Hubbry Logo
JudeaJudeaMain
Open search
Judea
Community hub
Judea
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Judea
Judea
Judea
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Judea or Judaea (/dʒuːˈdiːə, dʒuːˈdeɪə/;[1] Hebrew: יהודה, Modern: Yəhūda, Tiberian: Yehūḏā; Arabic: يهودا, Yahūdā; Greek: Ἰουδαία, Ioudaía; Latin: Iudaea) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Israel and the West Bank. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the present day; it originates from Yehudah, the Hebrew name of the tribe, called Juda(h) in English. Yehudah was a son of Jacob, later known as 'Israel,' whose sons collectively headed the Twelve Tribes of Israel. Yehudah's progeny among the Israelites formed the Tribe of Judah, with whom the Kingdom of Judah is associated. Related nomenclature continued to be used under the rule of the Babylonians (the Yehud province), the Persians (the Yehud province), during the Hellenistic period (Hasmonean Judea), and under the Romans (the Herodian Kingdom and the Provincia Iudaea, or Province of Judaea).[2] Under the Hasmoneans, the Herodians, and the Romans, the term was applied to an area larger than Judea of earlier periods. In the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt (c. 132–136 CE), the Roman province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina.[3][4][5]

Key Information

The term Judea was used by English speakers for the hilly internal part of Mandatory Palestine.[6][7] Judea roughly corresponds to the West Bank (Arabic: الضِفَّة الغَرْبِيَّة, romanized: aḍ-ḍiffa al-gharbiya),[8] a territory Israel has occupied since 1967 and administered as the "Judea and Samaria Area"(מחוז יהודה ושומרון, Makhoz Yehuda VeShomron).[9][10] Usage of the term "Judea and Samaria" is associated with the right wing in Israeli politics.[11]

Etymology

[edit]

The name Judea is a Greek and Roman adaptation of the Hebrew name Yehudah (Hebrew יהודה, 'Judah'), which originally encompassed the territory of the Israelite tribe of that name and later of the ancient Kingdom of Judah. Nimrud Tablet K.3751, dated c. 733 BCE, is the earliest known extra-biblical record of the name Judah (written in Assyrian cuneiform as Yaudaya or KUR.ia-ú-da-a-a).

Judea was sometimes used as the name for the entire region, including parts beyond the river Jordan.[12] In 200 CE Sextus Julius Africanus, cited by Eusebius (Church History 1.7.14), described "Nazara" (Nazareth) as a village in Judea.[13] The King James Version of the Bible refers to the region as "Jewry".[14]

'Judea' was a name used by English speakers for the hilly internal part of Mandatory Palestine until the Jordanian rule of the area in 1948. For example, the borders of the two states to be established according to the UN's 1947 partition scheme[6] were officially described using the terms 'Judea' and 'Samaria' and in its reports to the League of Nations Mandatory Committee, as in 1937, the geographical terms employed were 'Samaria and Judea.'[7] Jordan called the area aḍ-ḍiffa al-gharbiya (الضِفَّة الغَرْبِيَّة translated into English as 'the West Bank').[8] 'Yehuda' (יהודה) is the Hebrew term used for the area in modern Israel since the region was captured and occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six Day War.[9] According to Britannica, referring to this region as 'Judea and Samaria' (יהודה ושומרון, Yehuda VeShomron) has been associated with the right wing in Israeli politics, which does not support a two state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[11] The term 'West Bank' is what appears on international treaties such as the Oslo Accords established between the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Israeli government.[11] The names "West Bank" (הַגָּדָה הַמַּעֲרָבִית‎, HaGadah HaMaʽaravit) or, alternatively, "the Territories" (השטחים‎, HaShtahim) are also current in Israeli usage. Generally, preference for one term over the other indicates the speaker's position on the Israeli political spectrum.

Historical boundaries

[edit]
The Judean hills
Old Roman road in Judea

Roman-era definition

[edit]

The first century Roman-Jewish historian Josephus wrote (The Jewish War 3.3.5):

In the limits of Samaria and Judea lies the village Anuath, which is also named Borceos.[15] This is the northern boundary of Judea. The southern parts of Judea, if they be measured lengthways, are bounded by a village adjoining to the confines of Arabia; the Jews that dwell there call it Jordan. However, its breadth is extended from the river Jordan to Joppa. The city Jerusalem is situated in the very middle; on which account some have, with sagacity enough, called that city the Navel of the country. Nor indeed is Judea destitute of such delights as come from the sea, since its maritime places extend as far as Ptolemais: it was parted into eleven portions, of which the royal city Jerusalem was the supreme, and presided over all the neighboring country, as the head does over the body. As to the other cities that were inferior to it, they presided over their several toparchies; Gophna was the second of those cities, and next to that Acrabatta, after them Thamna, and Lydda, and Emmaus, and Pella, and Idumea, and Engaddi, and Herodium, and Jericho; and after them came Jamnia and Joppa, as presiding over the neighboring people; and besides these there was the region of Gamala, and Gaulonitis, and Batanea, and Trachonitis, which are also parts of the kingdom of Agrippa. This [last] country begins at Mount Libanus, and the fountains of Jordan, and reaches breadthways to Lake Tiberias; and in length is extended from a village called Arpha, as far as Julias. Its inhabitants are a mixture of Jews and Syrians. And thus have I, with all possible brevity, described the country of Judea, and those that lie round about it.[16]

Elsewhere, Josephus wrote that "Arabia is a country that borders on Judea."[17]

The first century Roman historian Tacitus defined Judaea as bordered by Arabia to the east, Egypt to the south, Phoenicia and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, and Syria to the north.[18] His conception, presented in Histories 5.6, mirrors a conventional understanding of Judaea as the territory where Jews predominated from the Hasmonaean era onward, standing apart from the provincial borders of the province of Judaea in his own period.[18]

Geography

[edit]
Mediterranean oak and terebinth woodland in the Valley of Elah, southwestern Judea

Judea is a mountainous region, part of which is considered a desert. It varies greatly in height, rising to an altitude of 1,020 metres (3,350 ft) in the south at the Hebron Hills, 30 km (19 mi) southwest of Jerusalem, and descending to as much as 400 metres (1,300 ft) below sea level in the east of the region. It also varies in rainfall, starting with about 400–500 millimetres (16–20 in) in the western hills, rising to 600 millimetres (24 in) around western Jerusalem (in central Judea), falling back to 400 millimetres (16 in) in eastern Jerusalem and dropping to around 100 millimetres (3.9 in) in the eastern parts, due to a rain shadow: this is the Judaean Desert. The climate, accordingly, moves between Mediterranean in the west and desert climate in the east, with a strip of semi-arid climate in the middle. Major urban areas in the region include Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Gush Etzion, Jericho and Hebron.[19]

Geographers divide Judea into several regions: the Hebron hills, the Jerusalem saddle, the Bethel hills and the Judaean Desert east of Jerusalem, which descends in a series of steps to the Dead Sea. The hills are distinct for their anticline structure. In ancient times the hills were forested, and the Bible records agriculture and sheep farming being practiced in the area. Animals are still grazed today, with shepherds moving them between the low ground to the hilltops as summer approaches, while the slopes are still layered with centuries-old stone terracing. The Jewish Revolt against the Romans ended in the devastation of vast areas of the Judean countryside.[20]

Mount Hazor marks the geographical boundary between Samaria to its north and Judea to its south.

History

[edit]

Biblical Era

[edit]
Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah
Map of the southern Levant, c. 830s BCE
  Kingdom of Judah

According to the biblical story of the Patriarchs,[21] Abraham came to the Land of Canaan as commanded by God and moved around in the hill country (Judaea and Samaria) and the Negev. The country is described as populated by Canaanites, Hittites, Jebusites and other population groups. This pattern continued with his son Isaac, his son Jacob and his 12 sons and daughter, Dina and their families.[22] The Patriarchs Sarai, Abraham, Isaac, Rebecca and Jacob were buried at Hebron in the Tomb of the Patriarchs.[23] according to Genesis and Exodus.

After the Conquest of Joshua the Israelite tribes conquered and lived in most of the land west of the river Jordan and in the northern part east of that river for close to 400 years.

The biblical account in the Books of Kings describes how King Saul and later King David and his son Solomon (Shlomo) succeeded in fighting the last remnants of non-Israelite populations and unified the tribes into one united monarchy. According to our[who?] understanding of the text as well as recent archeological findings, this was to a large degree possible through the Israelite adaption of Iron Age technologies. Scholarship has been divided as to the historical veracity of the existence and extension of a kingdom that unified Judea and Samaria, but archeological excavations of the last 30 years[when?] have time and again found solid evidence that confirms the bibilcal descriptions.[24][25][26][27]

Regardless, the Northern Kingdom was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 720 BCE and parts of the population of the 10 northern tribes exiled. The northern Kingdom of Judah remained nominally independent, but paid tribute to the Assyrian Empire from 715 and throughout the first half of the 7th century BCE, regaining its independence as the Assyrian Empire declined after 640 BCE, but after 609 again fell under the sway of imperial rule, this time paying tribute at first to the Egyptians and after 601 BCE to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, until 586 BCE, when it was finally conquered by Babylonia, the temple in Jerusalem destroyed and many of the inhabitants of Judea exiled to Babylonia.

