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Typha
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| Typha | |
|---|---|
| |
| Typha latifolia | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Monocots |
| Clade: | Commelinids |
| Order: | Poales |
| Family: | Typhaceae |
| Genus: | Typha L. |
| Synonyms[1] | |
| |
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 106 kJ (25 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5.14 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 0.22 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 4.5 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.00 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
1.18 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 92.65 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[2] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[3] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Typha /ˈtaɪfə/ is a genus of about 30 species of monocotyledonous flowering plants in the family Typhaceae. These plants have a variety of common names, in British English bulrush[4] or (mainly historically) reedmace,[5] in American English cattail[6] or punks, in Australia cumbungi or bulrush, in Canada bulrush or cattail, and in New Zealand raupō, bullrush,[7] cattail, or reed. Other taxa of plants may be known as bulrush, including some sedges in Scirpus and related genera.
The genus is largely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, where it is found in a variety of wetland habitats. The rhizomes are edible, though at least some species are known to accumulate toxins and so must first undergo treatment before being eaten.[8] Evidence of preserved starch grains on grinding stones suggests they were already eaten in Europe 30,000 years ago.[9]
Description
[edit]Typha are aquatic or semi-aquatic, rhizomatous, herbaceous perennial plants.[10] The leaves are glabrous (hairless), linear, alternate and mostly basal on a simple, jointless stem that bears the flowering spikes.
The plants are monoecious, with unisexual flowers that develop in dense racemes. The numerous male flowers form a narrow spike at the top of the vertical stem. Each male (staminate) flower is reduced to a pair of stamens and hairs, and withers once the pollen is shed. Large numbers of tiny female flowers form a dense, sausage-shaped spike on the stem below the male spike. In larger species this can be up to 30 centimetres (12 in) long and 1 to 4 cm (1⁄2 to 1+1⁄2 in) thick. The seeds are minute, 0.2 millimetres (0.008 in) long, and attached to fine hairs. When ripe, the heads disintegrate into a cottony fluff from which the seeds disperse by wind.
Fruits of Typha have been found as long ago as 69 MYA in modern Central Europe.[11]
Taxa
[edit]The following species and hybrids are currently accepted:[12]
- Typha albida – (Afghanistan)
- Typha alekseevii – (Caucasus)
- Typha angustifolia – lesser bulrush, narrow leaf cattail (America), or jambu (India)
- Typha × argoviensis – (Germany and Switzerland)
- Typha austro-orientalis – (European Russia)
- Typha azerbaijanensis – (Iran)
- Typha × bavarica – (Germany)
- Typha capensis – (tropical and southern Africa)
- Typha caspica – (Azerbaijan)
- Typha changbaiensis – (northeastern China)
- Typha davidiana – (China)
- Typha domingensis – bulrush, southern cattail (America), narrow-leaved cumbungi[13] (Australia)
- Typha elephantina – (from Algeria to southern China)
- Typha × gezei – (France)
- Typha × glauca (T. angustifolia × T. latifolia) – hybrid cattail, white cattail (a sterile hybrid)[14]
- Typha grossheimii – (Central Asia)
- Typha incana – (central Russia)
- Typha joannis – (Mongolia, Amur Oblast)
- Typha kalatensis – (Iran)
- Typha latifolia – bulrush, common cattail – (very widespread)
- Typha laxmannii – Laxman's bulrush – (southern Europe and much of Asia)
- Typha lugdunensis – (western Europe, southwest Asia, China)
- Typha minima – dwarf bulrush – (Europe, Asia)
- Typha orientalis – (East Asia), raupō[15] (New Zealand), broad-leaved cumbungi[16] (Australia)
- Typha pallida – (Central Asia, China)
- Typha × provincialis – (France)
- Typha przewalskii – (China, Russian Far East)
- Typha shuttleworthii – (Europe, Iran, Turkey)
- Typha sistanica – (Iran)
- Typha × smirnovii – (European Russia)
- Typha subulata – (Argentina, Uruguay)
- Typha × suwensis – (Japan)
- Typha tichomirovii – (European Russia)
- Typha turcomanica – (Turkmenistan)
- Typha tzvelevii – (Primorye)
- Typha valentinii – (Azerbaijan)
- Typha varsobica – (Tajikistan)
The most widespread species is Typha latifolia, which is distributed across the entire temperate northern hemisphere. It has also been introduced to Australia. T. angustifolia is nearly as widespread, but does not extend as far north; it may be introduced and invasive in North America. T. domingensis has a more southern American distribution, and it occurs in Australia. T. orientalis is widespread in Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. T. laxmannii, T. minima, and T. shuttleworthii are largely restricted to Asia and southern Europe.
Ecology
[edit]
Typha are often among the first wetland plants to colonize areas of newly exposed wet mud, with their abundant wind-dispersed seeds. Buried seeds can survive in the soil for long periods of time.[17] They germinate best with sunlight and fluctuating temperatures, which is typical of many wetland plants that regenerate on mud flats.[18] The plants also spread by rhizomes, forming large, interconnected stands.
Typha are considered to be dominant competitors in wetlands in many areas, and they often exclude other plants with their dense canopy.[19] In the bays of the Great Lakes, for example, they are among the most abundant wetland plants. Different species of cattails are adapted to different water depths.[20]
Well-developed aerenchyma make the plants tolerant of submersion. Even the dead stalks are capable of transmitting oxygen to the rooting zone.
