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Mobile operating system
Mobile operating system
Mobile operating system
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A mobile operating system is an operating system used for smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, smartglasses, or other non-laptop personal mobile computing devices. While computers such as laptops are "mobile", the operating systems used on them are usually not considered mobile, as they were originally designed for desktop computers that historically did not have or need specific mobile features. This "fine line" distinguishing mobile and other forms has become blurred in recent years, due to the fact that newer devices have become smaller and more mobile, unlike the hardware of the past. Key notabilities blurring this line are the introduction of tablet computers, light laptops, and the hybridization of the 2-in-1 PCs.

Mobile operating systems combine features of a desktop computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use, and usually including a wireless inbuilt modem and SIM tray for telephone and data connection. In 2024, approximately 1.22 billion smartphones were sold globally, marking a 7% increase over the previous year and a solid rebound after two consecutive years of declines.[1] Sales in 2012 were 1.56 billion; sales in 2023 were 1.43 billion[2] with 53.32% being Android.[3] Android alone has more sales than the popular desktop operating system Microsoft Windows, and smartphone use (even without tablets) outnumbers desktop use.[4]

Mobile devices, with mobile communications abilities (for example, smartphones), contain two mobile operating systems. The main user-facing software platform is supplemented by a second low-level proprietary real-time operating system which operates the radio and other hardware. Research has shown that these low-level systems may contain a range of security vulnerabilities permitting malicious base stations to gain high levels of control over the mobile device.[5]

Mobile operating systems have had the most use of any operating system since 2017 (measured by web use).[2]

Timeline

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See also: History of tablet computers

Mobile operating system milestones mirror the development of mobile phones, PDAs, and smartphones:

Pre-1990

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1993–1999

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2000s

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2010s

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2010

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  • February
    • MeeGo is announced, a mobile Linux distribution merging Maemo from Nokia and Moblin from Intel and Linux Foundation, to be hosted by Linux Foundation.[61] MeeGo is not backward-compatible with any previous operating system.
    • Samsung introduces the Bada OS and shows the first Bada smartphone, the Samsung S8500.[62] It was later released in May 2010.[63]
  • April
    • Apple releases the iPad (first generation) with iPhone OS 3.2.[64] This is the first version of the OS to support tablet computers. For its next major version (4.0) iPhone OS will be renamed iOS.
    • HP acquires Palm in order to use webOS in multiple new products, including smartphones, tablets, and printers,[65] later stating their intent to use it as the universal platform for all their devices.[66]
  • May – Microsoft Kin phone line with KIN OS (based on Windows CE and a "close cousin" to Windows Phone[67]) become available.
  • June – Apple releases iOS 4, renamed from iPhone OS, with the iPhone 4.
  • July – Microsoft Kin phones and KIN OS are discontinued.[68][69]
  • September
  • November
    • Nokia assumes full control over Symbian as the Symbian Foundation disintegrates.[74]
    • Windows Phone OS is released[75] on Windows Phone 7 phones by HTC, LG, Samsung, and Dell. The new OS is not backward-compatible with the prior Windows Mobile OS.[76][77]

2011

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  • February
    • Android 3.0 (Honeycomb), the first version to officially support tablet computers, is released on the Motorola Xoom.[78]
    • Nokia abandons the Symbian OS and announces that it would use Microsoft's Windows Phone 7 as its primary smartphone platform, while Symbian would be gradually wound down.[79][80]
  • April – BlackBerry Tablet OS, based on QNX Neutrino is released on the BlackBerry PlayBook.
  • July
    • Mozilla announces their Boot to Gecko project (later named Firefox OS) to develop an OS for handheld devices emphasizing standards-based Web technologies,[81] similar to webOS.
    • webOS 3.0, the first version to support tablet computers, is released on the HP TouchPad.[82]
  • August – HP announces that webOS device development and production lines would be halted.[83] The last HP webOS version, 3.0.5, is released on January 12, 2012.[84]
  • September
    • MeeGo is introduced with the limited-release Nokia N9, Nokia's first and only consumer device to use the OS.[85] (A small number of the Nokia N950, a MeeGo phone available only to developers, were released in mid-2011.[86])
    • After Nokia's abandonment of MeeGo, Intel and the Linux Foundation announce a partnership with Samsung to launch Tizen, shifting their focus from MeeGo (Intel and Linux Foundation) and Bada (Samsung) during 2011 and 2012.[87]
  • October
    • Apple releases iOS 5 with the iPhone 4S, integrating the Siri voice assistant.
    • The Mer project is announced, based on an ultra-portable core for building products, composed of Linux, HTML5, QML, and JavaScript, which is derived from the MeeGo codebase.
  • November – Fire OS, a fork of the Android operating system, is released by Amazon.com on the Kindle Fire tablet.

2012

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  • May – Nokia releases the Nokia 808 PureView,[88] later confirmed (in January 2013) to be the last Symbian smartphone.[89] This phone was followed by a single last Symbian software update, "Nokia Belle, Feature Pack 2", later in 2012.[90]
  • July
    • Finnish start-up Jolla, formed by former Nokia employees, announces that MeeGo's community-driven successor Mer[91] would be the basis of their new Sailfish smartphone OS.[92]
    • Mozilla announces that the project formerly named Boot to Gecko (which is built atop an Android Linux kernel using Android drivers and services; however it uses no Java-like code of Android) is now Firefox OS (since discontinued) and has several handset OEMs on board.
  • August – Samsung announces they will not ship further phones using their Bada OS, instead focusing on Windows Phone 8 and Android.[93]
  • September – Apple releases iOS 6 with the iPhone 5.

2013

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2014

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2015

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2016

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2017

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2018

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2019

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Current software platforms

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See also: Comparison of mobile operating systems, List of iPhone models, and List of Windows phones

These operating systems often run atop baseband or other real-time operating systems that handle hardware aspects of the phone.

Android

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Main articles: Android (operating system), Android version history, and List of custom Android distributions

Android (based on the modified Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system developed by Open Handset Alliance.[118] The base system is open-source (and only the kernel copyleft), but the apps and drivers which provide functionality are increasingly becoming closed-source.[119] Besides having the largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, it is also the most popular operating system for general purpose computers[further explanation needed] (a category that includes desktop computers and mobile devices), even though Android is not a popular operating system for regular (desktop) personal computers (PCs). Although the Android operating system is free and open-source software,[120] in devices sold, much of the software bundled with it (including Google apps and vendor-installed software) is proprietary software and closed-source.[121]

Android's releases before 2.0 (1.0, 1.5, 1.6) were used exclusively on mobile phones. Android 2.x releases were mostly used for mobile phones but also some tablets. Android 3.0 was a tablet-oriented release and does not officially run on mobile phones. Both phone and tablet compatibility were merged with Android 4.0.

Many OEMs ship their devices with custom skins and numerous forks of Android are available to use as custom ROMs.

Wear OS

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Main article: Wear OS

Wear OS (also known simply as Wear and formerly Android Wear) is a version of Google's Android operating system designed for smartwatches and other wearables. By pairing with mobile phones running Android version 6.0 or newer, or iOS version 10.0 or newer with limited support from Google's pairing application, Wear OS integrates Google Assistant technology and mobile notifications into a smartwatch form factor.

In May 2021 at Google I/O, Google announced a major update to the platform, internally known as Wear OS 3.0. It incorporates a new visual design inspired by Android 12, and Fitbit exercise tracking features. Google also announced a partnership with Samsung Electronics, who is collaborating with Google to unify its Tizen-based smartwatch platform with Wear OS, and has committed to using Wear OS on its future smartwatch products starting with One UI Watch 3.0. The underlying codebase was also upgraded to Android 11.

ChromeOS

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Main article: ChromeOS

ChromeOS is an operating system designed by Google that is based on the Linux kernel and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface. As a result, ChromeOS primarily supports web applications. Google announced the project in July 2009, conceiving it as an operating system in which both applications and user data reside in the cloud: hence ChromeOS primarily runs web applications.[122]

Due to increase of popularity with 2-in-1 PCs, most recent Chromebooks are introduced with touch screen capability, with Android applications starting to become available for the operating system in 2014. And in 2016, access to Android apps in the entire Google Play Store was introduced on supported ChromeOS devices. With the support of Android applications, there are Chromebook devices that are positioned as tablet based instead of notebooks.

ChromeOS is only available pre-installed on hardware from Google manufacturing partners. An open source equivalent, ChromiumOS, can be compiled from downloaded source code. Early on, Google provided design goals for ChromeOS, but has not otherwise released a technical description.

Sailfish OS

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Main article: Sailfish OS

Sailfish OS is from Jolla. It is open source with GNU General Public License (GPL) for middleware stack core which comes from MER. Sailfish due to Jolla's business model and due to alliances with various partners and due to intentional design of OS internals, is capable to adopt in several layers third-party software including Jolla software e.g. Jolla's UI is proprietary software (closed source), so such components can be proprietary with many kinds of licences. However, user can replace them with open source components like e.g. NEMO UI instead Jolla's UI.

After Nokia abandoned in 2011 the MeeGo project, most of the MeeGo team left Nokia, and established Jolla as a company to use MeeGo and Mer business opportunities. The MER standard allows it to be launched on any hardware with kernel compatible with MER. In 2012, Linux Sailfish OS based on MeeGo and using middleware of MER core stack distribution was launched for public use. The first device, the Jolla smartphone, was unveiled on May 20, 2013. In 2015, Jolla Tablet was launched and the BRICS countries declared it an officially supported OS there. Jolla started licensing Sailfish OS 2.0 for third parties. Some devices sold are updateable to Sailfish 2.0 with no limits.

Nemo Mobile is a community-driven OS, similar to Sailfish but attempting to replace its proprietary components, such as the user interface.[123][124][125]

SteamOS

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Main article: SteamOS

SteamOS is a Linux distribution developed by Valve. It incorporates Valve's popular namesake Steam video game storefront and is the primary operating system for Steam Machines and the Steam Deck. SteamOS is open source with some closed source components.

SteamOS was originally built to support streaming of video games from one personal computer to the one running SteamOS within the same network, although the operating system can support standalone systems and was intended to be used as part of Valve's Steam Machine platform. SteamOS versions 1.0, released in December 2013, and 2.0 were based on the Debian distribution of Linux with GNOME desktop.[126] With SteamOS, Valve encouraged developers to incorporate Linux compatibility into their releases to better support Linux gaming options.

In February 2022, Valve released the handheld gaming computer Steam Deck running SteamOS 3.0. SteamOS 3 is based on the Arch Linux distribution with KDE Plasma 5.[127][128]

Tizen

[edit]
Main article: Tizen

Tizen (based on the Linux kernel) is a mobile operating system hosted by Linux Foundation, together with support from the Tizen Association, guided by a Technical Steering Group composed of Intel and Samsung.

