap scaling to around 1.3x-1.5x compared to internal setups.

Graphics APIs

Graphics APIs serve as standardized software interfaces that enable applications to harness the computational power of graphics processing units (GPUs) for tasks such as , , and general-purpose . These APIs abstract the underlying hardware complexities, allowing developers to issue commands for rendering pipelines, execution, and while optimizing for performance across diverse GPU architectures. Primarily developed by industry consortia or vendors, they emphasize efficiency in modern real-time applications like gaming and , where low-latency access to GPU resources is critical. Microsoft's represents a suite of APIs tailored for Windows platforms, with serving as the core for 3D graphics. DirectX 11, released in 2009, introduced and compute shaders to enhance geometric detail and parallel processing in rendering. Subsequent versions advanced further: DirectX 12, launched in 2015, reduced CPU overhead by enabling explicit control over GPU resources, such as command lists and descriptor heaps, for better multi-threading in complex scenes. DirectX 12 Ultimate, announced in 2020, consolidates advanced features including (DXR), which was first introduced in 2018 to support hardware-accelerated ray tracing for realistic lighting, reflections, and shadows in 3D environments. DXR integrates ray generation and shaders, allowing developers to trace rays against acceleration structures for efficient path simulation without fully replacing rasterization. Vulkan, developed by the and released in 2016, is an open-standard, cross-platform designed for high-efficiency access to GPUs in both desktop and mobile environments. It addresses limitations of prior APIs by providing low-overhead abstractions, where developers manually manage , allocation, and command buffers to minimize intervention and CPU bottlenecks. This explicit model supports multi-threaded command recording, enabling scalable performance on multi-core systems for demanding 3D applications. Vulkan's SPIR-V intermediate language facilitates pre-compiled shaders, reducing runtime compilation overhead and ensuring portability across vendors like , , and . OpenGL, initially released in 1992 by and now maintained by the , established the foundation for cross-platform 3D graphics programming with its state-machine-based interface for rendering primitives, textures, and lighting. As a legacy , Khronos prioritizes for future innovations, though OpenGL remains in active maintenance with new extensions added as of 2025, such as GL_EXT_mesh_shader for enhanced gaming support; the core specification has seen no major versions since OpenGL 4.6 in 2017. It continues to see use in specialized fields like (CAD) software, where its simplicity suits precise modeling and visualization without the complexity of modern low-level APIs. For general-purpose GPU (GPGPU) computing, vendor-specific APIs extend graphics capabilities to non-graphics workloads like scientific simulations and . NVIDIA's , introduced in 2006, is a platform that allows developers to program GPUs using C/C++ extensions for tasks such as matrix operations and data-parallel algorithms, leveraging thousands of CUDA cores for high-throughput execution. Recent generations, such as the GeForce RTX 5090 featuring the Blackwell architecture, GDDR7 memory bandwidth, and enhanced Tensor cores, demonstrate approximately 30-45% faster performance than the RTX 4090 in many AI inference and video generation tasks. AMD's , an stack launched in 2016, provides analogous functionality for AMD GPUs, including runtime libraries, debuggers, and the HIP language for portable kernel code, supporting in (HPC) environments. A key differentiator among these APIs is overhead, defined as the CPU cycles spent on driver translation of high-level calls to GPU instructions. Legacy APIs like incur higher overhead due to implicit state management and automatic error checking, potentially limiting frame rates in CPU-bound scenarios. In contrast, low-overhead designs in and 12 shift more responsibility to applications—such as explicit barrier —yielding up to 20-30% better performance in multi-threaded rendering benchmarks on modern hardware. This efficiency is crucial for real-time 3D applications, where reduced latency enables smoother experiences. Driver models underpin API implementation on operating systems, with Microsoft's (WDDM), introduced in 2006 with , providing the architecture for integration. WDDM enables , preemption for responsive scheduling, and timeout detection for stability, allowing multiple applications to share GPU resources without crashes. Evolving through versions like WDDM 2.0 (2015) for multi-monitor efficiency, it supports the low-overhead paradigms of 12 by handling context switching in user-mode drivers.