Persian and Hellenistic periods

[edit]
Main article: Yehud Medinata
Hasmonean Kingdom at its greatest extent under Salome Alexandra

The Babylonian Empire fell to the conquests of Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE.[28] Judea remained under Persian rule until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, eventually falling under the rule of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire until the revolt of Judas Maccabeus resulted in the Hasmonean dynasty of kings who ruled in Judea for over a century.[29]

Early Roman period

[edit]
See also: Judaea (Roman province)

Judea lost its independence to the Romans in the 1st century BCE, becoming first a tributary kingdom, then a province, of the Roman Empire. The Romans had allied themselves to the Maccabees and interfered in 63 BCE, at the end of the Third Mithridatic War, when the proconsul Pompey ("Pompey the Great") stayed behind to make the area secure for Rome, including his siege of Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Queen Salome Alexandra had recently died, and a civil war broke out between her sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Pompeius restored Hyrcanus, but political rule soon passed to the Herodian dynasty, who ruled as client kings.

In 6 CE, Judea came under direct Roman rule as the southern part of the province of Judaea, although Jews living there still maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offences, until c. 28 CE.[30] The Hashmonean kingdom, after Pompey's conquest, was divided in 57 BCE by Gabinius, the governor of Syria, into five administrative districts (synedria or toparchies), as mentioned by Josephus, later on the region of historical Judaea proper being further divided; the exact number of Judaean districts (in the end ten or eleven according to Josephus and Pliny) and their location is disputed, Schürer amending the ancient authors' list as follows: Jerusalem in the centre, later becoming the district of Orine ("Orine Judaea", 'mountainous [region of] Judaea'); Gophna, Akrabatta north of it; Thamna and Lydda to the northwest; Emmaus (possibly future Nicopolis/Imwas, although other towns in the region also bore that name) to the west; Bethleptepha (rather than Josephus' Pella) to the southwest; Idumaea to the south; Engaddi and Herodeion to the southeast; and Jericho to the east. Schürer dismisses Pliny's listing of "Jopica" (Joppa) and Josephus' of Pella, as these were, in his opinion, independent cities not included in Judaea proper.[31][32]

Other regions outside Judaea proper, which had belonged to the Hasmonean and Herodian kingdoms and came under Roman dominance and then direct rule, remained or became also split into districts with regional capitals, these being Galilee (with the capital at Sepphoris and later Tiberias), and Perea in Transjordan (with Amathus); however, a district administered from a certain Gadara is also mentioned, which can be in three different locations - either in Perea (at or near Al-Salt), in the Decapolis at Umm Qais,[33][34][35][36][37] or - which is relevant for Judaea - at biblical Gezer in the foothills of the Judaean Mountains, mentioned by Josephus under a Hellenised form of its Semitic name, Gadara, edited to "Gazara" in the Loeb edition[38]).

Jewish–Roman wars and Late Roman period

[edit]

First Jewish–Roman War

[edit]

In 66 CE, the Jewish population rose against Roman rule in a revolt that was unsuccessful. Jerusalem was besieged in 70 CE. The city was razed, the Second Temple was destroyed, and much of the population was killed or enslaved.[39]

Bar Kokhba revolt

[edit]

In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) broke out. After an initial string of victories, rebel leader Simeon Bar Kokhba was able to form an independent Jewish state that lasted several years and included most of the district of Judea, including the Judean Mountains, the Judean Desert, and northern Negev desert, but probably not other sections of the country.

Aftermath

[edit]

When the Romans finally put an end to the uprising, most of the Jews in Judea were killed or displaced, and a sizable number of captives were sold into slavery, leaving the district mostly depopulated. Jews were expelled from the area surrounding Jerusalem.[40][41][42] No village in the district of Judea whose remains have been excavated so far has not been destroyed during the revolt.[43] Roman emperor Hadrian, determined to root out Jewish nationalism, changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria Palaestina.[44] The province's Jewish population was now mainly concentrated in Galilee, the coastal plain (especially in Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea), and smaller Jewish communities continued to live in the Beit She'an Valley, the Carmel, and Judea's northern and southern frontiers, including the southern Hebron Hills and along the shores of the Dead Sea.[45][46]

The suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt led to widespread destruction and displacement throughout Judea, and the district saw a decline in population. The Roman colony of Aelia Capitolina, which was built on the ruins of Jerusalem, remained a backwater for the duration of its existence.[41] The villages around the city were depopulated, and arable lands in the region were confiscated by the Romans. Having no alternative population to fill the empty villages led the authorities to establish imperial or legionary estates and monasteries on confiscated village lands to benefit the elites and, later, the church.[47] This also initiated a process of romanization that took place during the Late Roman period, with pagan populations penetrating the region and settling alongside Roman veterans.[48][40] There was only a revival of village settlement on the eastern edges of Jerusalem's hinterland, on the transition between the arable highlands and the Judaean Desert. Those settlements grew on marginal lands with vague ownership and unenforced state land dominion.[47]

Byzantine period

[edit]
5th century CE: Byzantine provinces of Palaestina I (Philistia, Judea and Samaria) and Palaestina II (Galilee and Perea)

Judea's decline only came to an end in the fifth century CE, when it developed into a monastic center, and Jerusalem became a major Christian pilgrimage and ecclesiastical hub.[41] Under Byzantine rule, the regional population, composed of pagan populations who had migrated there after Jews were driven out following the Bar Kokhba revolt, gradually converted to Christianity.[40]

The Byzantines redrew the borders of the land of Palestine. The various Roman provinces (Syria Palaestina, Samaria, Galilee, and Peraea) were reorganized into three dioceses of Palaestina, reverting to the name first used by Greek historian Herodotus in the mid-5th century BCE: Palaestina Prima, Secunda, and Tertia or Salutaris (First, Second, and Third Palestine), part of the Diocese of the East.[49][50] Palaestina Prima consisted of Judea, Samaria, the Paralia, and Peraea with the governor residing in Caesarea. Palaestina Secunda consisted of Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley, the regions east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis with the seat of government at Scythopolis. Palaestina Tertia included the Negev, southern Jordan—once part of Arabia—and most of Sinai, with Petra as the usual residence of the governor. Palestina Tertia was also known as Palaestina Salutaris.[49][51] According to historian H.H. Ben-Sasson,[52] this reorganisation took place under Diocletian (284–305), although other scholars suggest this change occurred later, in 390.

Crusader period

[edit]

The mostly French army of the First Crusade conquered Jerusalem from the Seljuks in 1099 and expanded the territory they held in the following years. According to Ellenblum, the Franks tended to settle in the southern half of the region between Jerusalem and Nablus since there was a sizable Christian population there.[53][54]

Mamluk period

[edit]

Most of the people living in the northern portion of Judea in the late 16th century were Muslims; some of them resided in towns that today have significant Christian populations. According to the 1596–1597 Ottoman census, Birzeit and Jifna, for instance, were wholly Muslim villages, while Taybeh had 63 Muslim families and 23 Christian families. There were 71 Christian families and 9 Muslim families in Ramallah, although the Christians there were recent arrivals who had moved from the Kerak area only a few years previously. According to Ehrlich, the region's Christian population decreased as a result of a combination of factors including impoverishment, oppression, marginalization, and persecution. Sufi activity took place in Jerusalem and the surrounding area, which most likely pushed Christian villagers in the region to convert to Islam.[54]

Timeline

[edit]

Selected towns and cities

[edit]

Judea, in the generic sense, also incorporates places in Galilee and in Samaria.