Tizen is an operating system for devices including smartphones, tablets, In-Vehicle Infotainment (IVI) devices, however currently it mainly focuses on wearable and smart TVs. It is an open source system (however the SDK was closed-source and proprietary) that aims to offer a consistent user experience across devices. Tizen's main components are the Linux kernel and the WebKit runtime. According to Intel, Tizen "combines the best of LiMo and MeeGo." HTML5 apps are emphasized, with MeeGo encouraging its members to transition to Tizen, stating that the "future belongs to HTML5-based applications, outside of a relatively small percentage of apps, and we are firmly convinced that our investment needs to shift toward HTML5." Tizen will be targeted at a variety of platforms such as handsets, touch pc, smart TVs and in-vehicle entertainment.[129][130] On May 17, 2013, Tizen released version 2.1, code-named Nectarine.[131]

While Tizen itself was open source, most of the UX and UI layer that was developed by Samsung was mainly closed-source and proprietary, such as the TouchWiz UI on the Samsung Z's series smartphone and One UI for their Galaxy Watch wearable lines.

Note that some refrigerators use Tizen,[132] even though they are not considered mobile devices.

KaiOS

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Main article: KaiOS

KaiOS is from Kai. It is based on Firefox OS/Boot to Gecko. Unlike most mobile operating systems which focus on smartphones, KaiOS was developed mainly for feature phones, giving these access to more advanced technologies usually found on smartphones, such as app stores and Wi-Fi/4G capabilities.[133]

It is a mix of closed-source and open-source components.[134][135] FirefoxOS/B2G was released under the permissive MPL 2.0. It does not redistribute itself under the same license, so KaiOS is now presumably proprietary (but still mostly open-source, publishing its source code).[134][135] KaiOS is not entirely proprietary, as it uses the copyleft GPL Linux kernel also used in Android.[136]

Smart Feature OS

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Smart Feature OS is a custom version of KaiOS that was developed and solely used by HMD Global for their KaiOS line of Nokia feature phone. The main differences between stock KaiOS and Smart Feature OS is the aesthetics such as icons, widgets, a custom Nokia ringtone and notification tone.

Fully open-source, entirely permissive licenses

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Fuchsia

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Main article: Fuchsia (operating system)

Fuchsia is a capability-based, real-time operating system (RTOS) currently being developed by Google. It was first discovered as a mysterious code post on GitHub in August 2016, without any official announcement. In contrast to prior Google-developed operating systems such as ChromeOS and Android, which are based on Linux kernels, Fuchsia is based on a new microkernel called "Zircon", derived from "Little Kernel", a small operating system intended for embedded systems. This allows it to remove Linux and the copyleft GPL under which the Linux kernel is licensed; Fuchsia is licensed under the permissive BSD 3-clause, Apache 2.0, and MIT licenses. Upon inspection, media outlets noted that the code post on GitHub suggested Fuchsia's capability to run on universal devices, from embedded systems to smartphones, tablets and personal computers. In May 2017, Fuchsia was updated with a user interface, along with a developer writing that the project was not a for experimental, prompting media speculation about Google's intentions with the operating system, including the possibility of it replacing Android.[137]

LiteOS

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Main article: LiteOS

LiteOS is a discontinued lightweight open source real-time operating system which is part of Huawei's "1+2+1" Internet of Things solution, which is similar to Google Android Things and Samsung Tizen. It was released under the permissive BSD 3-clause license. LiteOS was used in the Huawei Watch GT series and their sub-brand Honor Magic Watch series.[citation needed]

OpenHarmony

[edit]
Main article: OpenHarmony

OpenHarmony is an open-source version of HarmonyOS developed and donated by Huawei to the OpenAtom Foundation. It supports devices running a mini system with memory as small as 128 KB, or running a standard system with memory greater than 128 MB. The open source HarmonyOS is based on the Huawei LiteOS kernel and Linux kernel for standard systems. OpenHarmony LiteOS Cortex-A brings small-sized, low-power, and high-performance experience and builds a unified and open ecosystem for developers. In addition, it provides rich kernel mechanisms, more comprehensive Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), and a unified driver framework, Hardware Driver Foundation (HDF), which offers unified access for device developers and friendly development experience for application developers.[citation needed]

Fully open-source, mixed copyleft and permissive licenses

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See also: List of open-source mobile phones

Fedora Mobility

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Fedora Mobility is under developing mobile operating system by the Fedora Project that are porting Fedora to run on portable devices such as phones and tablets.

LuneOS

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Main article: LuneOS

LuneOS is a modern reimplementation of the Palm/HP webOS interface.

Manjaro ARM

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Manjaro ARM is a mobile operating system with Plasma Mobile desktop environment that is running and default operating system on the PinePhone, an ARM-based smartphone released by Pine64.

Mobian

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A mobile Debian focused for PinePhone and soon Librem. [citation needed]

Plasma mobile

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Main article: Plasma Mobile

Plasma Mobile is a Plasma variant for smartphones.[138] Plasma Mobile runs on Wayland and it is compatible with Ubuntu Touch applications,[139] PureOS applications,[140] and eventually Android applications[141] via KDE's Shashlik project – also sponsored by Blue Systems,[142][143] or Anbox. It is under the copyleft GPLv2 license.

The Necuno phone uses Plasma Mobile. It is entirely open-source and thus does not have a cellular modem, so it must make calls by VOIP, like a pocket computer.[144]

postmarketOS

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Main article: postmarketOS

postmarketOS is based on the Alpine Linux Linux distribution. It is intended to run on older phone hardware. As of 2019 it is in alpha.

PureOS

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Main article: PureOS

PureOS is a Debian GNU/Linux derivative using only free software meeting the Debian Free Software Guidelines, mainly the copyleft GPL. PureOS is endorsed by Free Software Foundation as one of the freedom-respecting operating systems.[145] It is developed by Purism, and was already in use on Purism's laptops before it was used on the Librem 5 smartphone. Purism, in partnership with GNOME and KDE, aims to separate the CPU from the baseband processor and include hardware kill switches for the phone's Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, camera, microphone, and baseband processor, and provide both GNOME and KDE Plasma Mobile as options for the desktop environment.[146][147]

Ubuntu Touch

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Main article: Ubuntu Touch
Ubuntu Touch

Ubuntu Touch is an open-source (GPL) mobile version of the Ubuntu operating system[112] originally developed in 2013 by Canonical Ltd. and continued by the non-profit UBports Foundation in 2017.[148][149] Ubuntu Touch can run on a pure GNU/Linux base on phones with the required drivers, such as the Librem 5[140] and the PinePhone.[150] To enable hardware that was originally shipped with Android, Ubuntu Touch makes use of the Android Linux kernel, using Android drivers and services via an LXC container, but does not use any of the Java-like code of Android.[151][152] As of February 2022, Ubuntu Touch is available on 78 phones and tablets.[112][153] The UBports Installer serves as an easy-to-use tool to allow inexperienced users to install the operating system on third-party devices without damaging their hardware.[112][154]

Closed source

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iOS

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Main articles: iOS and iOS version history

iOS (formerly named iPhone OS) was created by Apple Inc. It has the second largest installed base worldwide on smartphones, but the largest profits, due to aggressive price competition between Android-based manufacturers.[155] It is closed-source and proprietary, and is built on the open source Darwin operating system. The iPhone, iPod Touch, iPad, and second and third-generation Apple TV all use iOS, which is derived from macOS.

Native third-party applications were not officially supported until the release of iPhone OS 2.0 on July 11, 2008. Before this, "jailbreaking" allowed third-party applications to be installed. In recent years, the jailbreaking scene has changed drastically due to Apple's continued efforts to secure their operating system and prevent unauthorized modifications. Currently, jailbreaks of recent iterations of iOS are only semi-untethered, which requires a device to be re-jailbroken at every boot, and exploits for jailbreaks are becoming increasingly hard to find and use.

Currently all iOS devices are developed by Apple and manufactured by Foxconn or another of Apple's partners.

iPadOS

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Main article: iPadOS

iPadOS is a tablet operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. specifically for their iPad line of tablet computers. It was announced at the company's 2019 Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC), as a derivation from iOS but with a greater emphasis put on multitasking. It was released on September 24, 2019.

watchOS

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Main article: watchOS

watchOS is the operating system of the Apple Watch, developed by Apple Inc. It is based on the iOS operating system and has many similar features. It was released on April 24, 2015, along with the Apple Watch, the only device that runs watchOS. It is currently the most widely used wearable operating system. It features focus on convenience, such as being able to place phone calls and send texts, and health, such as fitness and heart rate tracking.

Kindle firmware

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Main article: Amazon Kindle

Kindle firmware is a mobile operating system specifically designed for Amazon Kindle e-readers. It is based on a custom Linux kernel, but it is mostly closed-source and proprietary.

HarmonyOS

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Main article: HarmonyOS

HarmonyOS is a distributed operating system developed by Huawei that was specifically designed for smartphones, tablets, TVs, smartwatches, smart devices made by Huawei. It is based on a proprietary multi-kernel and Linux kernel subsystem. Released officially for smartphones on June 2, 2021, from its initial launch on August 9, 2019, for smart screen TVs. On August 4, 2023, Huawei announces its full stack HarmonyOS NEXT for HarmonyOS that will replace the current multi-kernel stack that contains Linux kernel subsystem with APK apps, with only native HarmonyOS apps able to be used. On January 18, 2024, Galaxy Edition version was announced to be used for the next version of HarmonyOS.

Nintendo Switch system software

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The Nintendo Switch system software (also known by its codename Horizon) is an updatable firmware and operating system used by the Nintendo Switch hybrid video game console/tablet and Nintendo Switch Lite handheld game console. It is based on a proprietary microkernel. The UI includes a HOME screen, consisting of the top bar, the screenshot viewer ("Album"), and shortcuts to the Nintendo eShop, News, and Settings.

The system itself is based on the Nintendo 3DS system software, additionally the networking stack in the Switch OS is derived at least in part from FreeBSD code while the Stagefright multimedia framework is derived from Android code.

PlayStation Vita system software

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The PlayStation Vita system software is the official firmware and operating system for the PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV video game consoles. It uses the LiveArea as its graphical shell. The PlayStation Vita system software has one optional add-on component, the PlayStation Mobile Runtime Package. The system is built on a Unix-base which is derived from FreeBSD and NetBSD.

Microsoft Windows

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Main articles: Microsoft Windows, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10, and Windows 11

Windows is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It was released on November 20, 1985, but began focusing on tablet with the release of Windows 8 on October 12, 2012, after earlier attempts with editions based on Windows XP. It was designed to run across multiple Microsoft product such as PCs and tablets. The Windows user interface was revamped with Windows 8 to provide an improved tablet experience over the interface of Windows 7, including the introduction of modern Windows apps. Windows 10 would later combine the interface to provide a better experience for mouse-oriented devices and a touchscreen devices. Windows 10 also introduced the Universap Windows Platform, these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code‍ including PCs, tablets, smartphones, embedded systems, Xbox One, Surface Hub and Mixed Reality.