Applications and Industry

Major Manufacturers

NVIDIA Corporation, founded on April 5, 1993, by , , and , pioneered accelerated computing with a focus on 3D graphics for gaming and multimedia applications. The company invented the (GPU) in 1999, which revolutionized PC gaming and laid the foundation for its and RTX series, renowned for high-performance rendering and ray tracing technologies central to gaming and workloads. By the second quarter of 2025, NVIDIA held approximately 94% of the discrete GPU market share, underscoring its dominance in standalone graphics cards for consumer and professional use. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) entered the graphics market through its $5.4 billion acquisition of in 2006, integrating ATI's expertise into its portfolio and enabling advancements in CPU-GPU convergence. Post-acquisition, AMD continued the brand with series like the Radeon HD 2000 and subsequent generations, emphasizing versatile graphics solutions for gaming and computing. A key differentiator is AMD's commitment to open-source drivers, such as the AMDGPU kernel module for , which supports hardware from the architecture onward, and the open-source Vulkan driver for broad compatibility. This approach fosters developer accessibility and integration in open ecosystems, including AMD's Accelerated Processing Units () that blend CPU and GPU capabilities for efficient hybrid computing. Intel entered the discrete graphics market with the launch of its Arc series in March 2022, initially targeting mobile devices before expanding to desktops and workstations in the second quarter of that year. The Arc lineup, based on the Xe architecture, emphasizes across integrated and discrete configurations, supporting features like AI acceleration and high-resolution displays to complement Intel's processor ecosystem. This hybrid focus aims to streamline graphics performance in laptops and desktops, bridging embedded solutions with standalone cards for broader market penetration. Add-in-board (AIB) partners such as and MSI play a crucial role in the graphics card ecosystem by customizing reference designs from , , and with enhanced cooling solutions and capabilities. These partners develop proprietary heatsinks, fans, and vapor chambers—often spanning multiple expansion slots—to manage thermal loads in high-end models like the RTX 4090, enabling quieter operation and sustained performance under heavy loads. Their innovations allow for factory-overclocked variants that exceed stock specifications, catering to enthusiasts while maintaining compatibility with original chip architectures. The graphics industry has evolved from independent hardware pioneers like 3dfx Interactive, founded in 1994 and known for its Voodoo Graphics accelerator that popularized in PCs, to a fabless model dominated by design-focused firms. acquired 3dfx's assets in 2000, and the company filed for bankruptcy in 2002, marking the decline of in-house fabrication among smaller players. Similarly, , which began producing graphics chips in 1986, operated as an integrated manufacturer until its 2006 acquisition by shifted it toward a fabless strategy. Today, major manufacturers like and design GPUs but outsource production to foundries such as , prioritizing and software ecosystems over physical fabrication. The graphics card market, encompassing discrete GPUs for and use, is estimated at USD 82.68 billion in 2025, reflecting robust growth fueled by escalating demand in gaming and applications. This expansion is propelled by the need for in sectors such as video gaming, which accounts for a substantial share of shipments, and AI-driven data centers, where GPUs accelerate workloads. Key market trends include lingering effects from the 2021 supply shortages, exacerbated by mining demand that absorbed up to 25% of GPU shipments in early quarters, leading to inflated prices and reduced availability for gamers and professionals. Post-2022, mining's influence has waned significantly due to Ethereum's shift to proof-of-stake, resulting in declining GPU utilization for and a stabilization of supply chains. However, by 2025, renewed GPU scarcity has emerged due to surging demand from artificial intelligence applications, with Nvidia prioritizing production for enterprises and AI labs over consumer and gaming markets, leading to potential delays and reduced availability for mid-to-high-end gaming GPUs. Additionally, initiatives are gaining traction, with manufacturers prioritizing energy-efficient designs that reduce (TDP) to align with global environmental standards and lower operational costs. For instance, leading firms aim for substantial efficiency gains, such as 30-fold improvements in AI server accelerators by 2025 compared to 2020 baselines. Typical price trends for new graphics processing unit releases begin near the manufacturer's suggested retail price (MSRP), though high initial demand frequently causes prices to exceed MSRP. As supply improves and production scales, prices decline, often dropping around 20-30% from peaks within 7-9 months, with further reductions after 10-12 months or post-holidays due to factors including reduced hype, product maturity, and competitor announcements. Graphics cards find diverse applications across industries, with gaming and representing a core driver through real-time rendering for immersive experiences in titles like competitive multiplayer games. In professional realms, they enable complex (VFX) in and production, accelerating ray tracing and particle simulations for studios handling high-resolution content. Scientific simulations, including climate modeling and , leverage GPU parallel processing to handle vast datasets far beyond CPU capabilities. Consumer graphics cards typically range from $200 for entry-level models suitable for basic gaming to over $2,000 for high-end variants offering advanced ray tracing and AI enhancements, while enterprise-grade options command premiums of 20-50% higher for certified reliability in environments. Looking ahead, integration of edge AI capabilities in graphics cards is poised to expand their role in on-device inference for IoT and mobile applications, enhancing real-time processing without cloud dependency.

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