Place Names of Judea
English Hebrew (Masoretic, 7th–10th century CE) Greek (Josephus, LXX, 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE) Latin Arabic
Jerusalem ירושלם Ιερουσαλήμ Herusalem (Aelia Capitolina) القدس (al-Quds)
Jericho יריחו Ίεριχω Hiericho / Herichonte أريحا (Ariḥa)
Shechem / Nablus שכם Νεάπολις
(Neapolis) 		Neapoli نابلس (Nablus)
Jaffa יפו Ἰόππῃ Ioppe يَافَا (Yaffa)
Ascalon אשקלון Ἀσκάλων (Askálōn) Ascalone عَسْقَلَان (Asqalān)
Beit Shean בית שאן Σκυθόπολις (Scythopolis)
Βαιθσάν (Beithsan) 		Scytopoli بيسان (Beisan)
Beth Gubrin /Maresha בית גוברין Ἐλευθερόπολις
(Eleutheropolis) 		Betogabri بيت جبرين (Bayt Jibrin)
Kefar Othnai (לגיון) כפר עותנאי xxx Caporcotani (Legio) اللجّون (al-Lajjûn)
Peki'in פקיעין Βακὰ[55] xxx البقيعة (al-Buqei'a)
Jamnia יבנה Ιαμνεία Iamnia يبنى (Yibna)
Samaria / Sebaste שומרון / סבסטי Σαμάρεια / Σεβαστή Sebaste سبسطية (Sabastiyah)
Paneas / Caesarea Philippi פנייס Πάνειον (Καισαρεία Φιλίππεια)
(Paneion) 		Cesareapaneas بانياس (Banias)
Acre / Ptolemais עכו Πτολεμαΐς (Ptolemais)
Ἀκχώ (Akchó) 		Ptoloma عكّا (ʻAkka)
Emmaus אמאוס Ἀμμαοῦς (Νικορολις)
(Nicopolis) 		Nicopoli عمواس ('Imwas)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Judea

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Judea (Hebrew: יְהוּדָה) is a historical mountainous region in the southern Levant, roughly 150 kilometers north to south and 70 kilometers east to west, encompassing the hill country around , , and , and extending south to Idumea. This area served as the core territory of the biblical and the Kingdom of Judah, which emerged around 930 BCE after the division of the united monarchy and endured as an independent entity until its conquest and the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, with archaeological evidence such as seals, bullae, and fortified structures attesting to its monarchic structure and administrative sophistication during the II period. Under subsequent Persian, Hellenistic, and Hasmonean administrations, Judea regained autonomy and expanded, fostering the development of , rabbinic traditions, and resistance against foreign impositions, culminating in the Maccabean Revolt's success in rededicating the Temple in 164 BCE. As a established in 6 CE following the deposition of , it experienced direct imperial governance marked by procurators like , whose tenure from 26-36 CE included the amid mounting fiscal and cultural tensions between Jewish monotheism and Roman polytheism. The province's defining characteristics include two major Jewish revolts—the First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 CE), resulting in the Temple's destruction, and the (132-135 CE)—which led to depopulation, renaming as , and widespread , yet failed to eradicate Jewish attachment to the land, evidenced by continuous, albeit diminished, communities through Byzantine, Islamic, Crusader, and Ottoman periods. In contemporary usage, Judea and Samaria refer to the central highlands west of the , sites of ancient Jewish settlements reestablished post-1967, underscoring empirical continuity of indigenous Jewish presence predating modern conflicts.

Name and Terminology

Etymology

The name Judea is the English form of the Latin Iudaea, which transliterates the Ancient Greek Ioudaia (Ἰουδαία), a rendering of the Hebrew Yehudah (יְהוּדָה), originally denoting the biblical figure Judah, fourth son of Jacob and Leah, and by extension his tribe and territorial inheritance. The Hebrew Yehudah derives from the Semitic root y-d-h (ידה), connoting "to throw the hand" in a gesture of praise, supplication, or thanksgiving, evolving into the noun form meaning "praised" or "he will be praised," as reflected in Genesis 29:35 where Leah declares upon his birth, 'ōdāh YHWH ("this time I will praise the LORD"). This root's association with praise is evident in related terms like yadah (to confess or give thanks), linking the name to ritualistic or exclamatory acknowledgment in ancient Semitic contexts, with Yehudah applied geographically to the southern Levant region controlled by Judah's descendants following the Israelite tribal allotments described circa 13th–12th centuries BCE. By the (after Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 BCE), Ioudaia standardized the name in Greek sources for the Persian-era province of Yehud ( form of Yehudah), later adopted in Latin administrative usage under Roman rule from 63 BCE onward.

Historical and Modern Designations

The name Judea derives from the Hebrew Yehudah, denoting the and the , which emerged circa 930 BCE after the split of the united Israelite monarchy into northern and southern Judah, encompassing territories from the Judean hills to the . This designation persisted through the Assyrian conquest of in 722 BCE, leaving Judah as the surviving Jewish polity until its fall to in 586 BCE. Under Persian rule from 539 BCE, the region was reconstituted as the province of Yehud (Aramaic for Judah), a small autonomous entity centered on , as documented in biblical and archaeological records like the and Yehud coins. In the Hellenistic era following Alexander the Great's conquest in 332 BCE, the area retained the name Judea under Ptolemaic and Seleucid control, with Jewish resistance to culminating in the (167–160 BCE), establishing the Hasmonean dynasty's independent Judea until Roman intervention in 63 BCE. initially client-ruled the region via from 37 BCE, but after his death in 4 BCE and Archelaus's deposition, Judea became a in 6 CE, governed by prefects like (26–36 CE) and incorporating Samaria, Idumea, and parts of , with as its capital. The official administrative name under Roman rule was Judaea, not Israel; the latter referred to the biblical united kingdom circa 1000 BCE and continued to be used culturally and religiously by Jews for the broader Land of Israel. The province's name reflected its Jewish demographic core, though revolts in 66–73 CE (First Jewish-Roman War) and 132–135 CE () led Emperor to rename it in 135 CE to suppress Jewish identity, merging it into the larger province of . Post-Roman designations shifted with Byzantine rule (4th–7th centuries CE), where included former Judean territories, followed by Arab conquest in 636 CE, organizing it under (District of Palestine). Successive Islamic caliphates, Crusader kingdoms (1099–1291 CE), and Ottoman rule (1517–1917 CE) used variants like or Palestine, with "Judea" largely archival until Zionist revival in the 19th–20th centuries. After , the British Mandate for Palestine (1920–1948) encompassed the area, but Jewish sources maintained "Judea" for historical continuity. In modern Israel, following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War—when Jordan annexed the region as the "West Bank" until 1967—the captured it in the , leading to its administration as the Judea and Samaria Area, an official designation reflecting biblical divisions into southern Judea and central , spanning approximately 5,878 square kilometers. This term, used in and mapping since 1967, contrasts with the internationally prevalent "West Bank," a Jordanian-era label emphasizing over historical ; the (1993–1995) further subdivided it into Areas A (Palestinian Authority civil/security control, 18%), B (PA civil, joint security, 22%), and C (Israeli control, 60%), without altering the overarching Israeli designation. Israeli policy, grounded in allocations (1920) and (1922) recognizing Jewish historical rights, treats Judea and Samaria as disputed rather than occupied territory.

Geography and Environment

Physical Geography

The physical geography of centers on the Judean Mountains, a discontinuous north-south ridge of hills and plateaus that constitutes the southern extension of Israel's central highlands. This features undulating limestone uplands with steep eastern escarpments dropping toward the and more gradual western slopes descending to the lowlands. Elevations typically range from 400 to over 1,000 meters above , creating a pronounced effect where the western flanks receive higher precipitation while the east transitions into arid . Geologically, the region is dominated by the Upper Cretaceous Judean Group, comprising thick beds of resistant and that form the structural backbone of the mountains. These carbonates exhibit intense karstification, resulting in extensive cave systems, sinkholes, and subterranean aquifers that shape local and landforms. Soils overlying the bedrock are predominantly terra rossa, a clay derived from weathered , supporting limited on terraced slopes where rainfall permits. Surface water is scarce, with no perennial rivers traversing the core highlands; instead, drainage occurs via ephemeral wadis that channel flash floods eastward into the Dead Sea or westward to the Mediterranean. Prominent examples include , which incises deep canyons through the eastern desert fringe, highlighting the stark topographic contrast between the plateau and the rift basin below. This hydrological regime underscores the region's vulnerability to erosion and its reliance on from aquifers for sustenance.

Boundaries and Variations

The core boundaries of Judea historically centered on the Judean Hills, a mountainous region in the southern Levant extending approximately from the latitude of southward to , with elevations reaching up to 1,020 meters. To the east, the territory abutted the Dead Sea and , while westward it transitioned through the foothills into the coastal plain near ancient ports like Joppa (modern ). The southern limit often aligned with the Desert's northern fringes, excluding arid expanses beyond. These boundaries exhibited variations tied to political and administrative shifts. In the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah (circa 930–586 BCE), the northern frontier lay roughly along a line from Modi'in westward to the Mediterranean and eastward to , encompassing highland settlements, the Wilderness of Judah, and parts of Idumea after conquests. Post-exilic Persian and Hasmonean eras saw reconfinements to the hill country core, with fluid northern edges blending into without fixed demarcation. Under Roman rule, from the province's formation in 6 CE until its expansion and renaming after the in 135 CE, Judaea's extent broadened administratively to incorporate northward, Idumea southward, Peraea trans-Jordan, and briefly after 44 CE, though remained the focal district amid eleven total subdivisions governed from . This encompassed roughly 5,000–6,000 square kilometers at peak, reflecting imperial consolidation rather than ethnic or biblical delimitations. Geomorphological features further influenced perceived variations: the arid eastern escarpment and formed a natural eastern barrier, while western lowlands invited incursions or alliances, leading to inconsistent inclusions of coastal or Philistine-adjacent territories across eras.