Minor proprietary operating systems

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Other than the major operating systems, some companies such as Huami (Amazfit), Huawei, realme, TCL, and Xiaomi have developed their own proprietary RTOSes specifically for their own smartbands and smartwatches that are designed for power effiency and lower battery consumption and are not based on any other operating system.

  • Proprietary Amazfit OS

Operating System that is primarily designed for their Bip series, however, Huami is currently developing the operating system to run on other smartwatches as well.

  • Huawei/Honor Band Operating System

Huawei Band Operating system is an operating system specifically designed and developed by Huawei for their fitness trackers, including smartbands from Honor

  • Lenovo RTOS

Proprietary OS developed by Lenovo for their fitness trackers and smartwatches.

  • realme Wearable Operating System

A proprietary operating system design to run on realme smartbands and smartwatches.

  • TCL Wearable Real Time Operating System

A proprietary RTOS powering TCL and Alcatel branded smartbands and smartwatches.

  • Xiaomi Mi Band Operating System

Proprietary RTOS that is developed by Huami for the Xiaomi Mi Band series.

Discontinued software platforms

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Open source

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CyanogenMod

[edit]
Main article: CyanogenMod

CyanogenMod was a custom mobile operating system based on the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). It was a custom ROM that was co-developed by the CyanogenMod community. The OS did not include any proprietary apps unless the user installed them. Due to its open source nature, CyanogenMod allowed Android users who could no longer obtain update support from their manufacturer to continue updating their OS version to the latest one based on official releases from Google AOSP and heavy theme customization. The last version of the OS was CyanogenMod 13 which was based on Android Asus.

On December 24, 2016, CyanogenMod announced on their blog that they would no longer be releasing any CyanogenMod updates. All development moved to LineageOS.

Cyanogen OS
[edit]

Cyanogen OS was based on CyanogenMod and maintained by Cyanogen Inc; however, it included proprietary apps and it was only available for commercial uses.

Firefox OS

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See also: Comparison of Firefox OS devices

Firefox OS (formerly known as "Boot to Gecko" and shortly "B2G")[156] is from Mozilla. It was an open source mobile operating system released under the Mozilla Public License built on the Android Linux kernel and used Android drivers, but did not use any Java-like code of Android.

According to Ars Technica, "Mozilla says that B2G is motivated by a desire to demonstrate that the standards-based open Web has the potential to be a competitive alternative to the existing single-vendor application development stacks offered by the dominant mobile operating systems."[157] In September 2016, Mozilla announced that work on Firefox OS has ceased, and all B2G-related code would be removed from mozilla-central.[158]

MeeGo/Maemo/Moblin

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Main articles: MeeGo, Maemo, and Moblin

MeeGo was from non-profit organization The Linux Foundation. It is open source and GPL. At the 2010 Mobile World Congress in Barcelona, Nokia and Intel both unveiled MeeGo, a mobile operating system that combined Moblin and Maemo to create an open-sourced experience for users across all devices. In 2011 Nokia announced that it would no longer pursue MeeGo in favor of Windows Phone. Nokia announced the Nokia N9 on June 21, 2011, at the Nokia Connection event[159] in Singapore. LG announced its support for the platform.[160] Maemo was a platform developed by Nokia for smartphones and Internet tablets. It is open source and GPL, based on Debian GNU/Linux and draws much of its graphical user interface (GUI), frameworks, and libraries from the GNOME project. It uses the Matchbox window manager and the GTK-based Hildon as its GUI and application framework.

webOS

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webOS was developed by Palm. webOS is an open source mobile operating system running on the Linux kernel, initially developed by Palm, which launched with the Palm Pre. After being acquired by HP, two phones (the Veer and the Pre 3) and a tablet (the TouchPad) running webOS were introduced in 2011. On August 18, 2011, HP announced that webOS hardware would be discontinued,[161] but would continue to support and update webOS software and develop the webOS ecosystem.[162] HP released webOS as open source under the name Open webOS, and plans to update it with additional features.[163] On February 25, 2013, HP announced the sale of webOS to LG Electronics, who used the operating system for its "smart" or Internet-connected TVs. However, HP retained patents underlying WebOS and cloud-based services such as the App Catalog.

Closed source

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Bada

[edit]
Main article: Bada (operating system)

Bada platform (stylized as bada; Korean: 바다) was an operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. It was developed by Samsung Electronics. Its name is derived from "바다 (bada)", meaning "ocean" or "sea" in Korean. It ranges from mid- to high-end smartphones. To foster adoption of Bada OS, since 2011 Samsung reportedly has considered releasing the source code under an open-source license, and expanding device support to include Smart TVs. Samsung announced in June 2012 intentions to merge Bada into the Tizen project, but would meanwhile use its own Bada operating system, in parallel with Google Android OS and Microsoft Windows Phone, for its smartphones. All Bada-powered devices are branded under the Wave name, but not all of Samsung's Android-powered devices are branded under the name Galaxy. On February 25, 2013, Samsung announced that it will stop developing Bada, moving development to Tizen instead. Bug reporting was finally terminated in April 2014.[164]

BlackBerry OS

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In 1999, Research In Motion released its first BlackBerry devices, providing secure real-time push-email communications on wireless devices. Services such as BlackBerry Messenger provide the integration of all communications into a single inbox. In September 2012, RIM announced that the 200 millionth BlackBerry smartphone was shipped. As of September 2014, there were around 46 million active BlackBerry service subscribers.[165] In the early 2010s, RIM underwent a platform transition, changing its company name to BlackBerry Limited and making new devices using a new operating system named "BlackBerry 10".[166]

BlackBerry 10

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Main article: BlackBerry 10

BlackBerry 10 (based on the QNX OS) is from BlackBerry. As a smartphone OS, it is closed-source and proprietary, and only runs on phones and tablets manufactured by BlackBerry.

One of the dominant platforms in the world in the late 2000s, its global market share was reduced significantly by the mid-2010s. In late 2016, BlackBerry announced that it will continue to support the OS, with a promise to release 10.3.3.[167][168] Therefore, BlackBerry 10 would not receive any major updates as BlackBerry and its partners would focus more on their Android base development.[169]

Nintendo 3DS system software

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The Nintendo 3DS system software is the updatable operating system used by the Nintendo 3DS.

Symbian

[edit]
Main article: Symbian

Symbian platform was developed by Nokia for some models of smartphones. It is proprietary software, it was however used by Ericsson (Sony Ericsson), Sending and Benq. The operating system was discontinued in 2012, although a slimmed-down version for basic phones was still developed until July 2014. Microsoft officially shelved the platform in favor of Windows Phone after its acquisition of Nokia.[170]

Palm OS

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Main article: Palm OS

Palm OS/Garnet OS was from Access Co. It is closed-source and proprietary. webOS was introduced by Palm in January 2009, as the successor to Palm OS with Web 2.0 technologies, open architecture and multitasking abilities.

Microsoft

[edit]
Windows Mobile
[edit]
Main article: Windows Mobile

Windows Mobile was a family of proprietary operating systems from Microsoft aimed at business and enterprise users, based on Windows CE and originally developed for Pocket PC (PDA) devices. In 2010 it was replaced with the consumer-focused Windows Phone.[118][55]

Versions of Windows Mobile came in multiple editions, like "Pocket PC Premium", "Pocket PC Professional", "Pocket PC Phone", and "Smartphone" (Windows Mobile 2003) or "Professional", "Standard", and "Classic" (Windows Mobile 6.0). Some editions were touchscreen-only and some were keyboard-only, although there were cases where device vendors managed to graft support for one onto an edition targeted at the other. Cellular phone features were also only supported by some editions. Microsoft started work on a version of Windows Mobile that would combine all features together, but it was aborted, and instead they focused on developing the non-backward-compatible, touchscreen-only Windows Phone 7.[76]

Windows Phone
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Main articles: Windows Phone and Windows 10 Mobile

Windows Phone is a proprietary mobile operating system developed by Microsoft for smartphones as the replacement successor to Windows Mobile and Zune. Windows Phone features a new touchscreen-oriented user interface derived from Metro design language.

Unveiled on February 15, 2010, Windows Phone included a user interface inspired by Microsoft's Metro Design Language. It was integrated with Microsoft services such as OneDrive and Office, Xbox Music, Xbox Video, Xbox Live games, and Bing, but also integrated with many other non-Microsoft services such as Facebook and Google accounts. Windows Phone devices were made primarily by Microsoft Mobile/Nokia, and also by HTC and Samsung.

On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced that the Windows Phone brand would be phased out and replaced with Windows 10 Mobile, bringing tighter integration and unification with its PC counterpart Windows 10, and providing a platform for smartphones and tablets with screen sizes under 8 inches.

On October 8, 2017, Microsoft officially announced that they would no longer push any major updates to Windows 10 Mobile. The operating system was put in maintenance mode, where Microsoft would push bug fixes and general improvements only. Windows 10 Mobile would not receive any new feature updates.[113][114]

On January 18, 2019, Microsoft announced that support for Windows 10 Mobile would end on December 10, 2019, with no further security updates released after then, and that Windows 10 Mobile users should migrate to iOS or Android phones.[116][117]

Market share

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Usage

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See also: Usage share of operating systems § Crossover to smartphones having majority share, and Usage share of web browsers § Crossover to smartphones having majority share

In 1992, the first smartphone prototype, the IBM Simon, was first showcased.[171]

The IBM Simon, was released commercially in 1994. It ran on the Datalight ROM-DOS operating system.[172]

Between 1999 and 2002, Palm OS was the dominant player in the market, reaching 74% market share in 2000.[173]

Symbian overtook Palm OS as the leading player in 2003. It peaked at 73% market share in 2006. And starting losing shares thereafter but remained the largest player until 2012.[174][175]

In 2006, Android and iOS did not exist and only 64 million smartphones were sold.[176] In 2018 Q1, 183.5 million smartphones were sold and global market share was 48.9% for Android and 19.1% for iOS. Only 131,000 smartphones running other operating systems were sold, constituting 0.03% of sales.[177]

According to StatCounter web use statistics (a proxy for all use), smartphones (alone without tablets) have majority use globally, with desktop computers used much less (and Android, in particular, more popular than Windows).[178] Use varies however by continent with smartphones way more popular in the biggest continents, i.e. Asia, and the desktop still more popular in some, though not in North America.