Although Typha are native wetland plants, they can be aggressive in their competition with other native species.[21] They have been problematic in many regions in North America, from the Great Lakes to the Everglades.[19] Native sedges are displaced and wet meadows shrink, likely as a response to altered hydrology of the wetlands and increased nutrient levels. An introduced or hybrid species may be contributing to the problem.[22] Control is difficult. The most successful strategy appears to be mowing or burning to remove the aerenchymous stalks, followed by prolonged flooding.[23] It may be more important to prevent invasion by preserving water level fluctuations, including periods of drought, and to maintain infertile conditions.[19]
Typha are frequently eaten by wetland mammals such as muskrats, which also use them to construct feeding platforms and dens, thereby also providing nesting and resting places for waterfowl.[24]
Uses
[edit]Culinary
[edit]Many parts of Typha plants are edible to humans. Before the plants flower, the tender inside of the shoots can be squeezed out and eaten raw or cooked.[25] The starchy rhizomes are nutritious with a protein content comparable to that of maize or rice.[26] They can be processed into a flour with 266 kcal per 100 grams,[9] and are most often harvested from late autumn to early spring. They are fibrous, and the starch must be scraped or sucked from the tough fibers.[27] Baby shoots emerging from the rhizomes, which are sometimes subterranean, can be picked and eaten raw. Also underground is a carbohydrate lump which can be peeled and eaten raw or cooked like a potato.[28] The plant is one championed by survival experts because various parts can be eaten throughout the year. Plants growing in polluted water can accumulate lead and pesticide residues in their rhizomes, and these should not be eaten.[27]
The rind of young stems can be peeled off, and the tender white heart inside can be eaten raw or boiled and eaten like asparagus.[29] This food has been popular among the Cossacks in Ukraine, and has been called "Cossack asparagus".[30] The leaf bases can be eaten raw or cooked, especially in late spring when they are young and tender. In early summer the sheath can be removed from the developing green flower spike, which can then be boiled and eaten like corn on the cob.[31] In mid-summer when the male flowers are mature, the pollen can be collected and used as a flour supplement or thickener; the Māori of New Zealand have a special bread called pungapunga made from the pollen of T. orientalis.[32][33]
Agriculture
[edit]The seeds have a high linoleic acid content and can be used to feed cattle and chickens.[34] They can also be found in African countries like Ghana.
Harvesting cattail removes nutrients from the wetland that would otherwise return via the decomposition of decaying plant matter.[35] Floating mats of cattails remove nutrients from eutrophied bodies of freshwater.[36]
Building material
[edit]For local native tribes around Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, Typha were among the most important plants and every part of the plant had multiple uses. For example, they were used to construct rafts and other boats.[26]
During World War II, the United States Navy used the down of Typha as a substitute for kapok in life vests and aviation jackets. Tests showed that even after 100 hours of submersion, the buoyancy was still effective.[37]
Typha are used as thermal insulation in buildings[38] as an organic alternative to conventional insulating materials such as glass wool or stone wool.
Paper
[edit]Typha stems and leaves can be used to make paper. It is strong with a heavy texture and it is hard to bleach, so it is not suitable for industrial production of graphical paper. In 1853, considerable amounts of cattail paper were produced in New York, due to a shortage of raw materials.[39] In 1948, French scientists tested methods for annual harvesting of the leaves. Because of the high cost, these methods were abandoned and no further research was done.[26] Today Typha is used to make decorative paper.[40][41]
Fiber
[edit]Fibers up to 4 meters long can be obtained from the stems when they are treated mechanically or chemically with sodium hydroxide. The stem fibers resemble jute and can be used to produce raw textiles. The leaf fibers can be used as an alternative to cotton and linen in clothing. The yield of leaf fiber is 30 to 40 percent and T. glauca can produce 7 to 10 tons per hectare annually.[26]
Biofuel
[edit]Typha can be used as a source of starch to produce ethanol. Because of their high productivity in northern latitudes, Typha are considered to be a bioenergy crop.[42]
Other
[edit]The seed hairs were used by some indigenous peoples of the Americas[which?] as tinder for starting fires. Some tribes also used Typha down to line moccasins, and for bedding, diapers, baby powder, and cradleboards. One Native American word for Typha meant "fruit for papoose's bed".[citation needed] Typha down is still used in some areas to stuff clothing items and pillows. Typha can be dipped in wax or fat and then lit as a candle, the stem serving as a wick. Without the use of wax or fat it will smolder slowly, somewhat like incense, and may repel insects. [citation needed]
The flower stalks can be made into chopsticks. The leaves can be treated to weave into baskets, mats, or sandals.[28] The rushes are harvested and the leaves often dried for later use in chair seats. Re-wetted, the leaves are twisted and wrapped around the chair rungs to form a densely woven seat that is then stuffed (usually with the left over rush).
Small-scale experiments have indicated that Typha are able to remove arsenic from drinking water.[43][44] The boiled rootstocks have been used as a diuretic for increasing urination, or mashed to make a jelly-like paste for sores, boils, wounds, burns, scabs, and smallpox pustules.[45]
Cattail pollen is used as a banker source of food for predatory insects and mites (such as Amblyseius swirskii) in greenhouses.[46]
The cattail, or, as it is commonly referred to in the American Midwest, the sausage tail, has been the subject of multiple artist renditions, gaining popularity in the mid-twentieth century. The term, sausage tail, derives from the similarity that cattails have with sausages, a name given to the plant by the Midwest Polish community, which had noticed a striking similarity between the plant and a common Polish dish, kiełbasa.[citation needed]
References
[edit]- ^ "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew". kew.org.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report". p. 120. In: Stallings, Virginia A.; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. pp. 101–124. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. NCBI NBK545428.