Resources and Climate

The Judean region, encompassing the Judean Hills, exhibits a with pronounced seasonal contrasts: hot, arid summers and cool, rainy winters. is concentrated from late to early , with annual totals averaging 550–600 mm in the vicinity, decreasing southward toward semi-arid conditions in the Judean Desert foothills. Summer daytime highs frequently surpass 30°C (86°F), while winter averages range from 5–15°C (41–59°F), moderated by the region's elevation of 500–1,000 meters above . Agricultural resources form the backbone of Judea's productivity, leveraging terra rossa soils—red, clay-rich formations weathered from underlying and limestones—that support dry farming on terraced slopes and in valleys. Principal crops include olives, grapes for wine production, figs, pomegranates, and cereals, historically enabling sustained settlement through water-conserving techniques amid variable rainfall. Water availability remains constrained, dependent on rainfall recharge of local aquifers and sporadic springs, with no major rivers traversing the core hill country; this scarcity has shaped irrigation innovations from antiquity to modern supplementation. deposits provide abundant building stone, quarried extensively for structures from the onward, while timber resources like and have been limited and subject to historical . Mineral wealth is minimal in the hills themselves, contrasting with and extraction from the adjacent rift, though Judea's bedrock yields clays and sands for ceramics and aggregates.

Archaeology and Empirical Evidence

Major Discoveries

The , discovered in 1880 near the southern end of Hezekiah's Tunnel in , records in ancient Hebrew the engineering feat of workers digging the 533-meter tunnel from opposite ends until they met, dated paleographically to the late 8th century BCE during the reign of King of Judah. This find corroborates the biblical description in 2 Kings 20:20 of Hezekiah's water conduit built to secure 's supply amid Assyrian threats around 701 BCE, with the inscription's authenticity confirmed by its script and context within Judahite monumental . In the mid-20th century, the Dead Sea Scrolls emerged as a pivotal discovery when shepherds found the first manuscripts in 1947 in caves near in the Judean Desert, with systematic excavations from 1949 to 1956 uncovering over 900 documents dating from the BCE to the CE. These scrolls, including near-complete texts like the Great Isaiah Scroll, provide the oldest surviving copies of biblical books, demonstrating textual stability over a millennium and insight into Second Temple Judaism's sectarian diversity, such as Essene-like practices evidenced by associated settlement remains at . The Tel Dan Stele, unearthed in fragments during 1993-1994 excavations at Tel Dan in northern , features an inscription from the mid- BCE by an Aramean king boasting victories over the "House of " (byt dwd), marking the earliest extra-biblical reference to the Davidic dynasty central to Judah's . Initially met with scholarly skepticism regarding the "David" reading, epigraphic analysis and comparisons to contemporary inscriptions like the affirmed its genuineness, supporting the existence of a Judahite kingdom tracing legitimacy to by the 9th century BCE. Excavations at from 2007 to 2013 revealed a 10th-century BCE fortified settlement of 2.3 hectares in the Judean Shephelah, featuring casemate walls, two city gates, and over 10,000 pottery sherds but no pig bones, indicative of early Judahite cultural markers distinct from Philistine sites. of olive pits from destruction layers places the site's activity around 1025-975 BCE, with an bearing proto-Canaanite script suggesting administrative literacy, challenging minimalist views by evidencing centralized urban planning in Judah during the purported United Monarchy era. A cuneiform-inscribed sherd uncovered in 2024-2025 excavations in Jerusalem's City of David references Assyrian administrative correspondence with Judahite officials circa 700 BCE, querying a delayed payment and attesting to Judah's status under Assyrian overlordship. This late artifact, analyzed for its Neo-Assyrian script, aligns with historical records of Hezekiah's and Sennacherib's campaign, providing direct epigraphic evidence of Judah's economic interactions with imperial powers.

Evidence of Ancient Jewish Presence and Kingdoms

Archaeological excavations across the southern Levant have uncovered material evidence supporting the existence of a distinct Judahite during the II period (c. 1000–586 BCE), characterized by Hebrew inscriptions, fortified settlements, and administrative artifacts distinct from neighboring cultures. Sites in the Judean highlands, such as , reveal large-scale fortifications and public buildings dated to the early BCE, with an bearing one of the earliest known Hebrew texts, indicating a centralized Judahite authority predating the divided narratives. This evidence counters earlier minimalist interpretations that posited only tribal chiefdoms, as the scale of construction—over 2.3 hectares enclosed by walls—implies state-level organization and . The , discovered in 1993 at Tel Dan in northern , provides the earliest extra-biblical reference to the "House of David," an Aramaic inscription from the mid- BCE attributed to King Hazael of boasting of victories over Israelite and Judahite kings. Despite initial scholarly skepticism regarding the reconstruction and authenticity, paleographic analysis and contextual fit with conflicts have led to broad acceptance among archaeologists as evidence of a Davidic dynasty by the 9th century BCE. The stele's mention of defeating the "king of " and the "House of David" aligns with Assyrian records of regional powers, underscoring Judah's emergence as a recognizable entity. In Jerusalem's City of David, Iron Age strata yield structures like the Large Stone Structure and stepped stone revetment, dated to the 10th–9th centuries BCE, alongside over 120 jar handles stamped with lmlk ("belonging to the king") seals in Paleo-Hebrew script from the late 8th century BCE, evidencing a royal bureaucracy under Judahite kings. A recently unearthed cuneiform-inscribed sherd from the same area, dated c. 700 BCE, records Assyrian administrative queries about delayed tribute from the Kingdom of Judah, confirming direct diplomatic and economic ties during the reign of Hezekiah or Manasseh. Hezekiah's Tunnel, a 533-meter aqueduct beneath , bears the in Paleo-Hebrew detailing its construction by two teams meeting underground, with of plaster samples confirming an 8th-century BCE origin consistent with preparations against Assyrian invasion c. 701 BCE. Bullae (clay seal impressions) excavated nearby include two inscribed "Belonging to , son of , king of Judah," alongside a possible seal of the prophet , providing epigraphic proof of royal administration and literacy in the Judahite court. Late Judahite evidence from the 7th–6th centuries BCE includes the Lachish Ostraca, 21 Hebrew-inscribed potsherds from the fortress at Lachish detailing military signals and prophetic warnings during the Babylonian campaign c. 588–586 BCE, and similar Arad Ostraca from the Negev outpost, which reference shipments to the "House of YHWH" and royal officials like Eliashib. These documents, numbering over 100 from Arad alone, demonstrate widespread Hebrew literacy, centralized logistics, and religious terminology among Judahite administrators on the eve of the kingdom's fall. While academic debates persist over the extent of urbanization—often influenced by ideological minimalism—the convergence of inscriptions, fortifications, and absence of pig consumption in Judahite sites empirically attests to a cohesive Jewish kingdom with continuity from the Iron Age onward.

History

Bronze and Iron Ages

The region encompassing modern Judea, part of ancient Canaan, featured Canaanite settlements during the Bronze Age, spanning approximately 3700 to 1200 BCE. In the Judean hills and Shephelah, sites like Tel Lachish served as fortified Canaanite strongholds from the Middle Bronze Age onward, with evidence of urban centers and international trade connections. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BCE) saw continued occupation but culminated in widespread collapse around 1200 BCE, marked by destruction layers at Canaanite cities including Lachish, attributed to factors like invasions, earthquakes, and systemic disruptions in the eastern Mediterranean. This transition led to depopulation in lowlands and a shift toward smaller, rural settlements in the central highlands, including the Judean region. The I (c. 1200–1000 BCE) witnessed the emergence of distinct highland village cultures in the Judean hills, characterized by unfortified settlements, collar-rim jars, and absence of consumption, features associated with proto-Israelite or early Judahite groups evolving from local Canaanite populations. Archaeological surveys indicate over 250 new villages in the central hill country, including Judea, with populations estimated at 20,000–40,000 by the BCE, reflecting gradual sedentarization and amid the post-collapse vacuum. By Iron Age II (c. 1000–586 BCE), the Kingdom of Judah consolidated in the southern highlands, with Jerusalem as its capital and evidence of state-level infrastructure. Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa, dated via radiocarbon to 1025–975 BCE, reveal a fortified urban site of 2.3 hectares with casemate walls, a large gate complex, and public buildings, including an ostracon in proto-Canaanite script, indicating centralized Judahite administration predating the divided monarchy. In Jerusalem's City of David, Iron Age II layers show expanded fortifications, including massive walls up to 7 meters wide protecting the Gihon Spring, alongside administrative complexes with over 120 stamped jar handles bearing "LMLK" (belonging to the king) seals from the 8th century BCE. Recent carbon-14 dating confirms significant urban growth in 10th-century BCE Jerusalem, countering views of it as a minor village, with settlement sizes supporting a polity of tens of thousands. Judah's major cities like Lachish featured multi-layered fortifications and destruction evidence: Level VI destroyed by c. 1130 BCE, but Iron II revivals included Assyrian siege ramps from Sennacherib's 701 BCE campaign and final Babylonian conflagration in 586 BCE, corroborated by burnt layers, arrowheads, and the ostraca describing the fall. The kingdom's , including Hebrew inscriptions and Yahwistic shrines without idols, distinguishes it from Philistine and northern Israelite sites, reflecting a monarchical structure enduring until Nebuchadnezzar's conquest ended the in the region.