The desktop is still popular in many countries (while overall down to 44.9% in the first quarter of 2017[179]), smartphones are more popular even in many developed countries (or about to be in more). A few countries on any continent are desktop-minority; European countries (and some in South America, and a few, e.g. Haiti, in North America; and most in Asia and Africa) are smartphone-majority, Poland and Turkey highest with 57.68% and 62.33%, respectively. In Ireland, smartphone use at 45.55% outnumbers desktop use and mobile as a whole gains majority when including the tablet share at 9.12%.[180][179] Spain is also slightly desktop-minority.

The range of measured mobile web use varies a lot by country, and a StatCounter press release recognizes "India among world leaders in use of mobile to surf the internet"[181] (of the big countries) where the share is around (or over) 80%[182] and desktop is at 19.56%, with Russia trailing with 17.8% mobile use (and desktop the rest).

Smartphones (alone, without tablets), first gained majority in December 2016 (desktop-majority was lost the month before), and it was not a Christmas-time fluke, as while close to majority after smartphone majority happened again in March 2017.[179]

In the week from November 7–13, 2016, smartphones alone (without tablets) overtook desktop, for the first time (for a short period; non-full-month).[183] Mobile-majority applies to countries such as Paraguay in South America, Poland in Europe and Turkey; and most of Asia and Africa. Some of the world is still desktop-majority, with e.g. in the United States at 54.89% (but no not on all days).[184] However, in some territories of the United States, such as Puerto Rico,[185] desktop is way under majority, with Windows under 30% overtaken by Android.

On October 22, 2016 (and subsequent weekends), mobile showed majority.[186] Since October 27, the desktop has not shown majority, not even on weekdays. Smartphones alone have shown majority since December 23 to the end of the year, with the share topping at 58.22% on Christmas Day.[187] To the "mobile"-majority share then of smartphones, tablets could be added giving a 63.22% majority. While an unusually high top, a similarly high also happened on Monday April 17, 2017, with then only smartphones share slightly lower and tablet share slightly higher, with them combined at 62.88%.

According to a StatCounter November 1, 2016 press release, the world has turned desktop-minority;[188] at about 49% desktop use for the previous month, but mobile was not ranked higher, tablet share had to be added to it to exceed desktop share. By now, mobile (smartphones) have full majority, outnumbering desktop/laptop computers by a safe margin (and no longer counting tablets with desktops makes them most popular).

Samsung released its last Tizen powered smartphone in 2017. Tizen peaked in that March at 0.25% market share.[189]

Firefox OS and Tizen both peaked in monthly market share in 2018 at 0.51% and 1.13% respectively.[190]

Between 2018 and 2021, iOS and Android formed a mobile operating system duopoly, with no other OS reaching more than 1% market share for the full year.[191]

Microsoft ended support for its final mobile OS, Windows 10 Mobile, in January 2020.[192]

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a significant reduction in smartphone sales in 2020, with a 12.5% sales diminution year over year.[193]

2021 marked the apex of Android market share. Android reached 85% market share in quarter 3 2021, the highest ever recorded for a single mobile operating system[194]

In February 2023, IIT Madras released BharOS, a GrapheneOS fork.[195][196] Since release, BharOS has had a 0% market share.[197]

Huawei announced Harmony OS Next in August 2023. This was the first iteration of Harmony OS to not include the AOSP core. Harmony OS's market share prior to release was 2%.[198]

As of quarter 1 of 2025, Android was still by far the largest player with over three quarters, or 76%, of the market share. iOS remained solidly second with 19% of sales. Harmony OS reached 5% market share. This was the first mobile OS to reach the 5% milestone besides Android and iOS since Symbian 10 years prior.[197]

By operating system

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Notes:

  1. Windows includes all versions.
  2. BlackBerry includes all versions.
  3. Other includes all other smartphone OSes but not feature phone OSes.
Worldwide Mobile OS Market Share (percentage)
Year Android iOS HarmonyOS Symbian Windows BlackBerry Linux Palm OS Other Ref.
2025 76% 19% 5% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% [197]
2024 78% 18% 4% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% [197]
2023 78% 19% 3% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% [197]
2022 80% 18% 2% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% [194]
2021 81% 18% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% [194]
2020 73% 26% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 1% [190]
2019 75% 23% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 2% [190]
2018 75% 20% 0% 1% 0% 0% 0% 0% 4% [190]
2017 73% 20% 0% 2% 1% 0% 0% 0% 4% [190]
2016 69% 19% 0% 4% 2% 1% 0% 0% 5% [190]
2015 64% 20% 0% 6% 2% 1% 0% 0% 7% [190]
2014 54% 24% 0% 11% 2% 2% 0% 0% 7% [190]
2013 39% 24% 0% 20% 2% 4% 0% 0% 11% [190]
2012 27% 24% 0% 29% 0% 5% 0% 0% 15% [190]
2011 19% 22% 0% 32% 1% 12% 0% 0% 14% [190]
2010 9% 25% 0% 32% 0% 17% 0% 0% 17% [190]
2009 2% 34% 0% 35% 2% 8% 0% 0% 19% [190]
2008 0% 13% 0% 50% 11% 16% 0% 3% 7% [199]
2007 0% 2% 0% 70% 10% 8% 0% 6% 4% [200]
2006 0% 0% 0% 73% 8% 7% 0% 10% 2% [175]
2005 0% 0% 0% 51% 17% 3% 23% 5% 1% [201]
2004 0% 0% 0% 56% 13% 5% 11% 14% 1% [201]
2003 0% 0% 0% 35% 19% 6% 0% 29% 11% [202]
2002 0% 0% 0% 12% 27% 5% 0% 44% 12% [202]
2001 0% 0% 0% 3% 31% 3% 0% 52% 11% [202]
2000 0% 0% 0% 2% 26% 2% 0% 61% 9% [202]
1999 0% 0% 0% 1% 16% 0% 0% 73% 10% [202]
Worldwide smartphone sales (thousands of units)
Year Android iOS BharOS Windows BlackBerry Symbian Other Total smartphones
2025 Year in progress
2024 1,220,000
2023 (est.) 1,125,000 280,000 55,000 – – – 11,000 1,163,000[203]
2022 1,000,000 200,000 50,000 – – – 10,000 1,200,000[204]
2021 1,250,000 250,000 – – – – – 1,500,000[205]
2020 1,020,000 240,000 – – – – – 1,280,000[206]
2019 1,100,000 220,000 – – – – – 1,370,000[207]
2018 1,337,480 209,616 89,500 – – – 562 1,491,619
2017 1,329,206 224,720 – – – – 2,875 1,557,282

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mobile operating system

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from Grokipedia
A mobile operating system (mobile OS) is the software that operates mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearable computers, by managing hardware resources like the processor, , and sensors while providing for applications and user interaction. It typically features a graphical, touchscreen-based with icons, widgets, and gestures to enable intuitive navigation, multitasking, and connectivity options including , , and cellular networks. Unlike desktop operating systems, mobile OSes are optimized for power efficiency, limited battery life, and portability, often incorporating security features like app sandboxing and biometric authentication to protect user data. The history of mobile operating systems traces back to the early 1990s, when devices evolved from simple embedded systems in mobile phones (1979–1992) to more advanced personal digital assistants (PDAs) with dedicated OSes. Key early milestones include the 1993 launch of the , recognized as the first , and the 1996 introductions of for handheld organizers and Windows CE for compact devices. By the early , OS emerged as a dominant platform for feature phones and early smartphones, powering devices from and others, while gained traction in enterprise markets for its secure capabilities. The modern era began in 2007 with Apple's iPhone OS (later rebranded ), which introduced a revolutionary interface and app ecosystem, followed closely by Google's Android in 2008, an open-source platform based on the that quickly proliferated across diverse hardware manufacturers. Other notable systems included (evolving into by 2010) and (a Linux-based OS in 2011), but these faded as Android and captured the market through extensive app stores, hardware customization, and global adoption. As of October 2025, Android holds approximately 72.55% of the global mobile OS market share, with at 27.04%, reflecting their dominance in powering billions of devices worldwide. Mobile OSes play a pivotal role in the by enabling third-party application development through APIs and frameworks, supporting features like location services, push notifications, and cloud integration that drive mobile computing's ubiquity. They continue to evolve with advancements in for on-device processing, enhanced controls, and support for emerging form factors like foldables and AR/VR headsets, ensuring seamless integration of into daily life.

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

A mobile operating system (OS) is specialized software that manages hardware and software resources on portable computing devices such as smartphones, tablets, and wearables. Unlike general-purpose OSes, it is optimized for touch-based user interfaces, extended battery , and on-the-go mobility, enabling efficient operation within the constraints of compact hardware. Key characteristics of mobile OSes stem from the inherent limitations of their host devices, including restricted CPU power, RAM (typically 8–16 GB or more in modern smartphones as of ), and storage compared to desktops. To address these, mobile OSes employ advanced power management techniques, such as modes that components during inactivity and dynamic voltage/frequency scaling (DVFS) to adjust processor speed based on , thereby extending battery life while maintaining performance. Multitasking in mobile OSes often uses app suspension models, where background applications are paused and cached in rather than running as full processes, conserving resources; this contrasts with traditional process-based multitasking and prevents excessive battery drain. Additionally, mobile OSes integrate deeply with device sensors like GPS for services and accelerometers for motion detection, providing APIs that allow applications to access real-time data for features such as and gesture controls. The term "mobile operating system" evolved from the embedded OSes used in early personal digital assistants (PDAs) in the mid-1990s, which focused on basic , to more robust, multimedia-capable systems following the 2007 launch of the , which introduced intuitive touch interfaces and app ecosystems. This shift marked the transition from device-specific to versatile platforms supporting third-party . In fulfilling its roles, a mobile OS handles device booting by initializing hardware through a bootloader that loads the kernel into . It manages interrupts from hardware events, such as incoming calls or sensor triggers, to ensure responsive operation without disrupting active tasks. Furthermore, it provides standardized APIs that enable developers to build applications interfacing with system resources, from file access to network connectivity. Modern exemplars like Android and illustrate these roles in enabling seamless user experiences across diverse hardware.