- ^ Streeter D, Hart-Davies C, Hardcastle A, Cole F, Harper L. 2009. Collins Flower Guide. Harper Collins ISBN 9-78-000718389-0
- ^ Clegg, J. (1986). Observer's Book of Pond Life. Frederick Warne, London. 460 p.
- ^ NRCS. "Typha". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 12 December 2015.
- ^ "Typha orientalis". New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retrieved 31 January 2025.
- ^ State of Victoria (Agriculture Victoria). "Cumbungi". Victorian Resources Online. Agriculture Victoria. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
- ^ a b Revedin, A.; et al. (2010). "Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107 (44): 18815–18819. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10718815R. doi:10.1073/pnas.1006993107. PMC 2973873. PMID 20956317.
- ^ Stace, C. A. (2010). New Flora of the British Isles (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 925. ISBN 9780521707725.
- ^ Bremer, Kåre (2000-04-04). "Early Cretaceous lineages of monocot flowering plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (9): 4707–4711. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.4707B. doi:10.1073/pnas.080421597. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 18297. PMID 10759567.
- ^ "Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, genus Typha". Retrieved 18 September 2014.
- ^ Briggs, B.G. (2020). "Typha domingensis". Flora of Australia. Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
- ^ Selbo, S. M.; Snow, A. A. (2004). "The potential for hybridization between Typha angustifolia and Typha latifolia in a constructed wetland" (PDF). Aquatic Botany. 78 (4): 361–369. Bibcode:2004AqBot..78..361S. doi:10.1016/j.aquabot.2004.01.003.
- ^ Johnson, Peter. "Wetlands - Reeds, rushes, sedges and low growers". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
- ^ Briggs, B.G. (2020). "Typha orientalis". Flora of Australia. Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
- ^ van der Valk, A. G., and Davis, C. B. (1976). The seed banks of prairie glacial marshes. Canadian Journal of Botany 54, 1832–8.
- ^ Shipley, B., et al. (1989). Regeneration and establishment strategies of emergent macrophytes. Journal of Ecology 77, 1093–1110.
- ^ a b c Keddy, P. A. (2010). Wetland Ecology: Principals and Conservation. Cambridge University Press. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-521-51940-3.
- ^ Grace, J. B. and Wetzel, R. G. (1981). Habitat partitioning and competitive displacement in cattails (Typha): experimental field studies. The American Naturalist 118: 463–74.
- ^ Oudhia, P. (1999). Allelopathic TEMPeffects of Typha angustata on germination and seedling vigour of winter maize and rice. Agric. Sci. Digest 19(4): 285-286.
- ^ Boers, A. M., et al. (2007). Typha × glauca dominance and extended hydroperiod constrain restoration of wetland diversity. Ecological Engineering 29, 232–44.
- ^ Kaminski, R. M., et al. (1985). Control of cattail and bulrush by cutting and flooding. In: Coastal Wetlands, eds. H. H. Prince and F. M. D’Itri, pp. 253–62. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
- ^ Global Invasive Species Database: "Uses"- Retrieved 2017-03-20
- ^ Nyerges, Christopher (2016). Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4930-1499-6.
- ^ a b c d Morton, J. F. (January–March 1975). "Cattails (Typha spp.) – Weed Problem or Potential Crop?". Economic Botany. 29 (1): 7–29. Bibcode:1975EcBot..29....7M. doi:10.1007/bf02861252. S2CID 20072085.
- ^ a b Gore, A. B. (2007). Environmental Research at the Leading Edge. New York: Nova Science Publishers, Inc. p. 106.
- ^ a b Nyerges, Christopher (2016). Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-4930-1499-6.
- ^ Angier, Bradford (1974). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 50. ISBN 0-8117-0616-8. OCLC 799792.
- ^ Marsh, L. C. (1959). "The Cattail Story". The Garden Journal. 5: 114–129.
- ^ Elias, T. S.; Dykeman, P. A. (2009) [1982]. Edible Wild Plants. New York, NY: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-1-4027-6715-9.
- ^ Neill, Lindsay; Sturny, Arno (Aug 2022). "Pāraoa Rēwena: The Relegation of Aotearoa New Zealand's Indigenous Bread". Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies. 19 (1): 65. doi:10.11157/sites-id505.
- ^ Raupo or Bulrush (Typha orientalis). Tai Awatea. Accessed 15 December 2011.
- ^ Reed, E.; Marsh, L. C. (1955). "The Cattail Potential". Chemurgic Digest. 3. 14: 9, 18.
- ^ Cicek, N.; Lambert, S.; Venema, H.D.; Snelgrove, K.R.; Bibeau, E.L.; Grosshans, R. (June 2006). "Nutrient removal and bio-energy production from Netley-Libau Marsh at Lake Winnipeg through annual biomass harvesting". Biomass and Bioenergy. 30 (6): 529–536. Bibcode:2006BmBe...30..529C. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.12.009. ISSN 0961-9534.
- ^ "The Floating Bioplatforms of IISD-ELA". IISD Experimental Lakes Area. 2015-10-01. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
- ^ Miller, D. T. (1999). Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest, Including Recipes, Harmful Plants, Natural Dyes, and Textile Fibers: A Practical Guide. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-292-78164-1.