Persian and Hellenistic Periods

In 539 BCE, of the conquered , ending the Neo-Babylonian captivity of the and issuing a permitting their return to and the rebuilding of the Temple. This policy, reflected in the Cyrus Cylinder's proclamation of restoring displaced peoples and temples, transformed Yehud— the Persian designation for the encompassing core Judean territories—into a semi-autonomous satrapy under imperial oversight. The returning exiles, numbering perhaps 42,360 as recorded in biblical accounts corroborated by administrative records, faced economic challenges including heavy taxation and limited agricultural output in a region scarred by prior destruction. The Second Temple's reconstruction, initiated under around 520 BCE and completed in 516 BCE with Persian funding, marked a focal point of renewed cultic practice, though Yehud remained a modest with a population estimated at under 30,000, governed by Persian-appointed officials after Zerubbabel's tenure. The political and administrative structure featured theocratic governance, with Ezra's scribal group implementing the Torah as law; governors such as Nehemiah were appointed by Persia, but power was concentrated among returnee elites, as evidenced by centralized administration reflected in Yehud stamps and coins. The Persian period, spanning until 333 BCE, saw Yehud integrated into the Achaemenid administrative system, with Aramaic as the lingua franca and coinage bearing Yehud stamps indicating local fiscal autonomy within imperial constraints. Archaeological evidence from sites like Ramat Rahel reveals Persian-style seals and structures, underscoring the province's role as a buffer against Egypt, but also its demographic sparsity and dependence on diaspora remittances. Stability under kings like Darius I and Artaxerxes allowed for textual canonization efforts, yet internal tensions over purity and intermarriage, as in Nehemiah's reforms circa 445 BCE, highlighted persistent cultural reconstitution amid imperial loyalty. Alexander the Great's conquest of the in 333 BCE extended to Judea by 332 BCE, where local leaders submitted without battle, transitioning the region into the Hellenistic era under successor states. Following Alexander's death in 323 BCE, Judea fell under Ptolemaic Egyptian control from approximately 301 BCE, a period of relative tolerance where Jewish customs persisted alongside Greek administrative influences and taxation systems documented in Zenon papyri from the 250s BCE. Ptolemaic rule ended after the Battle of Paneion in 200 BCE, yielding to Seleucid dominance under Antiochus III, who affirmed Jewish religious freedoms in a 198 BCE edict to offset war costs but imposed tribute. Seleucid policies intensified under (r. 175–164 BCE), who, facing fiscal strains from Roman pressures and eastern revolts, promoted aggressive in Judea starting around 169 BCE, including the establishment of a gymnasium in and looting of Temple treasures. In 167 BCE, Antiochus outlawed , observance, and , desecrating the Temple by erecting an altar to Olympios and sacrificing swine, actions sparking the led by the in Modein and continued by his son Judah Maccabee. Guerrilla victories, such as at Beth Horon and , culminated in the Temple's rededication on 25 164 BCE, instituting , though full independence eluded until Simon Thassi's 141 BCE accord with Seleucid Demetrius II, establishing the as hereditary rulers with high priestly authority. The Hasmoneans expanded Judean territory through conquests, minting coins proclaiming "Jewish freedom," but internal debates and dynastic strife foreshadowed Roman involvement by 63 BCE.

Roman Period

In 63 BCE, Roman general the Great intervened in a Hasmonean civil war and conquered after a three-month , incorporating Judea into the Roman sphere as a subordinate to the province of . This marked the end of Jewish political independence, with entering the Temple's , an act that outraged Jewish sensibilities but did not immediately alter local religious practices. Roman oversight allowed the to persist nominally under until internal strife and Roman favoritism elevated Herod, an Idumean ally of , who captured in 37 BCE with Roman legions and ruled as client king until his death in 4 BCE. Herod's reign stabilized Judea economically through massive infrastructure projects, including the expansion of the Second Temple (begun 20 BCE), fortresses like and , and aqueducts, funded by heavy taxation and Roman support, though his favoritism toward Hellenistic culture and brutal suppression of rivals fueled resentment among traditional Jews. Upon Herod's death, divided his kingdom among his sons—Archelaus in Judea until 6 CE, when his misrule prompted direct Roman annexation as a governed by equestrian prefects (later called procurators) under the Syrian legate. served as prefect from 26 to 36 CE, known for provocative acts like introducing imperial standards into and using Temple funds for an aqueduct, which incited riots, as recorded by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. Tensions escalated due to Roman fiscal exactions, cultural impositions, and corrupt procurators like (64–66 CE), whose seizure of Temple treasury sparked the First Jewish-Roman War in 66 CE. Zealot factions seized , expelling the Roman garrison, but internal divisions weakened the rebels as and subdued and besieged in 70 CE, breaching its walls after months of starvation and infighting; on (9th Av), Roman forces burned the Second Temple, destroying its sanctuary and killing or enslaving over a million, per ' estimates, with survivors scattered in the . The war concluded with the fall of in 73 CE, where 960 defenders committed mass suicide rather than surrender. A brief period of relative calm followed under Agrippa II's nominal oversight, but Hadrian's policies—banning , constructing as a pagan Roman colony on 's ruins with a temple on the —ignited the in 132 CE. Led by , proclaimed messiah by , rebels briefly controlled Judea, minting coins and fortifying caves, but Roman forces under Julius Severus crushed the uprising by 135 CE, killing 580,000 Jews per and depopulating the region, with Hadrian renaming it to sever Jewish ties. Jews were barred from except on , marking the effective end of organized Jewish sovereignty until modern times.

Post-Roman to Medieval Periods

Following the division of the in 395 CE, Judea remained under the control of the Eastern , known as the . Emperors such as in the early enacted laws restricting Jewish rights, prohibiting construction, public office holding, and intermarriage, while abolishing the and in 429 CE. Justinian I's Code in 553 CE further banned the study of the Hebrew and , permitting only the , and encouraged the destruction of synagogues. Despite these measures, Jewish communities persisted in and parts of Judea, with synagogues featuring Byzantine-style mosaics, such as those at Beit Alpha. Christians, however, became the demographic majority through imperial favoritism, church construction, and monastic foundations like in the Judean Desert. Major upheavals included the Jewish revolt against Emperor Gallus in 351 CE, leading to the destruction of cities like Tzippori and Lydda, and a brief period of tolerance under Julian the Apostate in 363 CE, who permitted Temple rebuilding efforts halted by his death. In 614 CE, Persian forces allied with local captured , resulting in the massacre of approximately 17,000 Christians and the deportation of 35,000 more; briefly governed under , but Byzantine Emperor reconquered the city in 628 CE and subsequently expelled from . in 525 and 555 CE also devastated populations in the region, reducing their numbers significantly by the medieval period. Byzantine rule ended with the Arab Muslim conquest. Following the decisive Battle of Yarmuk in 636 CE, where Arab forces under Caliph defeated the Byzantines, Jerusalem surrendered peacefully to in 638 CE. The region, including Judea, was organized into the district with as capital, subjecting and Christians to status under Islamic law, requiring tax in exchange for protection. Under the (661–750 CE), with Muawiyah I establishing as capital, construction of the in began in 685 CE and completed in 691 CE, elevating the site's Islamic significance. Arabization proceeded rapidly, though Islamization was gradual; Jewish communities, diminished but extant in places like , benefited from relative tolerance compared to Byzantine restrictions, serving in administrative roles. Subsequent Abbasid (750–969 CE) and Fatimid (969–1071 CE) rule saw varying policies; Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim destroyed the in 1009 CE and imposed restrictions, but Jewish life continued under protections. Seljuk Turks, conquering in 1071 CE, intensified pressures on non-Muslims and blocked Christian pilgrims, contributing to the launch of the in 1095 CE. Crusaders captured in July 1099 CE after a , massacring Muslim and Jewish inhabitants alike, and established the Latin encompassing Judea, repurposing Islamic sites like the as the Templum Salomonis. The kingdom endured until Saladin's Ayyubid forces retook in 1187 CE following the , though coastal enclaves persisted until the conquest of Acre in 1291 CE. Mamluk Sultanate rule (1260–1517 CE) over and , including Judea, followed their defeat of the at Ain Jalut in 1260 CE and expulsion of remaining Crusaders. Jews maintained small communities in and , adhering to status with occupational restrictions but engaging in trade and scholarship; medieval travelers like noted limited numbers, reflecting ongoing demographic decline from earlier expulsions and conversions. Mamluk policies emphasized military control, fortifying and suppressing revolts, while Islamic dominance solidified, with Jews and as protected minorities subject to periodic humiliations and taxes.