Distinctions from Other OS Types

Mobile operating systems differ fundamentally from desktop operating systems, such as or Windows, in their design priorities shaped by hardware constraints and usage patterns. While desktop OS emphasize expandability through peripherals, high raw computational performance, and support for tasks, mobile OS prioritize touch-based user interfaces, always-on connectivity via cellular and networks, and energy efficiency to extend battery life on portable devices. For instance, mobile systems integrate features like dynamic CPU scaling to handle intermittent usage, contrasting with desktops' focus on sustained high-performance workloads without strict power limits. In comparison to embedded operating systems, which power fixed-function devices like appliances or automotive controls, mobile OS support dynamic app ecosystems and extensive user customization through app stores and third-party software. Embedded OS are typically lightweight and tailored for specific, non-interactive tasks with minimal resource overhead, lacking the general-purpose multitasking and graphical interfaces that define mobile platforms. This allows mobile OS to accommodate diverse applications from gaming to productivity, whereas embedded systems prioritize reliability in constrained environments without user-driven extensibility. Mobile operating systems also diverge from real-time operating systems (RTOS), which guarantee deterministic response times for critical applications like industrial automation. Mobile OS manage non-deterministic tasks, such as push notifications and background syncing, using general-purpose schedulers that may introduce variable latencies, but they incorporate RTOS-like elements for time-sensitive functions like audio processing and video streaming to ensure smooth multimedia playback. For example, dedicated real-time kernels handle low-latency demands in mobile hardware, blending predictability with the flexibility of broader OS operations, unlike pure RTOS that forgo multitasking for strict deadlines. A key design trade-off in mobile OS is the emphasis on sandboxing for , isolating applications to prevent unauthorized access amid constant exposure and physical portability risks. This contrasts with desktop OS, where broader permissions and user-level privileges often allow greater inter-app interactions, increasing vulnerability to propagation. Sandboxing in mobile environments enforces strict app boundaries, reducing the from untrusted downloads, though it can limit functionality compared to desktops' open ecosystems. These distinctions evolved from personal digital assistant (PDA) operating systems, such as , which focused on stylus-based organization without native , to modern smartphone OS that integrate cellular voice, data, and GPS for seamless communication and location services. This shift marked a transition from standalone productivity tools to connected, multifunctional platforms, incorporating touch-centric interfaces that originated in early mobile systems.

History

Early Developments (Pre-2000)

The origins of mobile operating systems trace back to the and , when early concepts emerged in infrastructure rather than consumer devices. researchers developed foundational technologies during this period, including automated call handoff systems in 1970, which laid the groundwork for mobile communication but relied on proprietary radio in car-mounted phones rather than full-fledged operating systems. These early car phones, such as the Motorola DynaTAC prototypes from the late 1970s, operated with simple focused on voice transmission over analog networks, prioritizing reliability in vehicular environments over portable computing. In the , the first dedicated personal digital assistants (PDAs) introduced rudimentary mobile software environments. Psion released the Organiser I in 1984, a pocket-sized device with an 8-bit processor, 2 KB of RAM, and a LCD screen, running basic that supported flat-file databases for (PIM) tasks like calendars and contacts without a formal operating system. This device used a keyboard for input and Datapak cartridges for storage, marking an early shift toward portable handling beyond voice . The 1990s saw further advancements in PDA and cellular device software. Apple's Newton MessagePad, launched in 1993, featured Newton OS, a pioneering system with advanced that allowed input on a pressure-sensitive display for PIM functions including notes, schedules, and address books. The Personal Communicator, introduced in 1994 as the first precursor, ran a DOS-based operating system using ROM-DOS with a custom shell, integrating phone, fax, email, calendar, and PIM capabilities on a LCD. Nokia's early handsets, such as the 1011 from 1992 and Series 20/30 models in the mid-1990s, employed proprietary firmware on the DCT3 platform, providing basic interfaces for voice calls, , and simple menus without advanced data processing. Key innovations in these pre-2000 systems included graphical user interfaces (GUIs) for displaying text and icons on low-resolution LCDs, stylus-based input for writing gestures, and core PIM functionalities like electronic calendars and contact lists to replace paper organizers. These features emphasized portability and personal productivity in compact form factors. However, significant challenges limited , including severely restricted battery life—such as the Newton's need for efficient processors to extend usage beyond a few hours—and the absence of modern touchscreens, relying instead on styluses or keypads that hindered intuitive interaction. Devices prioritized voice communication over data services due to nascent network capabilities and high power demands, often resulting in bulky designs unsuitable for widespread mobile use. These early systems influenced subsequent platforms, such as , by establishing PIM-centric architectures and stylus input paradigms.

Smartphone Era (2000-2009)

The smartphone era from 2000 to 2009 represented a pivotal shift in , transitioning from device-centric personal digital assistants (PDAs) to interconnected platforms emphasizing data services, application ecosystems, and capabilities. This period saw the maturation of several operating systems that laid the groundwork for modern mobile experiences, driven by advancements in hardware like color displays, cameras, and cellular data networks. Key players included established systems adapting to new demands, while emerging platforms introduced innovative paradigms for user interaction and . In the early 2000s, OS emerged as a leading platform, with its commercial release in 2000 powering the , the first to combine PDA functions with voice calls. quickly dominated the Symbian ecosystem, licensing the OS to multiple manufacturers and achieving widespread adoption through devices like the in 2001. By 2006, Symbian held the majority market share among smartphone OSes, surpassing competitors due to its robust support for multitasking and third-party applications. Parallel to Symbian's rise, launched 2000 in 2000 as an evolution of its Windows CE kernel, facilitating the convergence of PDAs into phone-capable devices with features like stylus-based input and integrated telephony. This OS, later rebranded in 2003, targeted enterprise users and emphasized compatibility with desktop Windows applications, enabling seamless synchronization for email and documents. Meanwhile, , originally a PDA staple, incorporated web browsing enhancements in the early 2000s, such as the Blazer browser in version 4.1 (2002), which supported wireless data access on devices like the series. The mid-2000s highlighted specialized platforms amid growing demand for always-on connectivity. , introduced in 2002 with the 5810, prioritized delivery through its proprietary BlackBerry Enterprise Server, securing a niche in business markets with devices featuring physical keyboards for efficient typing. Complementing these, Java Micro Edition (Java ME) became a for application development on feature phones during this period, enabling lightweight MIDlets for games, utilities, and media on non-smartphone devices from manufacturers like and . By the late 2000s, disruptive innovations reshaped the landscape. Apple's , unveiled in alongside the original , revolutionized interaction with its capacitive interface, pinch-to-zoom gestures, and integrated web browsing via , setting new benchmarks for intuitive . In response, announced Android in through the , positioning it as an open-source Linux-based OS to foster developer accessibility and device customization, with the first commercial release on the in 2008. Palm countered with in 2009 for the , leveraging a card-based multitasking UI and HTML5 app support, though HP's acquisition of Palm later that year signaled shifting industry dynamics. Several milestones underscored this era's evolution toward richer ecosystems. Symbian Signed, launched in 2006, served as an early app distribution mechanism by digitally signing applications for verified security, predating formal app stores and enabling broader software adoption on devices. The rollout of networks from 2001 onward integrated high-speed data into mobile OSes, supporting video streaming and web applications on platforms like and by the mid-decade. GPS functionality also became standardized in late-2000s smartphones, with assisted GPS (A-GPS) enhancing location services in devices such as the (2007) and iPhone 3G (2008), paving the way for apps. Market dynamics shifted as proprietary platforms like Qualcomm's (BREW), dominant in feature phone app delivery during the early 2000s, declined in favor of open ecosystems. BREW's closed model struggled against the flexibility of Java ME and emerging smartphone OSes, leading to its reduced relevance by the decade's end as manufacturers prioritized integrated software platforms. This fostered the rise of developer-centric ecosystems, exemplified by Android's open-source model and iPhone OS's App Store precursor concepts, which encouraged third-party innovation and user-centric app growth.

Modern Dominance (2010-2019)

The 2010s marked the period of market consolidation for mobile operating systems, as Android and emerged as the dominant platforms, capturing nearly 99% of global shipments by 2019, up from a more fragmented landscape in 2010 where Android held about 17% and around 23%. This duopoly was driven by lock-in, app availability, and hardware integration, sidelining competitors and reducing alternatives to niche players. From 2010 to 2012, Android's rapid evolution highlighted early fragmentation, as versions 2.x (such as Eclair and Froyo in 2010) transitioned to 3.0 for tablets, then 4.0 in 2011, and 4.1-4.3 in 2012, with manufacturers like and HTC customizing the OS for diverse devices, leading to inconsistent user experiences and update delays across hardware. Meanwhile, , released in June 2010, introduced multitasking capabilities, allowing apps to run in the background and enabling features like fast app switching, which significantly enhanced productivity on and devices. In October 2010, Microsoft launched , featuring a tile-based interface and integration with Live and , aiming to challenge the growing Android-iOS rivalry but struggling with limited app support. Between 2013 and 2015, design paradigms shifted with 7's June 2013 release, which adopted a flat design aesthetic, replacing skeuomorphic elements with translucent layers, simplified icons, and new features like Control Center for quick settings access. Android followed in 2014 with version 5.0 Lollipop, introducing —a emphasizing bold colors, meaningful motion, and adaptive interfaces to unify the fragmented ecosystem. Alternative platforms emerged during this time, including Mozilla's in 2013, a web-based system using for low-cost devices in emerging markets, and Samsung's in 2015, an open-source OS forked from for wearables and TVs but with limited smartphone adoption. Nokia ended lingering support for in 2014, ceasing app publishing and updates to focus on . From 2016 to 2019, optimizations for diverse hardware continued, with launched in 2018 as a lightweight variant for entry-level devices with less than 2 GB RAM, optimizing performance and data usage in developing regions. , released in 2017, split development paths for and , introducing a customizable , drag-and-drop multitasking, and a Files app for to leverage its larger screen, marking the most significant iPad-specific updates to date. Niche open-source efforts persisted, such as , a 2013 fork of by emphasizing gesture-based navigation and privacy, and in 2015 from , focusing on convergence between phone and desktop modes. Key events underscored the era's challenges for non-duopoly players: 's January 2013 launch, with its BlackBerry Hub and predictive keyboard, failed to reverse market decline, capturing less than 1% share by mid-decade due to app ecosystem gaps and competition from iOS and Android. Microsoft acquired Nokia's Devices and Services business in April 2014 for €5.44 billion to bolster hardware, but the integration faltered, leading to layoffs and eventual discontinuation of the platform in 2017. Samsung introduced foldable smartphones in 2019 with the Galaxy Fold, leveraging Android to pioneer flexible displays and multi-window multitasking, signaling hardware innovation within the dominant OS. Broader trends included the shift to 64-bit architectures for enhanced performance and security; Android added native 64-bit support in version 5.0 (2014), while enabled it starting with hardware in 2013 and full app requirements by (2017). Integration of virtual and grew, with Apple's ARKit debuting in (2017) for developer tools in and Google's launching in 2018 for Android to enable AR experiences across compatible devices. Security became paramount, exemplified by the 2015 Stagefright vulnerability in Android's media playback library, affecting over 950 million devices and prompting Google to issue patches via monthly security bulletins starting that year.