- ^ Dieye, Younouss; Sambou, Vincent; Faye, Mactar; Thiam, Ababacar; Adj, Mamadou; Azilinon, Dorothe (2017-01-01). "Thermo-mechanical characterization of a building material based on Typha Australis". Journal of Building Engineering. 9: 142–146. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2016.12.007. ISSN 2352-7102.
- ^ Making Aquatic Weeds Useful: Some Perspectives for Developing Countries. Ottawa: National Research Council.: Books for Business. 1976. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-89499-180-6.
- ^ Jahan, M. Sarwar; Islam, M. Khalidul; Chowdhury, D.A. Nasima; Moeiz, S.M. Iqbal; Arman, U. (October 2007). "Pulping and papermaking properties of pati (Typha)". Industrial Crops and Products. 26 (3): 259–264. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2007.03.014.
- ^ Bidin, Nordiah; Zakaria, Muta Harah; Bujang, Japar Sidik; Abdul Aziz, Nur Aznadia (2015). "Suitability of Aquatic Plant Fibers for Handmade Papermaking". International Journal of Polymer Science. 2015: 1–9. doi:10.1155/2015/165868. ISSN 1687-9422.
- ^ Dubbe, D.R.; Garver, E.G.; Pratt, D.C. (1988). "Production of cattail (Typha spp.) biomass in Minnesota, USA". Biomass. 17 (2): 79–104. doi:10.1016/0144-4565(88)90073-X.
- ^ Jackson, Jeremiah (April 2007). "Removing Arsenic Sustainably". Civil Engineering: 45–55.
- ^ Jackson, Jeremiah (December 18–20, 2006). "Treatment of Arsenic Contaminated Water Using Aquatic Macrophytes". An International Perspective on Environment and Water Resources. American Society of Civil Engineers, Environment and Water Resources. New Delhi, India.
- ^ Maiden, J. H. (1889). Useful Native Plants of Australia (incl. Tasmania). Sydney: Technological Mus. New South Wales.
- ^ Heidi Wollaeger (January 20, 2015). "Applying pollen over a crop as an alternative food source for predatory mites". Michigan State University.
External links
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Typha
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Description
Morphology
Typha species are perennial, rhizomatous herbs that emerge from aquatic or semi-aquatic environments, typically growing to heights of 1 to 3 meters with stout, erect, unbranched stems that support the inflorescence.[4] These stems arise from the rhizomes and are reed-like in appearance, providing structural rigidity to the plant in wetland conditions.[3] The leaves of Typha are linear, alternate, and arranged in two ranks, with both basal and cauline positions; they are flat or V-shaped in cross-section, sheathing at the base, and can reach widths up to 1 cm in species such as Typha latifolia, though narrower in others.[8] The leaf blades are elongate, often exceeding the height of the stem, with revolute margins and acute to acuminate apices, contributing to the plant's photosynthetic capacity in light-limited habitats.[3] The root system consists of extensive horizontal rhizomes, which can extend up to 70 cm in length and 5–40 mm in diameter, producing adventitious roots that anchor the plant and facilitate nutrient uptake in anaerobic, waterlogged soils.[3] These rhizomes are starchy, firm, and scaly, serving as the primary storage organ and enabling vegetative propagation through fragmentation.[4] The inflorescence is a dense, cylindrical spike, terminal on the stem; it features male flowers positioned above female flowers, with the mature female portion forming the distinctive brown, sausage-shaped "cattail" structure.[3] Typha plants are monoecious and wind-pollinated, bearing tiny flowers in great numbers—up to 700,000 per spike—with male flowers consisting of 2–7 stamens and female flowers featuring a single carpel with branched, plumose stigmas.[9] Specific anatomical adaptations enhance survival in wetland environments, including aerenchyma tissue—characterized by large intercellular air spaces—that transports oxygen from aerial parts to submerged roots and rhizomes in oxygen-poor sediments.[10] Additionally, silica bodies embedded in the leaf epidermis provide structural support and mechanical strength to withstand environmental stresses.[11]Reproduction
Typha species employ both sexual and asexual reproductive strategies, enabling effective colonization and persistence in wetland environments. Sexual reproduction occurs via wind-pollination in monoecious inflorescences, where the terminal male spike sheds copious pollen during summer, which is transported to the receptive stigmas of the underlying female spike below. Fertilization results in the production of numerous tiny seeds, 0.7–1.5 mm in length, each equipped with coma-like hairs that aid in flotation and dispersal.[12][13] These seeds are primarily dispersed by wind and water, often landing on exposed moist mud where they can germinate rapidly under suitable conditions. Seed viability varies by species but can persist up to 10 years in the soil seed bank for some taxa, allowing delayed establishment after disturbances.[4][5] Asexual reproduction predominates through vegetative means, involving the fragmentation and sprouting of extensive rhizomes, which facilitates rapid clonal expansion and the formation of dense colonies without reliance on seed production.[14][15] Flowering phenology is typically synchronous across populations, occurring from late spring through summer, with the male phase maturing and releasing pollen prior to the female phase to promote outcrossing and minimize self-pollination.[16][17] The potential for hybridization is elevated in areas with mixed Typha stands, as overlapping flowering periods between species facilitate interspecific pollen transfer.[18]Taxonomy
Classification and etymology