Ottoman Era to 20th Century

The Ottoman Empire conquered the region encompassing Judea in 1517 following the defeat of the Mamluk Sultanate at the Battle of Marj Dabiq. The area, historically centered on Jerusalem, Hebron, and Bethlehem, was administratively integrated into the Damascus Eyalet, divided into sanjaks including Jerusalem, with local governance by appointed officials enforcing Islamic law and collecting taxes on agriculture, which dominated the economy of terraced hills and valleys. Population estimates for the broader Palestine region indicate around 300,000 inhabitants in 1517, predominantly Muslim Arabs engaged in subsistence farming and pastoralism, with a small Christian minority and approximately 5,000 Jews, many residing in Jerusalem and Hebron as religious scholars or artisans. Jewish communities in Ottoman Judea maintained a continuous presence, numbering about 1,000 families initially, focused on Torah study and ritual observances in ancient sites like the Western Wall, though subject to periodic taxes such as the jizya and occasional expulsions, as in 1553 when Ashkenazi Jews were briefly barred from Jerusalem. By the 19th century, amid Tanzimat reforms granting limited equality and European consular protections, Jewish numbers grew to roughly 6,500 in Jerusalem and surrounding areas by 1800, bolstered by Sephardic immigrants fleeing Iberian expulsions and later Ashkenazi arrivals, though they remained a minority amid a Muslim population exceeding 250,000 in the Jerusalem district. Economic stagnation and Bedouin raids persisted, but Ottoman land codes from 1858 facilitated some private ownership, setting precedents for later disputes. The began under continued Ottoman rule, with Zionist organizations purchasing land in Judea for settlement, though was limited until ; by 1914, Jews comprised about 3-10% of Palestine's population, concentrated in urban centers like . British forces under General Edmund Allenby captured on December 9, 1917, after the , ending 400 years of Ottoman control without significant resistance in the city itself, as Ottoman troops withdrew amid Allied advances. The subsequent British Mandate for Palestine, formalized in 1922 by the League of Nations, incorporated the Balfour Declaration's 1917 commitment to a Jewish national home while administering the territory, including Judea, as a single unit with provisions for Arab rights. Under the Mandate, Jewish land acquisition and establishments expanded in Judea, such as the bloc founded in 1927, amid rising tensions; the killed 67 Jews in this Judean city, prompting evacuations but underscoring persistent communities. Arab riots in 1936-1939 targeted British and Jewish sites across the region, leading to the 1939 restricting Jewish immigration to 75,000 over five years despite European persecution. By 1947, as the Mandate neared collapse, UN Partition Plan Resolution 181 proposed dividing , allocating parts of Judea to a , but ensuing civil war and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War resulted in Jordanian annexation of the , including eastern Judea and , displacing Jewish settlements like .

Religious and Cultural Significance

Role in Judaism and Biblical Narrative

In the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, the region of Judea derives its name from Judah, the fourth son of the patriarch Jacob (also called Israel), whose tribe inherited the southern territory following the Israelite conquest of Canaan as described in the Book of Joshua. The tribal allotment of Judah encompassed key areas including Jerusalem, Hebron, and the Judean hills, forming the core of the biblical "Promised Land" for that lineage, with boundaries outlined from the wilderness of Zin to the Mediterranean Sea and eastward to the Dead Sea. This territorial foundation underscores Judea's role as the ancestral heartland of the Jewish people, distinct from the northern tribes, and central to narratives of inheritance and divine covenant. Judea gained preeminence in the biblical monarchy after the united kingdom under Kings , and fractured around 930 BCE, resulting in the independent in the south, with as its capital and the site of the First Temple built by circa 950 BCE. The Davidic dynasty, originating from the , symbolized enduring messianic promise, as prophesied in texts like 2 Samuel 7:12-16, where God pledges an eternal throne to David's lineage, a theme echoed in . Kings such as (r. circa 715-686 BCE) and (r. 640-609 BCE) are depicted as reformers who centralized worship in 's Temple, purging idolatrous practices from high places throughout Judah, thereby reinforcing monotheistic fidelity amid Assyrian and Babylonian threats. Prophetic books like , , and , many authored in or addressed to Judah, narrate divine judgment on the kingdom's covenant breaches, culminating in the Babylonian conquest of in 586 BCE, the Temple's destruction, and the exile of Judean elites to . Post-exilic, Judea—reconfigured as the Persian province of Yehud—serves as the stage for restoration narratives in and , where returning exiles under leaders like and circa 538-445 BCE rebuild the Second Temple and reinstitute observance, marking the origins of . This era solidified Judea's theological centrality, as the surviving remnant of Judah preserved the scriptural tradition after the northern Kingdom of Israel's fall to in 722 BCE, ensuring the continuity of , , and expectation of redemption tied to the land and Davidic hope. In Jewish and , Judea's sites, such as the , retain ritual purity and eschatological significance, with prayers oriented toward as the eternal focal point of divine presence.

Influence on Western Civilization

The Kingdom of Judah, centered in the region historically known as , served as the primary locus for the compilation and preservation of Hebrew scriptures that articulated —a in one supreme deity whose moral imperatives apply universally to human conduct. This theological framework emerged gradually during the , with textual evidence from Judean sources indicating a shift toward exclusive devotion to by the 8th-7th centuries BCE, distinguishing it from surrounding polytheistic cultures. emphasized individual accountability, covenantal obligations, and linear historical progress under , concepts that contrasted with cyclical pagan worldviews and laid foundational principles for later Western notions of personal ethics and . These Judean-originated ideas profoundly influenced Western civilization through Judaism's scriptural legacy, which incorporated as the following its inception in Roman Judea during the 1st century CE. Key events, including the ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection narratives centered in , positioned Judea as the cradle of , which by the 4th century CE under Constantine's (313 CE) transitioned from a persecuted to the Roman Empire's favored religion, eventually dominating European institutions. This adoption transmitted Judean ethical imperatives—such as prohibitions against murder, theft, and false witness from the Decalogue—into Christian doctrine, informing medieval and, indirectly, secular legal traditions in and its colonies. In the broader Western intellectual tradition, Judea's prophetic writings from figures like and , preserved amid the kingdom's geopolitical upheavals (e.g., Assyrian threats in 701 BCE and Babylonian in 586 BCE), fostered a critique of power and emphasis on justice that resonated in Christian social teachings and . While direct causal links to Greco-Roman remain unsubstantiated by primary evidence, the monotheistic insistence on transcendent moral order challenged and complemented pagan , contributing to the eventual synthesis in Western thought where biblical covenants influenced concepts of constitutional governance and . Scholarly assessments affirm this intermediary role via , though direct Jewish legal influence on systems was limited until modern revivals.

Modern Usage and Controversies

Administrative Use as Judea and Samaria

Following Israel's capture of the from during the on June 7, 1967, the Israeli government established military administration over the territory, designating it the Judea and Samaria Area to invoke its historical and biblical nomenclature. This administrative framework operates under the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), with authority derived from military orders issued pursuant to the laws of belligerent occupation. The region excludes , which Israel annexed in 1967 and incorporated into under Israeli civil law. In 1981, the was created as a branch of the IDF to manage civilian affairs, including , health, education, and , while separating these functions from direct military policing. Headed by a appointed by the Minister of Defense, the Civil Administration coordinates with the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories (COGAT), which oversees interactions between Israeli authorities and Palestinian populations. Palestinian residents are subject to a modified version of Jordanian law supplemented by Israeli military regulations, whereas Israeli settlers in the area apply Israeli civil law extended via orders. The Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 and 1995, divided the Judea and Samaria Area into three zones for interim governance: Area A (approximately 18% of the territory), under exclusive Palestinian Authority (PA) control for both civil and security matters; Area B (about 22%), with PA civil administration and joint Israeli-PA security responsibility; and Area C (roughly 60%), under full Israeli control for security, planning, and zoning, encompassing most Jewish settlements and state lands. This division facilitates PA self-rule in densely populated urban centers while maintaining Israeli oversight in rural and strategic zones, though implementation has faced disputes over land use and building permits in Area C. Israeli administrative bodies, such as the Judea and Samaria District offices under various ministries, handle , transportation, and within their jurisdictions, extending from in the north to Mount Hebron in the south. As of 2025, this structure persists without full annexation, though legislative efforts in the have advanced bills to extend Israeli sovereignty selectively to settlements and the , reflecting ongoing policy debates.

Debates on Sovereignty and Historical Rights

Debates on over and , regions comprising the , center on competing historical claims and interpretations of . Proponents of Israeli emphasize the Jewish people's indigenous connection to the land, evidenced by archaeological findings from the , including fortified cities, inscriptions, and artifacts like the confirming biblical-era presence. This historical continuity persisted through exiles, with Jewish communities maintaining a presence in areas like and despite Roman, Byzantine, and later dominations. The San Remo Conference of April 1920 allocated the to Britain, explicitly incorporating the 1917 Balfour Declaration's commitment to a Jewish national home across the territory west of the , encompassing and , without prejudice to non-Jewish communities' civil rights. Under , Israel's acquisition of Judea and Samaria in the occurred in against Jordanian aggression, following Jordan's illegal annexation of the territory in 1948, which lacked international recognition beyond Britain and . UN Security Council Resolution 242 () calls for Israeli withdrawal from "territories" occupied in the conflict—not "all the territories"—in exchange for peace and secure borders, a phrasing deliberately omitting full retreat to interpret as permitting adjustments for defensible lines. Legal analyses assert Israel's retention of title derives from the Mandate's provisions, which were not revoked by the 1947 UN Partition Plan's rejection by Arab states, and no sovereign Palestinian entity ever held title to the land. Critics, including the of Justice's 2024 , deem the Israeli presence an unlawful occupation violating the by transferring civilians via settlements, though this view overlooks the territories' disputed status absent prior legitimate sovereignty and applies conventions meant for sovereign conquests. Palestinian claims invoke and post-Ottoman indigeneity, but lack evidence of continuous sovereign control, as the region formed part of broader Arab polities until the Mandate era, with modern Palestinian national identity emerging in the amid opposition to Jewish statehood. Israeli perspectives, supported by entities like the Center for Public Affairs, argue that applying aligns with historical rights and security needs, citing continuous Jewish habitation and the absence of a binding obligation to relinquish the areas. In 2025, the passed non-binding resolutions with 71 votes endorsing sovereignty extension to Judea, , and the , reflecting domestic momentum amid stalled peace processes, though international bodies like the UN often frame such moves as , a characterization contested for ignoring Mandate-era legal foundations. Sources critiquing Israeli claims, such as UN documents, exhibit favoring Palestinian narratives, as evidenced by disproportionate resolutions against .

