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This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
In meditation, chakras are often visualised in different ways, such as a lotus flower, or a disc containing a particular deity.

A chakra (/ˈtʃʌkrəˌˈtʃæk-ˌˈtʃɑːk-/;[1] Sanskrit: चक्र, romanized: cakra, lit. 'wheel, circle'; Pali: cakka) is a meditation-aid in the form of a psychic or psychospiritual energy-center in the subtle body, as visualized in a variety of Hindu and Buddhist tantric yoga and meditation practices.[2][3][4]

Medieval Buddhist texts from 8th century CE mention four or five chakras, while Hindu sources have various numbers.[2][3][5] The best-known variant has seven chakras, as described in Sir John Woodroffe's 1919 book The Serpent Power, a rough translation of Pūrṇānanda Yati's Ṣaṭ-chakra-nirūpaṇa ("Explanation of the Six Chakras," 1577).[6]

Modern Western Occultism views chakras as actual though esoteric energy-centers. This view arose in the 1880s with H. P. Blavatsky and other Theosophists,[7] and was subsequently shaped by Woodroffe's The Serpent Power, and Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras. Psychological and other attributes, rainbow colours, and a wide range of correspondences with other systems such as alchemy, astrology, gemstones, homeopathy, Kabbalah and Tarot were added later.

Etymology

[edit]
See also: Yantra and Mandala

Lexically, chakra is the Indic reflex of an ancestral Indo-European form *kʷékʷlos, whence also "wheel" and "cycle" (Ancient Greek: κύκλος, romanized: kýklos).[8][2][3] It has both literal[9] and metaphorical uses, as in the "wheel of time" or "wheel of dharma", such as in Rigveda hymn verse 1.164.11,[10][11] pervasive in the earliest Vedic texts.

In Buddhism, especially in Theravada, the Pali noun cakka connotes "wheel".[12] Within the Buddhist scriptures referred to as the Tripitaka, Shakyamuni Buddha variously refers the "dhammacakka", or "wheel of dharma", connoting that this dharma, universal in its advocacy, should bear the marks characteristic of any temporal dispensation. Shakyamuni Buddha spoke of freedom from cycles in and of themselves, whether karmic, reincarnative, liberative, cognitive or emotional.[13]

In Jainism, the term chakra also means "wheel" and appears in various contexts in its ancient literature.[14] As in other Indian religions, chakra in esoteric theories in Jainism such as those by Buddhisagarsuri means a yogic energy center.[15]

Origins

[edit]
See also: Yoga and Nadi (yoga)
Chakra iconography may derive from the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar.[16]

The word chakra appears to first emerge within the Vedas, though not in the sense of psychic energy centers, rather as chakravartin or the king who "turns the wheel of his empire" in all directions from a center, representing his influence and power.[17] The iconography popular in representing the Chakras, states the scholar David Gordon White, traces back to the five symbols of yajna, the Vedic fire altar: "square, circle, triangle, half moon and dumpling".[16]

The hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda mentions a renunciate yogi with a female named kunannamā. Literally, it means "she who is bent, coiled", representing both a minor goddess and one of many embedded enigmas and esoteric riddles within the Rigveda. Some scholars, such as D.G. White and Georg Feuerstein, have suggested that she may be a reference to kundalini shakti and a precursor to the terminology associated with the chakras in later tantric traditions.[18][19][20]

Breath channels (nāḍi) are mentioned in the classical Upanishads of Hinduism from the 1st millennium BCE,[21][22] but not psychic-energy chakra theories. Three classical Nadis are Ida, Pingala and Sushumna in which the central channel Sushumna is said to be foremost as per Kṣurikā-Upaniṣhad.[23]

According to David Gordon White, hierarchies of inner energy centers were introduced about 8th-century CE in Buddhist texts such as the Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti.[21][24] These are called by various terms such as cakka, padma (lotus) or pitha (mound).[21] These medieval Buddhist texts mention only four chakras, while later Hindu texts such as the Kubjikāmata and Kaulajñānanirnaya expanded the list to many more.[21]