The genus name Typha derives from the Ancient Greek túphē, referring to a species of cattail or possibly from typhos meaning "marsh," alluding to the plant's typical wetland habitat, or typhe meaning "cat's tail," describing the inflorescence shape.[19][20] Species in the genus are commonly known as cattails in North America, bulrushes or reedmaces in British English, reflecting their widespread recognition in various cultural contexts.[3] Typha belongs to the family Typhaceae, a monocotyledonous group in the order Poales, which was historically treated separately but now encompasses the former Sparganiaceae following phylogenetic evidence that Sparganium is closely related to Typha.[21][22] Some molecular phylogenies position Typhaceae as sister to Bromeliaceae within Poales, highlighting their shared evolutionary traits in aquatic and semi-aquatic environments.[23] The genus was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753, initially recognizing a few species based on morphological similarities.[24] Throughout the 20th century, taxonomic revisions, including monographs by Kronfeld (1889) and Graebner (1900), expanded recognition to approximately 30 species worldwide, addressing challenges posed by hybridization and morphological convergence.[25] A 2018 phylogenetic analysis using chloroplast DNA sequences confirmed an Old World origin for Typha during the mid-Eocene, with diversification accelerating in the Middle and Late Miocene, and identified two main clades roughly corresponding to broad-leaved and narrow-leaved species, underscoring reticulate evolution through polyploidy and hybridization.[1] The genus is subdivided into sections such as Typus (including T. latifolia) and Bractea (including T. domingensis), based on inflorescence structure and bract presence; polyploidy is prevalent, with chromosome numbers ranging from 2n=22 (diploid) to 2n=66 (hexaploid), contributing to speciation and hybrid vigor.[26][25] A 2020 analysis of Section Typha emphasized its evolutionary divergence within Eurasia, originating near the Paleogene–Neogene boundary and reaching peak diversity in the Paleogene, with subsequent range contractions due to Pliocene-Pleistocene cooling; this section comprises three subsections (Typha, Komaroviae, Remotiusculae) and 10 species, showing hybridization-driven speciation attenuated by European-Asian disjunctions and post-glacial expansions.[27]Accepted species
The number of accepted species in the genus Typha varies across taxonomic treatments, from 10–15 in conservative estimates to approximately 40 taxa (including hybrids) recognized by the Plants of the World Online database maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as of 2023.[28][1] These species exhibit variations in morphology, including leaf width ranging from narrow (3–12 mm) to broad (up to 29 mm), inflorescence size and structure, and rhizome depth, which influence their adaptation to wetland environments.[3] For instance, species differ in the arrangement of their unisexual inflorescences, with some featuring a continuous pistillate spike and others showing a distinct gap between the staminate (male) and pistillate (female) portions.[4] Among the most widespread species is Typha latifolia (broad-leaved cattail), a cosmopolitan taxon characterized by broad leaves measuring 5–29 mm in width and a continuous inflorescence without a gap between the male and female spikes.[8] It features robust rhizomes and tall stems up to 3 m, contributing to its dominance in temperate wetlands.[4] In contrast, Typha angustifolia (narrow-leaved cattail) has slender leaves 3–12 mm wide and a notable 1–8 cm gap separating the yellowish male spike from the brown female spike in its cylindrical inflorescence.[29] Native to Eurasia, it has become invasive in North America, forming dense stands that outcompete native vegetation.[30] Typha domingensis (southern cattail), prevalent in tropical regions, displays leaves 6–18 mm wide and an inflorescence with a variable gap of 0–8 cm between the spikes, alongside deeper rhizomes suited to warmer climates.[31] Its pistillate spikes are 13–26 mm in diameter, aiding seed dispersal in subtropical wetlands.[31] Typha minima (dwarf cattail), a smaller species reaching only 30–60 cm in height, has very narrow, grass-like leaves and compact inflorescences, making it popular as an ornamental plant in Asia and beyond.[32] The majority of Typha species are concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, with a center of diversity in central Eurasia encompassing about six taxa, though several exhibit pantropical distributions.[3] Endemics include Typha capensis, restricted to southern and eastern Africa from Uganda southward, featuring similar broad-leaved morphology adapted to regional swamps and lagoons. Recent taxonomic revisions, informed by genetic analyses, have led to synonymies such as Typha caspica and Typha rossica being reduced to synonyms of T. latifolia based on molecular evidence of indistinguishability.[33] These changes reflect ongoing refinements in phylogeny, particularly in eastern Europe and Asia, where morphological similarities previously suggested distinct species.[1]Natural hybrids
Natural hybrids within the genus Typha form frequently in regions where parental species' distributions overlap, particularly in temperate and subtropical wetlands worldwide. The most prominent example is Typha × glauca (also known as T. × glauca Godron), arising from the cross between T. latifolia and T. angustifolia. This hybrid is widespread across North America and parts of Europe, displaying intermediate characteristics such as narrower leaves than T. latifolia (typically 5–12 mm wide) but broader than T. angustifolia (3–12 mm), and a small gap (typically 0–2 cm) between the staminate and pistillate spikes, intermediate between the continuous inflorescence of T. latifolia and the distinct gap (1–8 cm) of T. angustifolia.[26] Another notable North American hybrid is T. × bethulona (T. domingensis × T. latifolia), which occurs in southern wetlands and shares hybrid vigor traits like increased rhizome growth and biomass production.[34] In Europe, hybrids such as T. × glauca and crosses involving T. laxmannii have been documented, often in disturbed riparian zones.[35] Hybrid zones develop in overlapping habitats like marshes and lake edges, where pollinators facilitate interspecific crosses due to the protogynous flowering of Typha species, which promotes outcrossing. These zones are common in North American wetlands, such as the Great Lakes region, and in Eurasian river systems, where environmental disturbances like eutrophication or hydrological changes favor hybrid establishment. Hybrids often exhibit hybrid vigor (heterosis), resulting in taller stature (up to 3 m), greater clonal spread via rhizomes, and higher nutrient uptake compared to parental species, enabling them to thrive in nutrient-rich, fluctuating water conditions.