Archaeological and Genetic Corroboration of Claims

Archaeological excavations in the region have uncovered material evidence supporting the existence of the during the . The , discovered in 1993-1994 at Tel Dan in northern and dated to the mid-9th century BCE, contains an inscription referencing the "House of David," providing the earliest extra-biblical mention of a Judahite royal dynasty associated with King David. This artifact, authenticated through epigraphic and paleographic analysis, corroborates the historical foundation of Judahite kingship as described in biblical accounts, countering earlier scholarly skepticism about the United Monarchy's scale. Excavations at , a fortified site in the dated to the late 11th to early 10th century BCE via , reveal with monumental architecture, including city walls and gates, indicative of centralized in early Judah. Absence of pig bones in faunal remains and presence of cultic shrines without figurative idols align with Judahite cultural practices distinct from Philistine sites nearby, supporting ethnic and religious identification with . Further, ostraca and seals from sites like Arad demonstrate and administrative complexity in 7th-century BCE Judah, with Hebrew inscriptions evidencing a developed bureaucratic state. Destruction layers at sites such as Lachish and , including ash deposits, Babylonian arrowheads, and Iron Age II pottery dated to 587/586 BCE, confirm the Neo-Babylonian of Judah, aligning with historical records of Jerusalem's fall. In the Persian period, Yehud stamp impressions on jar handles, bearing the proto-Judaic script "YHD" (Yehud), found at sites like Ramat Rahel and numbering over 700 examples, attest to the administrative province of Judah under Achaemenid rule from the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. These seals indicate continuity of Judean identity and fiscal organization post-exile. Genetic analyses of from the southern Levant provide empirical support for ancestral continuity between Iron Age populations and modern Jewish groups. Genome-wide data from 73 Bronze and Iron Age individuals across sites like and Megiddo show that modern Levantine populations, including , derive substantial ancestry from these ancient samples, with Jewish cohorts exhibiting 50-80% continuity to Bronze Age Levantines after accounting for later admixtures. Studies modeling ancient genomes from Peqi'in and other Chalcolithic-to-Iron Age demonstrate that Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and other Jewish populations cluster closely with ancient Canaanite/Israelite profiles, distinct from non-Levantine groups, affirming indigenous Judean origins despite diasporic histories. Y-chromosome and mtDNA markers, such as the Modal Haplotype prevalent in Jewish priestly lineages, further link modern to ancient Near Eastern paternities consistent with Judean . While academic interpretations sometimes emphasize shared ancestries with neighboring groups due to regional admixture, the data prioritize Levantine core components in Jewish , validating long-term historical claims of Judean continuity over alternative narratives minimizing Jewish indigeneity.

Timeline of Key Events

  • c. 930 BCE: Following the death of King Solomon, the united Kingdom of Israel splits into the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah, with Jerusalem as Judah's capital; Judea emerges as the core territory of Judah centered around Jerusalem and the Judean hills.
  • 586 BCE: Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II destroys Jerusalem and the First Temple, leading to the exile of much of Judah's population to Babylon and marking the end of the Kingdom of Judah.
  • 539 BCE: Persian King Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon and issues a decree allowing exiled Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.
  • 167–160 BCE: The Maccabean Revolt against Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes results in Jewish independence and the rededication of the Second Temple, establishing the Hasmonean dynasty in Judea.
  • 63 BCE: Roman general Pompey the Great conquers Jerusalem, incorporating Judea into the Roman sphere as a client kingdom under the Hasmoneans and later Herod the Great.
  • 37–4 BCE: Herod the Great rules Judea as a Roman client king, overseeing major construction projects including the expansion of the Second Temple.
  • 6 CE: Following the death of Herod Archelaus, Judea becomes a direct Roman province governed by prefects, with increased Roman administrative control.
  • 66–73 CE: The First Jewish-Roman War erupts in Judea, culminating in the Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, with the fall of Masada in 73 CE.
  • 132–135 CE: The Bar Kokhba Revolt against Roman rule in Judea leads to heavy casualties and Emperor Hadrian's suppression, after which the province is renamed Syria Palaestina to erase Jewish ties.
  • 614 CE: Sassanid Persians capture Jerusalem from the Byzantines, briefly allowing Jewish return before Byzantine reconquest in 629 CE.
  • 638 CE: Arab Muslim forces under Caliph Umar conquer Jerusalem and Judea from the Byzantines, initiating Islamic rule over the region.
  • 1099 CE: Crusaders capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade, establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem that includes parts of Judea until Saladin's reconquest in 1187 CE.
  • 1517 CE: Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquers Judea from the Mamluks, incorporating it into the Ottoman Empire where it remains under Turkish rule for four centuries with a small Jewish population.
  • 1917 CE: British forces under General Allenby capture Jerusalem from the Ottomans during World War I, placing Judea under the British Mandate for Palestine.
  • 1948 CE: Following the establishment of Israel, Jordan occupies and annexes the West Bank, including Judea and Samaria, expelling Jewish communities from areas like Hebron.
  • 1967 CE: During the Six-Day War, Israel captures Judea and Samaria (West Bank) from Jordan, leading to Israeli military administration and subsequent Jewish settlement resumption in the region.