In contrast to White, according to Feuerstein, early Upanishads of Hinduism do mention chakras in the sense of "psychospiritual vortices", along with other terms found in tantra: prana or vayu (life energy) along with nadi (energy carrying arteries).[19] According to Gavin Flood, the ancient texts do not present chakra and kundalini-style yoga theories although these words appear in the earliest Vedic literature in many contexts. The chakra in the sense of four or more vital energy centers appear in the medieval era Hindu and Buddhist texts.[25][21]

The 10th century Kubjikāmatatantra describes a system of five chakras which serve as the seats of five sets of divine female beings, namely the Devīs, the Dūtīs, the Mātṛs, the Yoginīs and the Khecarīs.[5]

Classical traditions

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Sapta Chakra, an 1899 manuscript, illustrates the esoteric correspondence(s) between subtle energy and Tibetan psycho-physiology.[26]

Meditation aid

[edit]

The important chakras are stated in Hindu and Buddhist texts to be arranged in a column along the spinal cord, from its base to the top of the head, connected by vertical channels.[4][27] The tantric traditions sought to master them, awaken and energize them through various breathing exercises or with assistance of a teacher. These chakras were also symbolically mapped to specific human physiological capacity, seed syllables (bija), sounds, subtle elements (tanmatra), in some cases deities, colors and other motifs.[2][4][28]

The chakras are traditionally considered meditation aids. The yogi progresses from lower chakras to the highest chakra blossoming in the crown of the head, internalizing the journey of spiritual ascent.[29] In both the Hindu kundalini and Buddhist candali traditions, the chakras are pierced by a dormant energy residing near or in the lowest chakra. In Hindu texts she is known as Kundalini, while in Buddhist texts she is called Candali or Tummo (Tibetan: gtum mo, "fierce one").[30]

The chakra relates to subtle body, wherein it has a position but no definite nervous node or precise physical connection. The tantric systems envision it as continually present, highly relevant and a means to psychic and emotional energy. It is useful in a type of yogic rituals and meditative discovery of radiant inner energy (prana flows) and mind-body connections.[27][31] The meditation is aided by extensive symbology, mantras, diagrams, models (deity and mandala). The practitioner proceeds step by step from perceptible models, to increasingly abstract models where deity and external mandala are abandoned, inner self and internal mandalas are awakened.[32][33]

Subtle body

[edit]
An illustration of a Shaiva Nath chakra system, folio 2 from the Nath Charit, 1823. Mehrangarh Museum Trust.

Chakra and divine energies

Shining, she holds
the noose made of the energy of will,
the hook which is energy of knowledge,
the bow and arrows made of energy of action.
Split into support and supported,
divided into eight, bearer of weapons,
arising from the chakra with eight points,
she has the ninefold chakra as a throne.

—Yoginihrdaya 53–54
(Translator: Andre Padoux)[34]

The chakras are part of esoteric ideas and concepts about physiology and psychic centers that emerged across Indian traditions.[21][35] The belief held that human life simultaneously exists in two parallel dimensions, one "physical body" (sthula sarira) and other "psychological, emotional, mind, non-physical" it is called the "subtle body" (sukshma sarira).[36][note 1] This subtle body is energy, while the physical body is mass. The psyche or mind plane corresponds to and interacts with the body plane, and the belief holds that the body and the mind mutually affect each other.[4] The subtle body consists of nadi (energy channels) connected by nodes of psychic energy called chakra.[2] The belief grew into extensive elaboration, with some suggesting 88,000 chakras throughout the subtle body. The number of major chakras varied between various traditions, but they typically ranged between four and seven.[2][3]

The classical eastern traditions, particularly those that developed in India during the 1st millennium AD, primarily describe nadi and chakra in a "subtle body" context.[38] To them, they are in same dimension as of the psyche-mind reality that is invisible yet real. In the nadi and cakra flow the prana (breath, life energy).[38][39] The concept of "life energy" varies between the texts, ranging from simple inhalation-exhalation to far more complex association with breath-mind-emotions-sexual energy.[38] This prana or essence is what vanishes when a person dies, leaving a gross body. Some of this concept states this subtle body is what withdraws within, when one sleeps. All of it is believed to be reachable, awake-able and important for an individual's body-mind health, and how one relates to other people in one's life.[38] This subtle body network of nadi and chakra is, according to some later Indian theories and many New Age speculations, closely associated with emotions.[38][40]

Buddhist tantra

[edit]
A Tibetan illustration of the subtle body showing the central channel, two side channels, and five chakras
A Tibetan thangka showing six chakras[41]
Main article: Vajrayana