[26][36] Identification relies on morphological traits, including leaf blade width, hair presence on pistillate scales, and spike architecture, but these can vary, leading to challenges in field diagnosis. Genetic methods, such as chloroplast DNA sequencing and microsatellite markers, provide more precise differentiation, revealing F1 hybrids and advanced-generation backcrosses.[37][35] Globally, approximately 10 natural hybrids are recognized within Typha, though the exact number varies with taxonomic interpretations, contributing to ongoing debates in the genus's classification. These hybrids can outcompete parental species in altered habitats, such as agriculturally impacted wetlands, due to their adaptability and reduced dependence on sexual reproduction, often propagating clonally. Ecologically, they alter community structure by forming dense stands that reduce biodiversity and alter nutrient cycling. Evolutionarily, while early studies indicated sterility in F1 hybrids due to meiotic irregularities, subsequent research shows partial fertility, enabling backcrossing with parents and potential gene flow that may drive speciation or adaptive radiation in dynamic wetland environments.[26][36][38]Distribution and ecology
Global distribution
Typha species exhibit a predominantly native distribution across the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere, with phylogenetic evidence indicating an ancestral origin in Eurasia followed by multiple dispersal events to other regions.[1] The genus shows notable diversity in Asia, with several species native to the region, spanning from the temperate zones of eastern Russia and China to subtropical areas in India and Southeast Asia.[28] In Europe, several species are native, primarily in wetland systems from the Mediterranean to the Arctic fringes, including widespread taxa like Typha latifolia and Typha angustifolia.[39] North America is home to several native species, with T. latifolia occurring across the continent from Alaska to Mexico, though some like T. angustifolia have Eurasian origins.[4] In Africa, diversity is limited, with species such as Typha capensis confined to southern and eastern regions, including wetlands in South Africa, Mozambique, and Uganda.[40] Human-mediated dispersal has rendered Typha nearly cosmopolitan, with numerous introductions establishing populations beyond native ranges, often leading to invasive behaviors.[41] In South America, species like Typha domingensis—natively American but expanded southward—and introduced T. latifolia occur in wetlands from Argentina to Brazil.[42] Oceania represents a fully introduced range, where T. latifolia and T. orientalis thrive in Australia and New Zealand, the latter utilized by Māori communities after human introduction.[4] In North America, T. angustifolia has become invasive since its 19th-century introduction from Eurasia, hybridizing with natives to form expansive Typha × glauca stands. A 2025 genetic study further elucidates the hybrid swarm dynamics of T. × glauca in North American wetlands, aiding management strategies.[43][30] Dispersal mechanisms include natural vectors like waterfowl transporting seeds across continents, augmented by anthropogenic trade and wetland alterations.[1] Climate change is facilitating poleward range expansions, with models predicting broader suitability in northern latitudes due to warming temperatures and altered hydrology.[44] Recent 2025 observations document accelerated spread of invasive hybrids like T. × glauca in the Prairie Pothole Region of North America, outpacing parental species amid wetland modifications and milder winters.[45]Habitat preferences
Typha species thrive as emergent aquatic plants in a variety of wetland environments, primarily freshwater marshes, swamps, ditches, and the edges of ponds and lakes, where they often form dense stands along slow-moving streams and riverbanks.[36] They exhibit a notable tolerance for slightly brackish conditions, with some species enduring salinities up to approximately 10 parts per thousand (ppt), though optimal growth occurs in freshwater systems with minimal tidal influence.[42] These habitats typically feature standing or slow-flowing water, allowing Typha to establish in areas with consistent moisture but variable flow regimes.[46] The plants prefer anaerobic, nutrient-rich mud substrates that support their extensive rhizome systems, tolerating a broad range of soil textures from clays to sands and organic-rich sediments.[4] Water depths suitable for Typha range from 0 to 1.5 meters, with peak productivity in shallower zones of 0 to 0.5 meters, though they can persist in deeper flooding up to 1 meter or more under favorable nutrient conditions.[47] Soil pH tolerance spans approximately 4 to 8, encompassing mildly acidic to alkaline conditions, which enables adaptation to diverse wetland chemistries without significant stress.[48] As indicators of eutrophication, Typha species demonstrate high nutrient uptake, particularly of nitrogen and phosphorus, thriving in enriched environments but capable of surviving in lower-nutrient settings through efficient resource allocation.[36] Climatically, Typha is versatile, occurring from tropical to temperate zones, with rhizomes exhibiting frost tolerance that permits survival in regions experiencing winter temperatures as low as -40°C.[49] This dormancy mechanism allows regrowth in spring across hardiness zones 3 to 10, from subtropical wetlands to northern temperate marshes.[50] Within their habitats, Typha often forms monotypic stands that modify local microhabitats by reducing water flow velocities and promoting sediment deposition, which further stabilizes anaerobic conditions and enhances organic matter accumulation.[51] This alteration can lead to sediment acidification over time through the buildup of decaying plant material, influencing long-term habitat dynamics.Ecological role and interactions