Recent Advancements (2020-Present)

The period from 2020 onward has seen significant evolution in mobile operating systems, driven by enhancements in user privacy, interface customization, and responses to global events. In 2020, introduced scoped storage and one-time permissions to bolster user privacy by limiting app access to sensitive data like location and photos. Similarly, enabled widgets, allowing users to add interactive app elements directly to the for quicker access to information without opening full applications. The accelerated mobile OS adaptations, with surges in applications straining systems and prompting optimizations for video conferencing and collaboration tools on platforms like Android and . In 2021, launched 2.0, a distributed OS emphasizing seamless device integration across smartphones, tablets, and IoT gadgets, amid restrictions on services. Building on these foundations, 2022 and 2023 brought deeper personalization features. Android 13's Material You design system dynamically adapts interface colors and themes based on user preferences, enhancing aesthetic cohesion across the OS. introduced extensive customization, including widget stacking and dynamic wallpapers that change with time or , marking a shift toward more expressive home interfaces. began testing OS on Nest Hub devices in 2021, a modular kernel-based system that hints at potential future expansions into mobile hardware for improved security and performance. Meanwhile, experienced notable growth in emerging markets, powering affordable feature phones with app support and connectivity to bridge the for approximately 150 million active users by late 2023. In October 2024, Huawei released NEXT, a fully native operating system decoupled from Android's open-source codebase, which became the standard on new devices in 2025, further strengthening its independent with improved and native app development. 's , the open-source foundation launched in 2021, gained traction in IoT , with over 10,000 compatible products and supporting millions of devices by 2025 through modular architecture for smart homes and wearables. By 2024 and 2025, advancements focused on connectivity and . Android 15 added native support for satellite messaging, enabling emergency communications in areas without cellular coverage, integrated with devices like the 9 series. iOS 18 integrated Apple , an AI suite for on-device processing of tasks like text summarization and image generation, while iOS 19 further expanded these with advanced enhancements and cross-app AI workflows. Mobile OSes also optimized for foldable devices, with Android's adaptive layouts and iOS's dynamic islands improving multitasking on screens like those in the Galaxy Z Fold series. Broader trends shaped this era, including preparations for and emerging networks, where OS updates enhanced low-latency features for and . Privacy regulations like the EU's GDPR influenced OS designs, mandating transparent data handling and consent mechanisms that Android and iOS incorporated via updated permission dialogs. The U.S. of 2022 spurred supply chain diversification, reducing reliance on Asian semiconductors and stabilizing OS update cycles amid global shortages. Challenges persisted, particularly geopolitical tensions. U.S.-China trade restrictions severely limited Huawei's access to advanced chips and software, forcing reliance on and domestic alternatives. In 2024, the EU's compelled Apple and to enable sideloading on and Android in , promoting competition by allowing app installations outside official stores while maintaining security safeguards. These developments underscore the ongoing duopoly of Android and while highlighting innovative alternatives.

Current Platforms

Android

Android originated from Android Inc., a startup founded in 2003 to develop software for mobile devices, which acquired in August 2005 for an estimated $50 million to enter the mobile operating system market. In November 2007, established the (AOSP) under the , releasing the core platform as licensed under Apache 2.0, allowing manufacturers to customize and distribute it freely. Built on the , Android provides a stable foundation for multitasking, , and , enabling broad compatibility across diverse devices. As of November 2025, Android's latest major release is version 16, which launched on June 10, 2025, for devices and subsequent OEM rollouts, introducing features like adaptive for smoother displays, identity check for enhanced security, and desktop windowing for improved multitasking. Despite its open nature fostering innovation, Android faces fragmentation, where varying OEM implementations delay updates and create version inconsistencies across devices; addresses this through Project Mainline, which modularizes core components for delivery via System Updates, ensuring timely security patches without full OS overhauls. The Android ecosystem centers on the Google Play Store, hosting approximately 1.6 million apps and games that leverage the platform's APIs for seamless integration. Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) extensively customize Android, with Samsung's emphasizing intuitive gestures and productivity tools, and Xiaomi's (transitioning to HyperOS) offering deep personalization options like theme engines and system tweaks. Android supports a wide hardware spectrum, from budget devices running Edition—optimized for 2 GB of RAM or less with lightweight apps and data-saving features—to premium flagships, foldable smartphones, and wearables powered by [Wear OS](/page/Wear OS), which integrates health tracking and notifications. Globally, Android dominates emerging markets such as , , and with over 85% share, driven by affordable devices and tight integration with services like Assistant for voice commands and Maps for navigation.

iOS Ecosystem

The iOS ecosystem centers on Apple's proprietary mobile operating system, , which debuted in 2007 alongside the first , revolutionizing with its multitouch interface and app-based architecture. Built on the Darwin kernel, an open-source foundation derived from BSD, iOS provides a stable, secure environment optimized for Apple's hardware. Apple delivers annual major updates, with 18 introducing Apple Intelligence for on-device AI capabilities like enhanced interactions and image generation, while iOS 19, released in September 2025 following its preview at WWDC 2025, expands these with advanced app intents and generative tools for productivity. Complementing iOS are its derivatives tailored to specific devices: , which split from iOS in 2019 to unlock tablet-optimized experiences, including desktop-class multitasking such as Stage Manager for resizable windows and external display support. , launched in 2015 with the original , emphasizes health and fitness through integrated sensors for heart rate monitoring, ECG readings, and sleep tracking, enabling proactive wellness features like irregular rhythm notifications. These systems maintain deep , allowing seamless data syncing and feature sharing across the . At the heart of the iOS ecosystem is the , home to over 2 million apps as of 2025, fostering a curated marketplace where developers leverage iOS-specific APIs for premium experiences. Tight hardware-software integration exemplifies Apple's premium approach, with features like using the TrueDepth camera for secure facial recognition powered by neural engines, and Haptic Touch delivering precise tactile feedback for intuitive interactions such as long-press menus. Key features underscore iOS's commitment to user privacy and cross-device utility. App Tracking Transparency, introduced in 2021, requires apps to obtain explicit user consent before tracking activity across sites and apps, reducing unauthorized data collection. Continuity enables fluid workflows, such as Handoff for resuming tasks between , , and Mac, or Universal Clipboard for copying content across devices. ARKit, Apple's augmented reality framework, supports immersive apps by blending digital content with the real world using device cameras and motion sensors for applications in gaming, education, and design. In 2025, iOS holds a strong market position, particularly in developed regions like North America and Western Europe, where it commands over 50% share in premium segments due to high revenue per user—averaging $100+ annually from services and apps—driven by loyal users and ecosystem lock-in. This focus on seamless integration and security continues to differentiate iOS, generating substantial ecosystem value through services like Apple Music and iCloud.

HarmonyOS

HarmonyOS is a developed by , primarily in response to U.S. trade restrictions that severed access to the Android Open Source Project (AOSP). Announced in August 2019 following Huawei's placement on the U.S. , which imposed export controls on American technology, the OS aimed to ensure Huawei's independence in software for its ecosystem of devices. HarmonyOS 2.0 officially launched in June 2021, initially for smartphones and other , marking Huawei's full pivot away from reliance on Android forks. At its core, employs a architecture, contrasting with the monolithic used in Android, to enhance modularity, security, and real-time performance across diverse hardware. This design isolates system services, reducing the compared to traditional kernels, and enables support for a wide range of devices including smartphones, tablets, wearables, and (IoT) endpoints. In 2021, open-sourced a version of the OS as , an independent fork under the 2.0 license, fostering contributions from global developers while the proprietary builds on it for commercial use. By 2025, key features of include (version 5.0), a fully native that eliminates Android app compatibility to prioritize a unified, secure built on Huawei's Hongmeng kernel. This version emphasizes through the Super Device functionality, allowing seamless collaboration across devices—such as dragging files from a phone to a tablet or using a laptop's keyboard with a —via low-latency resource sharing without cloud dependency. NEXT supports over 30,000 native apps as of mid-2025, with Huawei targeting 100,000 by year-end to bolster multi-device experiences in smart homes and offices. Adoption of has been particularly strong in , where it holds approximately 19% among operating systems in Q2 2025, surpassing iOS (17%) for the sixth consecutive quarter and establishing as the second-largest OS behind Android. Globally, powers nearly one billion active devices by late 2025, driven by 's domestic sales resurgence. The , the primary distribution platform, has grown to over one million apps worldwide, including native titles, reflecting ecosystem maturation despite initial hurdles. HarmonyOS has faced controversies centered on security claims and ecosystem limitations. Huawei asserts that its microkernel provides superior protection against vulnerabilities, citing fewer lines of code and better isolation, but independent analyses have identified numerous Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVEs) since launch, including high-severity issues in 2025 updates. Building the ecosystem without Google Mobile Services has required alternatives like Huawei Mobile Services, yet app availability remains uneven outside China, prompting U.S. lawmakers to flag HarmonyOS as a potential national security risk due to its rapid global expansion.

Niche and Open-Source Platforms

Niche and open-source mobile operating systems occupy specialized segments of the market, catering to users seeking alternatives to dominant platforms for reasons such as , customization, or affordability in underserved regions. These systems often prioritize open-source principles, enabling community-driven development and longevity for older hardware, though they face hurdles in widespread adoption due to ecosystem limitations. Among commercial niche platforms, , developed by the in collaboration with and , was first released in version 1.0 on April 30, 2012. Primarily deployed on 's smart televisions and wearables, powers devices like the 2025 OLED TV lineup, where has committed to up to seven years of OS upgrades starting from models released that year. A real-time variant, RT, supports embedded applications in printers and other IoT devices, emphasizing low-latency performance. However, support for -based smartwatches is being phased out by the end of 2025, limiting its mobile footprint. KaiOS, launched in 2017 as a lightweight OS for feature phones, targets emerging markets with affordable connectivity and HTML5-based applications. It enables access to services like , , and on low-end hardware, particularly in and , where it holds a modest market share of about 0.12% in as of October 2025. Devices such as the Alcatel GO FLIP 4 and TECNO T901 run , focusing on digital inclusion for users who cannot afford smartphones. In the open-source domain, , initiated by in 2013, features a gesture-based user interface derived from and supports Android app compatibility via an Alien Dalvik layer. Officially supported on devices like the Jolla C2 and series, it emphasizes and customization, with long-term updates promised for at least five years on newer models as of 2025. postmarketOS, launched on May 26, 2017, builds on the distribution to revive end-of-life smartphones, supporting over 700 devices including legacy models like the . Its modular design allows various user interfaces, such as or , and prioritizes mainline integration for hardware longevity, with version 25.06 released in June 2025 introducing support. Ubuntu Touch, maintained by the UBports community since 2015, offers a convergent interface that adapts to phone, tablet, or desktop modes, running on devices like the Google Pixel 3a and Fairphone 4. The 24.04-1.0 release in September 2025 enhanced stability and VoLTE support, focusing on freedom-respecting software without proprietary blobs. Other notable projects include , developed by since 2017 for the smartphone, which runs a fully free /Linux stack emphasizing hardware kill switches for privacy; Plasma Mobile, KDE's touch-optimized interface announced in September 2017, integrable with distributions like for a consistent Plasma experience on mobiles; and /e/OS, a de-Googled Android fork launched in 2018 by the e Foundation, replacing Google services with privacy-focused alternatives like , available on devices via easy installers as of 2025. These platforms serve use cases like advocacy, where users avoid surveillance through open-source audits; emerging markets, as with KaiOS's push for affordable ; and hardware extension, enabling software updates on devices abandoned by manufacturers. Challenges persist, including limited native app ecosystems— and rely on compatibility layers for Android apps—and hardware compatibility issues, which demand community porting efforts and restrict mainstream appeal. Google's , an experimental capability-based OS in development since , shows potential for future mobile integration but remains focused on embedded devices like the Nest Hub as of 2025.