The esoteric traditions in Buddhism generally teach four chakras.[2] In some Buddhist tantric sources, these chakras are identified as: manipura (navel), anahata (heart), vishuddha (throat) and ushnisha kamala (crown).[42] In one development within the Nyingma lineage of the Mantrayana of Tibetan Buddhism, a popular conceptualization of chakras emerged, arranged in increasing subtlety and order. The names of the four basic Buddhist cakras are derived from the four kayas (bodies of the Buddha): nirmana (genitals), sambhoga (throat), dharmakaya (heart), and mahāsukha (crown of the head),[43] which correspond to four of the seven chakras in the Shaiva Mantramarga universe, namely Svadhisthana, Anahata, Visuddha, and Sahasrara.[44] However, depending on the meditational tradition, these vary between three and six.[42] The chakras are considered psycho-spiritual constituents, each bearing meaningful correspondences to cosmic processes and their postulated Buddha counterpart.[45][42]

A system of five chakras is common among the Mother class of Tantras and these five chakras along with their correspondences are:[46]

Chakras play a key role in Tibetan Buddhism, and are considered to be the pivotal providence of Tantric thinking. And, the precise use of the chakras across the gamut of tantric sadhanas gives little space to doubt the primary efficacy of Tibetan Buddhism as distinct religious agency, that being that precise revelation that, without Tantra there would be no Chakras, but more importantly, without Chakras, there is no Tibetan Buddhism. The highest practices in Tibetan Buddhism point to the ability to bring the subtle pranas of an entity into alignment with the central channel, and to thus penetrate the realisation of the ultimate unity, namely, the "organic harmony" of one's individual consciousness of Wisdom with the co-attainment of All-embracing Love, thus synthesizing a direct cognition of absolute Buddhahood.[47]

According to Samuel, the Buddhist esoteric systems developed cakra and nāḍi as "central to their soteriological process". The theories were sometimes, but not always, coupled with a unique system of physical exercises, called yantra yoga or 'phrul 'khor.[48] Chakras, according to the Bon tradition, enable the gestalt of experience, with each of the five major chakras, being psychologically linked with the five experiential qualities of unenlightened consciousness, the six realms of woe.[49]

The Tsa Lung practice embodied in the Trul khor lineage, unbaffles the primary channels, thus activating and circulating liberating prana. Yoga awakens the deep mind, thus bringing forth positive attributes, inherent gestalts, and virtuous qualities. In a computer analogy, the screen of one's consciousness is slated and an attribute-bearing file is called up that contains necessary positive or negative, supportive qualities.[49] Tantric practice is said to eventually transform all experience into clear light. The practice aims to liberate from all negative conditioning, and the deep cognitive salvation of freedom from control and unity of perception and cognition.[49]

Hinduism

[edit]

Shaiva and Shakta tantra

[edit]
Further information: Kundalini energy

Some early Shaivite formulations of chakras can be seen in the six-cakra system of the Netra Tantra (700-850 CE)[50] and the eight-cakra system of the Kaulajñāna-nirṇ aya.[51] However, the chakra methodology is extensively developed in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism. It is an important concept in Shakta practice, along with yantras, mandalas, and kundalini yoga. In Shakta Tantrism, a chakra means a "circle" or an "energy center" within, as well as being a term for group rituals such as chakra-puja (worship within a circle), which may or may not involve tantric practice.[52] The chakra-based system is a part of the meditative exercises that came to be known as yoga.[53]

Within Kundalini yoga, the techniques of breathing exercises, visualizations, mudras, bandhas, kriyas, and mantras are focused on manipulating the flow of subtle energy through chakras.[27][54]

Contrast with classical yoga

[edit]

Chakra and related beliefs have been important to the esoteric traditions, but they are not directly related to mainstream yoga.[55] According to the Indologist Edwin Bryant and other scholars, the goals of classical yoga such as spiritual liberation (freedom, self-knowledge, moksha) is "attained entirely differently in classical yoga, and the cakra / nadi / kundalini physiology is completely peripheral to it."[56][57]

Similar concepts

[edit]