Typha species fulfill several key ecosystem services in wetlands, including shoreline stabilization through their robust rhizome networks that bind sediments and mitigate erosion during high water flows or storms. This structural role is particularly evident in estuarine and riparian zones, where dense stands reduce wave energy and sediment resuspension. Additionally, Typha excels in phytoremediation, absorbing and accumulating heavy metals such as cadmium, cobalt, manganese, and lead, as well as excess nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus from contaminated waters; for instance, Typha latifolia has demonstrated removal efficiencies exceeding 70% for cadmium and up to 90% for phosphorus in constructed wetland systems treating industrial wastewater. These plants also provide essential habitat, offering nesting and cover for birds like red-winged blackbirds and marsh wrens, breeding sites for amphibians such as frogs, and refuge for aquatic insects, thereby supporting wetland biodiversity. In the food web, Typha acts as a primary producer, converting sunlight into biomass that sustains higher trophic levels; its rhizomes and seeds are a vital food source for waterfowl including ducks and geese, while muskrats consume the starchy rhizomes and use the plants for nest-building materials. The extensive root systems further harbor macroinvertebrates, such as snails and insect larvae, which serve as prey for fish, amphibians, and birds, facilitating energy transfer across the aquatic-terrestrial interface. However, in monotypic stands, Typha can homogenize habitats, potentially diminishing macroinvertebrate diversity by limiting structural complexity and periphyton availability. Despite these benefits, Typha angustifolia and its hybrid Typha × glauca exhibit invasive tendencies in North American wetlands, particularly in disturbed sites, where rapid vegetative propagation via rhizomes enables them to outcompete native vegetation and form dense monocultures that reduce overall biodiversity in prairie pothole regions. This aggression is amplified in eutrophic conditions and altered landscapes, leading to losses in open water and native plant diversity. Recent analyses, including 2025 studies on hydrologic stabilization, underscore how these invaders persist in modified environments, yet they may offer localized microhabitat benefits—such as refuge for select invertebrates and birds—amid broader ecological homogenization. Ecological interactions of Typha include allelopathic effects mediated by phenolic compounds, such as ferulic and syringic acids, released from decaying tissues, which inhibit seed germination and growth of competing native species like Phragmites australis, thereby facilitating Typha dominance. Symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, including heterotrophic and methanotrophic strains in root zones, enhance plant nutrient uptake; acetylene reduction assays have measured fixation in Typha latifolia rhizospheres, supporting growth in nutrient-poor sediments. Typha populations expand in response to environmental disturbances, thriving under eutrophication where elevated nitrogen (e.g., >30 g m⁻² y⁻¹) boosts biomass and invasion success, as well as hydrologic alterations like stabilized water levels that favor seedling establishment over fluctuating regimes. Fire events can suppress aboveground growth temporarily but stimulate rhizome sprouting in phosphorus-enriched soils, while overall, the genus contributes to carbon sequestration, with rhizomes storing up to 40% more belowground biomass under elevated CO₂, aiding long-term sediment carbon accumulation in wetlands.Human uses
Culinary uses
Typha species, commonly known as cattails, have been utilized as a food source by various cultures, with several parts of the plant being edible when harvested at the appropriate growth stage. The young shoots, emerging in spring, can be peeled and eaten raw or cooked similarly to asparagus, offering a tender, mild flavor. These shoots are typically boiled for 10-15 minutes or steamed to enhance palatability and reduce any potential bitterness. Rhizomes, the underground stems, are rich in starch and can be harvested year-round; they are often roasted, boiled, or dried and ground into a flour for baking or thickening. The pollen, collected in early summer from the male flower spikes, imparts a nutty taste and is sifted into batters for pancakes, breads, or cakes, substituting up to one-third of regular flour. Roots may also be processed to extract starch by crushing and rinsing, yielding a gluten-free powder suitable for various dishes. Traditional preparation methods vary across indigenous practices. In North America, Native American groups such as the Iroquois macerated and boiled rhizomes to create a syrup used in cornmeal puddings or as a sweetener, while others ground the rhizomes into flour for flatbreads or bannock during times of scarcity, viewing Typha as a reliable famine food. The young flower spikes, when immature and green, are boiled for 15-20 minutes and consumed like corn on the cob, sometimes seasoned with butter and salt. In some Asian contexts, tender shoot bases are incorporated into salads or lightly stir-fried, though culinary uses remain more prominent in traditional foraging than mainstream dishes. Nutritionally, Typha provides significant carbohydrates, particularly from rhizomes containing 30-46% starch by dry weight, along with moderate protein levels around 5-6%. Young shoots offer vitamins A and C, beta-carotene, and minerals such as potassium and phosphorus, contributing to their value as a seasonal green. Pollen is notably high in protein, making it a valuable additive for nutrient-dense baked goods. These components position Typha as a calorie-efficient wild food, with rhizome flour providing approximately 266 kcal per 100 grams. Safety considerations are essential for consumption. Only young, tender parts should be harvested, as mature plants become fibrous and less digestible; species like Typha latifolia are preferred for their palatability over more astringent varieties. While not inherently toxic, Typha accumulates pollutants from surrounding water, so foraging should avoid contaminated wetlands near industrial or agricultural sites. Oxalates, present in some plant tissues, are minimal in edible portions when properly prepared, but overconsumption of raw mature parts could cause mild irritation; cooking mitigates this risk.Fiber, construction, and biofuel