Discontinued Platforms

Closed-Source Systems

Closed-source mobile operating systems, developed and controlled by individual companies without public code access, once held significant market positions but ultimately faced discontinuation due to competitive pressures and strategic missteps. These proprietary platforms, often tailored to specific hardware ecosystems, struggled in the face of rising demand for robust app support and seamless integration with global developer communities. Notable examples include systems from , , , , HP/Palm, and even specialized for gaming handhelds like Nintendo's . BlackBerry OS, introduced in 2002 by Research In Motion (later ), powered the company's early with a focus on secure email and enterprise productivity. It reached a peak global of over 20% in 2009, driven by its keyboard-centric design and push-email capabilities that appealed to business users. However, the platform's decline accelerated after the iPhone's 2007 launch, as BlackBerry's limited app ecosystem—lagging behind and Android in developer adoption—failed to attract consumer-facing applications, contributing to a drop to less than 3% by 2013. In 2013, BlackBerry shifted to , a QNX-based successor that aimed to modernize the interface with touch support, but it too suffered from app scarcity, with only around 100,000 apps available compared to millions on rivals, leading to its effective end for mobile devices by 2016 as the company pivoted to software licensing. Symbian OS, originating in the late 1980s from Psion and later managed by the involving and , became the dominant mobile platform for feature phones transitioning to s. It achieved a peak global smartphone market share of 67% in 2006, declining to approximately 37% by 2010, powering millions of devices with its efficient, modular architecture suited for low-power hardware. Despite this influence, 's fragmentation—stemming from multiple variants like Symbian OS v9.x and UIQ/S60 editions customized by different manufacturers—complicated development and updates, deterring app creators and leading to abandon it in favor of by 2011. The OS received its final updates around 2014, marking the end of support as Android overtook it entirely. Microsoft's , launched in 2010 with a kernel foundation, sought to bring PC-like integration to mobiles through its Metro UI and app-centric "Live Tiles." A pivotal 2011 partnership with , which adopted it as the exclusive OS for Lumia devices, briefly boosted adoption, but the platform never exceeded 3-4% global . By 2017, with shipments dwindling and market share below 1%, Microsoft discontinued development, citing insufficient developer momentum and ecosystem lock-in that favored and Android. The Nokia alliance, while providing hardware scale, highlighted Windows Phone's struggles with third-party app availability, as major services like lagged in native support. Samsung's Bada, unveiled in 2010 as a lightweight proprietary OS for budget smartphones, aimed to reduce Android dependency with a focus on emerging markets. It powered devices like the Wave series but saw limited uptake, with fewer than 30 million units shipped before Samsung merged it into the open-source project in 2012-2013 to streamline development. Similarly, HP's webOS, debuted in 2009 by Palm as a Linux-based, card-stacking multitasker, promised innovative gestures but faltered post-HP's $1.2 billion acquisition in 2010, which led to canceled hardware like the tablet. HP open-sourced elements in 2011 amid poor sales, then sold the remnants to in 2013 for smart TV use, effectively discontinuing the mobile iteration due to a sparse app store and failure to compete with established ecosystems. Palm OS, launched in 1996 as a pioneering PDA platform with stylus-based navigation and simple synchronization, influenced early before evolving into smartphones like the Treo series. It maintained relevance through the but was overshadowed by more advanced rivals, leading to Palm's acquisition by HP in 2010 for $1.2 billion, after which webOS supplanted it and Palm-branded mobiles ceased by 2010. In the gaming sector, Nintendo's closed-source firmware for the 3DS handheld, released in 2011, provided a customized environment for stereoscopic 3D gaming and backward compatibility with DS titles, supporting over 75 million units sold before production ended in 2020. This proprietary system, optimized for Nintendo's hardware without broader mobile ambitions, was discontinued alongside the console as the company shifted to the Switch hybrid. Common factors in the failure of these closed-source systems included delayed or underdeveloped app ecosystems, which hindered user retention as consumers prioritized platforms with rich, cross-compatible software libraries. Additionally, heavy reliance on carrier partnerships for distribution and updates often resulted in fragmented rollouts and delayed innovations, exacerbating vulnerabilities to agile competitors like Android and .

Open-Source Systems

Open-source mobile operating systems emerged as collaborative alternatives to proprietary platforms, emphasizing community-driven development, customization, and for diverse hardware. These systems often leveraged kernels and web technologies to foster innovation in user interfaces and app ecosystems, but many faced challenges like limited developer , hardware support, and competition from dominant players. Despite their discontinuation, they left lasting contributions to ongoing open-source efforts. Firefox OS, developed by from 2013 to 2016, was built on the Boot to Gecko (B2G) architecture, enabling HTML5-based applications to run directly on the device without heavy reliance on native code. Targeted at low-cost smartphones in emerging markets, it aimed to democratize access by using open web standards for the entire and app ecosystem. However, the platform struggled with an app gap, as developers preferred established ecosystems like Android and , leading Mozilla to discontinue device development in December 2015 and fully end internal efforts by September 2016. webOS, originally proprietary from Palm and acquired by HP in 2010, was open-sourced in 2011 following HP's discontinuation of its mobile hardware line. The open webOS project utilized the framework for cross-platform app development, supporting multitasking through card-based interfaces and cloud syncing. Community forks like emerged in 2014, rebuilding the user interface with Qt5 for broader device compatibility, but waning support for aging mobile hardware and fragmented developer interest limited its revival. MeeGo, formed in 2010 through the merger of Intel's Moblin and Nokia's platforms, was a Linux-based system designed for smartphones, netbooks, and embedded devices, emphasizing HTML5 applications and efficient resource use on processors. 5, released in 2009 for the smartphone, introduced a desktop-like Linux environment with gesture-based navigation and full application access, marking Nokia's push toward open-source . Moblin, launched by in 2009 primarily for netbooks, optimized boot times and power efficiency for portable devices but saw limited mobile adoption. was discontinued in September 2011 by the , redirecting efforts to after Nokia's strategic pivot to , which undermined community momentum. CyanogenMod, initiated in 2009 as a custom ROM for Android devices, extended the open-source Android base with features like advanced theming, privacy controls, and performance tweaks unavailable in stock firmware. It grew into a major community project, supporting hundreds of device models and attracting millions of users seeking extended software lifecycles. Acquired by Cyanogen Inc. (backed by ZUK) in 2014 to commercialize modifications, the project ended abruptly in December 2016 when the company shut down amid financial issues and failed partnerships. These discontinued systems highlighted the vulnerabilities of open-source mobile projects, including dependency on corporate backing for hardware certification and app store viability, as well as the difficulty in retaining developers amid rapid market shifts. Their codebases influenced later initiatives; for instance, MeeGo's remnants contributed to , while Maemo's Linux foundations aided for long-term device support. elements persist in niche embedded projects, underscoring lessons in fostering sustainable developer communities. Code from these efforts has also seen reuse in active platforms like .

Market Share and Adoption

Global Usage Statistics

As of , the global mobile operating system supports approximately 7.21 billion active devices, with 95% classified as smartphones and the remainder including feature phones and other connected mobiles. Annual shipments totaled around 1.24 billion units, reflecting steady demand amid maturing markets. Post-2020 growth in the sector has been measured at a (CAGR) of 3.8%, propelled by widespread deployment in and emerging economies, which has enhanced connectivity and device capabilities. Daily app usage averages approximately 3 hours 45 minutes per user globally on mobile (including apps), underscoring the centrality of mobile OS to communication, entertainment, and productivity. Demographic patterns reveal that users aged 18-34 exhibit strong preferences for feature-rich operating systems, often prioritizing advanced customization and integration features that align with their digital lifestyles. features, such as screen readers and voice controls, are integrated into 80% of active devices, promoting inclusivity for diverse user needs. Metrics from industry analyses, including active installations exceeding 7 billion and update adoption rates (over 80% for leading ecosystems within months of release), further illustrate robust global engagement.

Market Share Breakdown

As of October 2025, Android holds approximately 72.6% of the global mobile operating system based on usage data, which serves as a proxy for device adoption (compared to around 72% in ). In contrast, shipment data indicates Android's share among at approximately 79% globally in Q2 2025. maintains a stable share of about 27% in usage data, reflecting consistent performance among premium smartphone users. Other operating systems collectively account for less than 1% globally, with niche players like Samsung's at 0.2%. , primarily deployed by in , has achieved around 4% of the worldwide market through its focus on domestic hardware shipments, reaching 17% within in Q2 2025. , targeted at low-cost feature phones, holds about 0.15% globally but supports essential app access in developing regions. Discontinued platforms such as and have zero measurable share since 2017. Key trends include Android's continued expansion in the low-end segment, where cost-effective devices bolster its volume dominance, while iOS leads in revenue generation, with Apple's App Store ecosystem facilitating over $1.3 trillion in developer billings and sales in 2024, of which services revenue exceeded $90 billion. Quarterly metrics from sources like StatCounter and highlight these patterns, using shipment data and usage analytics to track shifts. Projections to 2030 indicate persistence of the Android-iOS duopoly, with minimal disruption expected from emerging systems amid steady global growth at a 6.4% CAGR, though aims for one-third global share in the long term.