References

  1. https://www.livius.org/articles/place/judaea/
  2. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/how-big-was-king-davids-judah/
  3. https://armstronginstitute.org/612-archaeological-evidence-of-kings-of-israel-and-judah
  4. https://rsc.byu.edu/new-testament-history-culture-society/judea-roman-province-ad-6-66
  5. https://www.gov.il/en/pages/israeli-settlement-and-international-law
  6. https://www.etymonline.com/word/Judea
  7. https://places.behindthename.com/name/judea
  8. https://www.etymonline.com/word/Judah
  9. https://www.ancient-hebrew.org/names/Judah.htm
  10. https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Judah.html
  11. https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-3500
  12. https://honestreporting.com/origins-judea-israel-palestine/
  13. https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Judea.html
  14. https://byustudies.byu.edu/article/the-roman-province-of-judea-a-historical-overview
  15. https://www.scriptureanalysis.com/when-judea-became-palestine-origins-explained/
  16. https://jcpa.org/the-state-of-israels-legal-right-to-judea-and-samaria/
  17. https://besacenter.org/abcs-judea-samaria-towards-breakdown/
  18. https://keepgodsland.com/learn/who-governs-judea-samaria/
  19. https://countrystudies.us/israel/35.htm
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228013388_Late_Cretaceous_evolution_of_the_Judean_Mountains_as_indicated_by_ostracodes
  21. https://publications.iaa.org.il/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=2&article=1057&context=iaareports&type=additional
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-shaded-relief-map-of-the-Judean-Mountains-in-central-Israel-and-the-Palestinian_fig1_234126893
  23. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-jordan-valley
  24. https://www.britannica.com/place/Judaea
  25. https://www.biblicaltraining.org/library/judea
  26. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/judea
  27. https://www.biblestudy.org/roman-empire/roman-provinces-in-new-testament/judea.html
  28. https://bible-history.com/geography/map-of-judea
  29. https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/israel
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mean-annual-rainfall-mm-in-various-regions-in-Israel-and-the-Palestinian-Authority-from_fig6_320288188
  31. https://weatherspark.com/y/98866/Average-Weather-in-Jerusalem-Israel-Year-Round
  32. https://fada.birzeit.edu/bitstream/20.500.11889/8817/1/the%2520soils%2520of%2520palestine.pdf
  33. https://www.gemsinisrael.com/the-gems/the-judean-hills/ancient-agriculture-the-sataf/
  34. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-agriculture-in-israel
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287237657_The_Soils_of_Israel
  36. https://cityofdavid.org.il/en/the-siloam-inscription-eng/
  37. https://cojs.org/hezekiah-s_-or_siloam-_tunnel_inscription-_701_bce/
  38. https://www.imj.org.il/en/wings/shrine-book/dead-sea-scrolls
  39. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/the-tel-dan-inscription-the-first-historical-evidence-of-the-king-david-bible-story/
  40. https://armstronginstitute.org/104-the-house-of-david-could-it-be-true
  41. https://khirbet-qeiyafa.huji.ac.il/
  42. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/radiocarbon/article/king-davids-city-at-khirbet-qeiyafa-results-of-the-second-radiocarbon-dating-project/F6BDFDFA8FA03784AAD424866E552349
  43. https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/i-screamed-out-of-excitement-2-700-year-old-cuneiform-text-found-near-temple-mount-and-it-reveals-the-kingdom-of-judah-had-a-late-payment-to-the-assyrians
  44. https://www.jewishnews.co.uk/correspondence-between-assyrian-empire-and-king-of-judah-uncovered-in-jerusalem/
  45. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2021/06/11/top-ten-discoveries-related-to-david/
  46. https://armstronginstitute.org/931-new-evidence-for-king-davids-kingdom-an-interview-with-prof-yosef-garfinkel
  47. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/king-davids-judah-found/
  48. https://biblicalhistoricalcontext.com/beyond-apologetics/tel-dan-stele/
  49. https://thejewishmuseum.org/exhibitions/tel-dan-stele/
  50. https://biblearchaeology.org/current-events-list/4702-iron-age-judahite-administrative-complex-unearthed-in-jerusalem
  51. https://www.timesofisrael.com/biblical-tax-notice-1st-ever-assyrian-inscription-found-near-jerusalems-temple-mount/
  52. https://www.bibleodyssey.org/articles/the-siloam-inscription-and-hezekiahs-tunnel/
  53. https://www.nature.com/articles/news030908-9
  54. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/seals-of-isaiah-and-king-hezekiah-discovered-exhibit/
  55. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34988649
  56. https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2025/08/29/letters-from-the-biblical-world-the-lachish-letters/
  57. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/ancient-cultures/ancient-israel/the-lachish-letters/
  58. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27925035
  59. https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-ancient-places-asia/kingdom-judah-0021298
  60. https://sareltours.com/article/tel-lachish
  61. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/news/bronze-age-collapse-pollen-study-highlights-late-bronze-age-drought/
  62. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aasp/palynology/article/38/2/280/87145/Dead-Sea-pollen-record-and-history-of-human
  63. https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/2015/01/cli398005
  64. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/khirbet-qeiyafa-and-tel-lachish-excavations-explore-early-kingdom-of-judah/
  65. https://www.oakland.edu/Assets/Oakland/oujournal/files-and-documents/21_in_the_valley_of_elah.pdf
  66. https://cityofdavid.org.il/en/150-years/
  67. https://armstronginstitute.org/1065-a-revolutionary-carbon-dating-study-of-ancient-jerusalem
  68. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/dig/tel-lachish-austrian/
  69. https://lukechandler.wordpress.com/2014/07/01/archaeology-an-ancient-destruction-layer-at-lachish/
  70. https://www.southern.edu/administration/archaeology/lachish/docs/articles/Yosef_Garfinkel_Michael_G_Hasel_et_al_La.pdf
  71. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372195601_The_Iron_Age_Inner_City_Gate_and_Gate_Shrine_at_Tel_Lakhish_Lachish
  72. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941
  73. https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/persian
  74. https://courses.lsa.umich.edu/israel-palestine/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2013/12/041.-Stern-9-21.pdf
  75. https://www.academia.edu/2439619/_Judaism_the_First_Phase_by_Joseph_Blenkinsopp
  76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347630916_The_Yehud_Stamp_Impressions_A_Corpus_of_Inscribed_Impressions_from_the_Persian_and_Hellenistic_Periods_in_Judah
  77. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb31338.0001.001
  78. https://sites.utexas.edu/scripts/files/2020/10/2015-AWW-From-Persepolis-to-Jerusalem.pdf
  79. https://www.academia.edu/1070697/Finkelstein_I_2009_Persian_Period_Jerusalem_and_Yehud_A_Rejoinder_Journal_of_Hebrew_Scriptures_9_2_13
  80. https://enterthebible.org/time-period/judea-during-hellenistic-rule
  81. https://cojs.org/political_and_social_structures_in_hellenistic_judea_-332-63_bce/
  82. https://www.ritmeyer.com/2021/08/21/jerusalem-and-the-temple-mount-in-the-hellenistic-period/
  83. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/827/the-maccabean-revolt/
  84. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/who-were-the-maccabees-and-what-did-they-do/
  85. https://cojs.org/the_hasmonean_dynasty_-142-37_bce/
  86. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-hasmonean-dynasty
  87. https://enterthebible.org/time-period/judea-during-roman-rule
  88. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/rule-of-rome-timeline-230-bce-400-ce
  89. https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/herod-0012600
  90. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/procurator
  91. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-great-revolt-66-70-ce
  92. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-bar-kokhba-revolt-132-135-ce
  93. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/judea-under-byzantine-rule
  94. https://www.israelhistory.info/part-5-byzantine-israel
  95. https://fanack.com/israel/history-of-israel/ancient-history/the-arab-conquest/
  96. https://www.israelhistory.info/part-6-arab-and-crusaders-conquest-of-israel
  97. https://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/p10098.pdf
  98. https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-crusades-1095-1291
  99. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/mamluks
  100. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ottoman-rule-1517-1917
  101. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jewish-and-non-jewish-population-of-israel-palestine-1517-present
  102. https://www.mdpi.com/2313-5778/9/3/72
  103. https://tbtnisrael.com/ottoman-land-laws/
  104. https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/british-army-palestine
  105. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/british-mandate-for-palestine/
  106. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/timeline-of-british-rule-in-palestine-1918-1947
  107. https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/288958/jewish/The-Story-of-Judah-in-the-Bible.htm
  108. https://biblehub.com/topical/j/judaea.htm
  109. https://www.gotquestions.org/Judea-in-the-Bible.html
  110. https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1935026/jewish/A-History-of-the-Hebrew-Monarchy.htm
  111. https://biblehub.com/topical/ttt/m/modern_judea--comprised_the_whole_of_the_ancient_kingdom_of_judah.htm
  112. https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-study/topical-studies/why-is-judea-such-an-important-place-in-the-bible.html
  113. https://biblehub.com/q/what%27s_judea%27s_role_in_the_bible.htm
  114. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/bible-interpretation/when-did-monotheism-emerge-in-ancient-israel/
  115. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1097/ancient-israelite--judean-religion/
  116. https://pluralism.org/god-biblical-monotheism
  117. https://pressbooks.nvcc.edu/wcchv1/chapter/volume-1-chapter-10-the-late-empire-and-christianity/
  118. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/great-christian-jurists-in-american-history/introduction-christianity-and-american-law/5AEA44725A0B80CCAD5DDD2252D8148E
  119. https://scholarlycommons.law.emory.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=faculty-articles
  120. https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/thebirthofeurope/chapter/the-hebrews/
  121. https://larc.cardozo.yu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1735&context=faculty-articles
  122. https://www.gov.il/en/departments/coordination-of-government-activities-in-the-territories/govil-landing-page
  123. https://israel365action.com/judea-and-samaria/who-governs-judea-and-samaria/
  124. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/israelpalestine/252-sovereignty-all-name-israels-quickening-annexation-west-bank
  125. https://www.gov.il/en/departments/Units/contact_judea_and_samaria_district
  126. https://main.knesset.gov.il/EN/News/PressReleases/pages/press23725r.aspx
  127. https://answersingenesis.org/archaeology/archaeological-evidence-kingdom-judah/
  128. https://honestreporting.com/keep-digging-how-archaeology-debunks-the-israel-colonizers-libel/
  129. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-san-remo-conference
  130. https://www.jpost.com/opinion/article-866319
  131. https://www.ajc.org/news/5-facts-about-the-jewish-peoples-ancestral-connection-to-the-land-of-israel
  132. https://jcpa.org/sovereignty-in-the-west-bank-areas-of-judea-and-samaria-historical-and-legal-milestones-that-make-the-case/
  133. https://tabletalkmagazine.com/article/2023/09/tel-dan-inscription/
  134. https://jjar.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/jjar/files/jjar4_art-04_garfinkel_2023-05-23_01.pdf
  135. https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/artifacts-and-the-bible/breaking-news-evidence-of-cultic-activity-in-judah-discovered-at-khirbet-qeiyafa/
  136. https://lisa.biu.ac.il/files/lisa/shared/maeir_kingdoms_of_israel_and_judah_history_and_archaeology_ebr_vol_15_2017.pdf
  137. https://inside.charlotte.edu/news-features/2019-08-12/evidence-587586-bce-babylonian-conquest-jerusalem-found-mount-zion/
  138. https://www.eisenbrauns.org/books/titles/978-1-57506-183-2.html
  139. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/710530
  140. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10212583/
  141. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6102297/
  142. https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1043&context=humbiol_preprints
  143. https://bioone.org/journalArticle/Download?urlId=10.3378%252F027.085.0606
  144. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/timeline-for-the-history-of-jerusalem-4500-bce-present
  145. https://israel365action.com/judea-and-samaria/what-is-the-history-of-judea-and-samaria/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.