Typha species have been utilized for fiber extraction from their leaves and stems, which are processed into durable materials for traditional crafts. The long, flat leaves are harvested, dried, and split to yield fibers suitable for weaving into baskets, mats, hats, and cordage, a practice documented across various cultures due to the plant's tensile strength and flexibility.[52] Historically, in Europe, Typha stems served as thatching material for roofs, providing effective water resistance and insulation in rural buildings, while in Asia, similar uses extended to mats and roofing in wetland-adjacent communities.[53] In construction, fibers from Typha leaves and stems, rich in content, have been incorporated into adobe mixtures to enhance structural stability and thermal performance, reducing cracking in earthen walls while improving breathability.[54] Stalks and leaves are processed into biocomposite boards, often bound with natural adhesives like magnesite, yielding materials with low thermal conductivity (around 0.055 W/m·K) and high compressive strength suitable for wall and roof insulation in modern sustainable building projects.[55] These boards, such as TYPHABOARD, demonstrate load-bearing capacity comparable to conventional insulators, supporting eco-friendly retrofits in humid climates.[56] Typha holds significant potential as a biofuel feedstock, leveraging its rapid growth and high biomass accumulation. Annual yields can reach 20-30 tons of dry matter per hectare under optimal wetland conditions, making it a viable second-generation biofuel crop that avoids competition with food production.[57] Ethanol production utilizes the starch-rich rhizomes, which are hydrolyzed and fermented to yield bioethanol, with studies showing conversion efficiencies suitable for scalable biorefineries.[58] Additionally, anaerobic digestion of stems and leaves produces biogas, with methane yields enhanced by pretreatment methods like alkaline soaking, offering a renewable energy source from wetland biomass.[59] Research emphasizes Typha's role in integrated paludiculture systems for carbon-neutral biofuels. As of 2025, paludiculture systems using Typha for biofuel production are increasingly adopted in Europe for carbon-neutral energy, with yields supporting climate mitigation.[60] The pulped stems of Typha have been employed in paper production, particularly for low-grade, coarse papers. Historical records from China indicate use of Typha fibers in traditional papermaking, where stems are boiled and beaten into pulp to create strong, absorbent sheets for packaging and writing.[61] Modern trials confirm the fibers' suitability for handmade paper, with yields around 13% from dry material and properties like high opacity and tear resistance, though limited by lower brightness compared to wood pulp.[62] Agriculturally, Typha rhizomes serve as mulch to suppress weeds and retain soil moisture in wetland-adjacent farming, while chopped stalks provide limited fodder for livestock due to their coarse texture and moderate protein content (about 11.5%).[63] Ensiling improves palatability for ruminants, allowing partial substitution in low-quality forage diets, but coarseness restricts widespread use.[64] As a renewable, low-input crop, Typha thrives in marginal wetlands without irrigation or fertilizers, promoting sustainability by restoring degraded habitats and sequestering carbon.[65] However, harvesting wet biomass poses challenges, including high moisture content (up to 80%) that complicates drying and transport, alongside logistical issues in flooded areas that increase costs and environmental impact if not managed carefully.[66] These factors underscore the need for specialized machinery to ensure viable, eco-friendly production.[57]Medicinal and other applications
Typha species have been employed in traditional medicine across various cultures for their therapeutic properties. Rhizome decoctions are used to treat diarrhea and applied topically for burns and wounds, owing to their astringent and anti-inflammatory effects.[67] Pollen from Typha angustifolia serves as a hemostatic agent for controlling bleeding, including internal and uterine hemorrhages, and is valued in traditional Chinese medicine for promoting microcirculation and wound healing.[68] Flavonoids isolated from the pollen exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, supporting its historical use in treating blood stasis and gynecological disorders.[69] In environmental remediation, Typha plants are effective in phytoremediation, absorbing heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury from contaminated wastewater and soils.[70] Species like Typha latifolia and Typha domingensis accumulate these metals primarily in their roots and rhizomes, facilitating their removal in constructed wetlands designed for treating acid mine drainage and industrial effluents.[71] Additionally, Typha aids in nutrient uptake, reducing excess nitrogen and phosphorus levels to mitigate eutrophication in polluted waters.[72] Beyond medicine and remediation, Typha finds diverse cultural applications. Indigenous North American communities, such as the Chippewa and Ojibwa, fashion dolls and floating toy ducks from folded leaves, while dried stalks serve as shafts for arrows and hand drills.[73] Burning the mature flower heads produces smoke that acts as a traditional insect repellent, a practice with roots in Native American customs for warding off mosquitoes.[74] Ornamentally, Typha minima, a dwarf species, is cultivated in gardens and small ponds for its compact form and decorative seed heads, reaching only about 1 meter in height.[32] For conservation and management, controlling invasive Typha stands involves mechanical methods like cutting or mowing, often combined with prescribed burning to reduce biomass and prevent regrowth.[75] Herbicides such as glyphosate and imazapyr are applied selectively in aquatic settings to target dense infestations while minimizing harm to native species.[36] In restoration efforts, Typha's root systems are leveraged for erosion control along shorelines, stabilizing sediments in degraded wetlands and aiding habitat recovery.[76] Recent research highlights Typha's dual role in invaded wetlands. A 2025 study in the Prairie Pothole Region documented the rapid range expansion of hybrid Typha × glauca, underscoring its impact on local biodiversity while noting potential benefits in bioremediation.[45] Another 2025 assessment revealed that invasive Typha supports certain wildlife habitats amid vegetation shifts, though it reduces overall species richness, and enhances pollutant removal in restoration projects.[77] Emerging bioremediation initiatives emphasize harvesting Typha from constructed wetlands to simultaneously manage invasives and extract heavy metals and salts.[78]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Typha