Regional and Device Variations

Mobile operating system adoption exhibits significant regional disparities, driven primarily by economic factors, cultural preferences, and regulatory environments. In emerging markets such as and parts of , Android commands over 95% market share among smartphones due to its affordability and availability on low-cost devices from manufacturers like and local vendors. This dominance stems from the prevalence of budget-conscious consumers who prioritize accessible hardware over premium ecosystems. In contrast, iOS holds approximately 58% share in the United States, bolstered by strong and integration with Apple's hardware and services. Similarly, in , iOS captures around 43% of the smartphone market, reflecting consumer preference for Apple's seamless user experience and reliable support. In , has emerged as a key player, achieving about 17% share in the domestic smartphone market as of Q2 2025, fueled by Huawei's resurgence and national push for indigenous technology. Device type further influences OS distribution, with smartphones overwhelmingly favoring Android at roughly 79% global share based on Q2 2025 shipments, thanks to its open-source nature and broad hardware compatibility. Tablets, however, see leading with over 60% , particularly in professional and educational settings where Apple's provides superior app optimization and accessory integration. For wearables, the market splits nearly evenly between and at around 50% each among smartwatches, as both platforms emphasize health tracking and notifications while competing on battery life and third-party app support. Beyond mainstream smartphones, niche variations persist in specific user segments. In developing regions, KaiOS powers over 200 million smart feature phones, offering basic internet access and apps like WhatsApp on affordable devices for users transitioning from traditional 2G handsets. In enterprise and government sectors, remnants of BlackBerry's ecosystem endure, with solutions like BlackBerry AtHoc deployed in 80% of U.S. federal agencies for secure crisis communications, despite the discontinuation of its native OS. These variations are shaped by key factors including pricing strategies, where Android's fragmentation enables sub-$100 devices in affordability-sensitive markets; regulatory pressures, such as the European Union's , which imposed a €500 million fine on Apple in 2025 for restricting app on , potentially increasing competition; and carrier subsidies that favor bundled Android plans in emerging economies. Emerging trends point to IoT convergence, where mobile OS like Android and extend into smart home ecosystems, enabling unified control of devices such as thermostats and lights via AI-driven apps for enhanced energy efficiency.

Technical Aspects

Core Architecture

The core architecture of mobile operating systems centers on the kernel as the foundational layer that interfaces with hardware, manages resources, and enforces boundaries such as to prevent unauthorized access between applications and the . is achieved through mechanisms like and permission checks, ensuring that one application's execution does not compromise others or the kernel itself. Different mobile OS employ varied kernel designs to balance performance, modularity, and : Android utilizes the , a where device drivers and core services run in kernel space for efficiency but with higher complexity in updates. In contrast, relies on the kernel, a hybrid design combining elements of a (from Mach) for modularity and a (from BSD) for performance in user-space services. adopts a approach, minimizing kernel code to essential functions like while delegating drivers and services to user space for enhanced isolation and . Hardware abstraction layers (HAL) and drivers form the next critical component, providing standardized interfaces that decouple upper-level software from device-specific hardware variations. In Android, the HAL serves as a bridge between framework APIs and vendor drivers, enabling consistent access to peripherals such as sensors and cameras without modifying OS. For instance, the Camera HAL connects the android.hardware.camera2 framework to underlying camera drivers, supporting features like multi-camera coordination. Power management integrates deeply with these layers through techniques like dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS), which adjusts CPU clock speeds and voltages in real-time to optimize on battery-constrained devices, often implemented via kernel governors that respond to workload demands. Memory management in mobile OS prioritizes efficient allocation amid limited RAM, employing strategies like compression and suspension to maintain responsiveness. Android incorporates , a compressed block device in RAM that swaps out inactive pages by compressing them rather than writing to slower storage, thereby reducing latency and I/O overhead. Additionally, app places infrequently used applications into a low-power state, clearing their while preserving data for quick restoration, which helps manage storage and battery life without full termination. File systems tailored for flash storage further support these efforts; Android commonly uses ext4 for its journaling capabilities and robustness in handling frequent small writes typical of mobile workloads, while iOS employs APFS, optimized for SSDs with built-in encryption, snapshots, and space sharing across volumes to enhance and performance. The boot process establishes a from hardware initialization to OS loading, incorporating secure mechanisms to verify integrity against tampering. In Android, verified boot uses cryptographic signatures and dm-verity to ensure that bootloaders, kernels, and system partitions remain unmodified, with protection to prevent downgrades to vulnerable versions. Update mechanisms differ significantly: over-the-air (OTA) updates apply incremental changes seamlessly without data loss, leveraging A/B partitioning for if issues arise, whereas full wipes—typically required for manual factory images or major recoveries—erase user data to ensure a clean installation. This OTA approach contrasts with traditional full wipes in older systems, enabling safer, non-disruptive maintenance. To facilitate portability across diverse hardware and development environments, mobile OS incorporate POSIX-compliant interfaces where possible, allowing applications to leverage standard APIs for file operations, threading, and signals without platform-specific rewrites. Android and implement subsets of POSIX standards, enabling source-level compatibility for tools and libraries, though full certification is rare due to mobile-specific optimizations. includes a POSIX in its NEXT version to support legacy code migration, promoting ecosystem interoperability.

User Interfaces and Ecosystems

Mobile operating systems have evolved significantly since the introduction of interfaces with the in 2007, which revolutionized user interaction by replacing physical keyboards with gesture-based controls. User interfaces in modern mobile operating systems emphasize touch-based interactions, including fundamental gestures such as swiping to navigate, pinching to zoom, and tapping to select elements. These gestures form the core of intuitive navigation on platforms like and Android, enabling seamless manipulation of content on capacitive touchscreens. Apple's outline principles for incorporating these gestures to ensure responsive and natural user experiences across apps. Similarly, Android's interface supports a range of touch inputs, with guidelines promoting consistency in for better . Adaptive systems further enhance these interfaces; Google's provides a flexible framework for creating responsive layouts that adapt to different screen sizes and orientations, using components like cards, buttons, and navigation drawers. Apple's emphasize clarity, deference, and depth in designs, guiding developers to create interfaces that harmonize with the system's aesthetics. Dark mode, which inverts color schemes to reduce eye strain and save battery on displays, became a standard feature starting with in 2019, allowing users to apply it system-wide or per app. Android followed suit with system-wide dark theme support in in 2019, extending it to apps via theme APIs. App ecosystems in mobile operating systems revolve around sandboxed applications, which isolate apps to prevent interference and enhance stability. In , the App Sandbox enforces strict boundaries on file access and resources, ensuring each app operates within its designated container. Android employs a similar Linux-based sandboxing model, using user IDs to segregate app processes and data. App lifecycles manage resource allocation through states like foreground (active and visible) and background (paused or suspended), allowing systems to optimize performance by pausing inactive apps. For instance, Android's activity lifecycle includes callbacks for onPause and onStop to handle transitions. Centralized app distribution occurs via official stores with revenue-sharing policies; Apple's requires approval and takes a 30% commission on initial purchases, dropping to 15% for subscriptions after the first year. Store imposes a similar 30% service fee on paid apps and in-app purchases, with reduced rates for certain programs. These stores enforce guidelines to maintain quality and security within the . Development for mobile platforms relies on platform-specific software development kits (SDKs) alongside cross-platform alternatives. Android development primarily uses Kotlin as the preferred language since 2017, with Java as a legacy option, integrated via Android Studio for building native apps. iOS development centers on Swift, introduced in 2014 for its safety and performance advantages over Objective-C, supported by Xcode. Cross-platform frameworks enable code reuse across iOS and Android; Google's Flutter uses Dart to compile to native code, rendering UIs with its Skia engine for consistent performance. Meta's React Native leverages JavaScript and React to bridge native components, allowing a single codebase for multiple platforms. Multitasking features allow users to interact with multiple apps simultaneously, improving productivity on larger screens. Android supports split-screen mode, introduced in Android 7.0, where users can resize and position two apps side-by-side via drag gestures. On , Stage Manager, debuted in , enables resizable, overlapping windows with thumbnails for quick switching, supporting up to four apps on-screen and external display integration. Notifications provide real-time alerts through banners or lock screen summaries, with interactive elements for quick replies in both iOS and Android. Widgets offer at-a-glance information on home screens; Android's widget framework allows customizable, interactive modules, while iOS widgets, enhanced in , support stacking and deeper integration via WidgetKit. Accessibility features ensure inclusive interactions for users with disabilities, including and localization support. iOS's is a gesture-based that narrates interface elements and supports rotor gestures for navigation. Android's TalkBack provides similar auditory feedback with swipe patterns and haptic cues for blind or low-vision users. Both platforms offer robust , allowing apps to adapt to multiple languages, regions, and scripts through locale-aware resources; iOS uses NSLocale for dynamic formatting, while Android employs resource qualifiers for localized strings and layouts.

Security and Privacy Features

Mobile operating systems incorporate robust and features to protect user data from unauthorized access, , and surveillance. These mechanisms include app permissions, data , secure boot processes, and compliance with privacy regulations, evolving to address emerging threats like advanced . Major platforms such as Android and prioritize isolation of applications, regular updates, and user controls to mitigate risks while maintaining usability. App permissions systems allow users to grant granular access to sensitive resources like , camera, , and contacts at runtime, rather than during installation. In Android, runtime permissions were introduced in version 6.0 ( level 23) to enable users to revoke access post-installation, reducing the risk of over-privileged apps. iOS has required similar runtime permission prompts since its inception, with users able to manage them via Settings > & Security, ensuring apps only access data when explicitly authorized. To further limit file access, Android's scoped storage, enforced for apps targeting level 30 or higher since , restricts external storage access to app-specific directories or user-selected files, preventing broad scanning of device contents. Data encryption is a core defense, with Android employing file-based encryption (FBE) since version 7.0, which encrypts individual files using unique keys unlocked independently for enhanced flexibility and security during multi-user scenarios or Direct Boot. In contrast, uses file-based integrated with the Secure Enclave, protecting user data at rest with AES-256 hardware acceleration, where each file is encrypted using unique keys activated upon passcode setup. Biometric bolsters these by providing secure unlocks; Android supports and face recognition tied to the , while features and , leveraging neural engines for liveness detection to prevent spoofing. Security updates and sandboxing mechanisms ensure ongoing protection against vulnerabilities. Google provides monthly security patches for Pixel devices, with seven years of OS and security updates starting from the device's launch, as seen in the Pixel 8 series policy extended through 2030. Android's sandboxing uses SELinux in enforcing mode since version 4.3, confining apps to isolated processes with mandatory access controls to prevent inter-app exploits. iOS employs a similar app sandbox with code-signing requirements and (ASLR), limiting damage from runtime attacks. Verified boot and attestation in Android, via Android Verified Boot 2.0 (AVB), cryptographically verify the OS integrity during startup and remotely attest device state to services, blocking tampered software. Privacy features emphasize user control and minimal data collection. Both platforms support "Do Not Track" signals in browsers like Chrome and , signaling websites to refrain from behavioral tracking, though compliance varies. Private browsing modes in these browsers prevent local history, , and cache storage during sessions, enhancing on shared devices. Mobile OSes comply with regulations like the (CCPA), updated in 2025 to mandate risk assessments and opt-out mechanisms for data sales, influencing features such as privacy dashboards that log app access to sensors. Threats like malware and zero-day exploits persist, with 2024 seeing a surge in Pegasus spyware infections targeting iOS and Android via zero-click vulnerabilities, affecting journalists and officials by exfiltrating messages and location data undetected for years. Responses include rapid patches—Apple issued seven zero-day fixes for iOS in 2025 alone—and enhanced attestation to detect compromised devices. These features draw from earlier systems like BlackBerry's encrypted messaging, but modern implementations focus on ecosystem-wide defenses.

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