These ideas are not unique to Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Similar and overlapping concepts emerged in other cultures in the East and the West, and these are variously called by other names such as subtle body, spirit body, esoteric anatomy, sidereal body and etheric body.[58][59][37] According to Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, professors of Religious studies known for their studies on Yoga and esoteric traditions:

Ideas and practices involving so-called 'subtle bodies' have existed for many centuries in many parts of the world. (...) Virtually all human cultures known to us have some kind of concept of mind, spirit or soul as distinct from the physical body, if only to explain experiences such as sleep and dreaming. (...) An important subset of subtle-body practices, found particularly in Indian and Tibetan Tantric traditions, and in similar Chinese practices, involves the idea of an internal 'subtle physiology' of the body (or rather of the body-mind complex) made up of channels through which substances of some kind flow, and points of intersection at which these channels come together. In the Indian tradition the channels are known as nadi and the points of intersection as cakra.

— Geoffrey Samuel and Jay Johnston, Religion and the Subtle Body in Asia and the West: Between Mind and Body[60]

Belief in the chakra system of Hinduism and Buddhism differs from the historic Chinese system of meridians in acupuncture.[27]

Seven chakra system

[edit]
One schema of six chakras plus the sahasrara is as follows, from bottom to top: 1. Muladhara 2. Svadhisthana 3. Manipura 4. Anahata 5. Vishuddhi 6. Ajna 7. Sahasrara.[3] The colours are modern.[61]

Esoteric traditions in Hinduism mention numerous numbers and arrangements of chakras, of which a classical system of six-plus-one, the last being the Sahasrara, is most prevalent.[2][3][4] It incorporates six major chakras along with a seventh centre generally not regarded as a chakra. These points are arranged vertically along the axial channel (sushumna nadi in Hindu texts, Avadhuti in some Buddhist texts).[62] According to Gavin Flood, this system of six chakras plus the sahasrara "center" at the crown first appears in the Kubjikāmata-tantra, an 11th-century Kaula work.[63]

It was this chakra system that was translated in the early 20th century by Sir John Woodroffe (also called Arthur Avalon) in his book The Serpent Power. Avalon translated the Hindu text Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa meaning the examination (nirūpaṇa) of the six (ṣaṭ) chakras (cakra).[64]

Correspondence with yoginis

[edit]
Association of six yoginis with chakra locations in the Rudrayamala Tantra[65]
Place in subtle body Yogini Place in the Body
1. Muladhara Dakini Around the Perineum
2. Svadhisthana Rakini Around the Genitals
3. Manipura Lakini Around the Navel
4. Anahata Kakini Around the Heart
5. Vishuddhi Shakini Around the Throat
6. Ajna Hakini Around the Forehead

Hindu Tantra associates six Yoginis with six places in the subtle body, corresponding to the six chakras of the six-plus-one system.[65]


Western esoteric seven chakra system

[edit]
Chakra positions in supposed relation to nervous plexuses, from Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras

Kurt Leland, for the Theosophical Society in America, concluded that the western chakra system was produced by an "unintentional collaboration" of many groups of people: esotericists and clairvoyants, often theosophical; Indologists; the scholar of myth, Joseph Campbell; the founders of the Esalen Institute and the psychological tradition of Carl Jung; the colour system of Charles W. Leadbeater's 1927 book The Chakras,[66] treated as traditional lore by some modern Indian yogis; and energy healers such as Barbara Brennan.[61][67] Leland states that far from being traditional, the two main elements of the modern system, the rainbow colours and the list of qualities, first appeared together only in 1977.[61]

The concept of a set of seven chakras came to the West in the 1880s; at that time each chakra was associated with a nerve plexus.[61] In 1918, Sir John Woodroffe, alias Arthur Avalon, translated two Indian texts, the Ṣaṭ-Cakra-Nirūpaṇa and the Pādukā-Pañcaka, publishing and commenting on them both in his book The Serpent Power drew Western attention to the seven chakra theory.[68]

In the 1920s, each of the seven chakras was associated with an endocrine gland,[61] a tradition that has persisted.[69][70][71] More recently, the lower six chakras have been linked to both nerve plexuses and glands.[72] The seven rainbow colours were added by Leadbeater in 1927; a variant system in the 1930s proposed six colours plus white.[61] Leadbeater's theory was influenced by Johann Georg Gichtel's 1696 book Theosophia Practica, which mentioned inner "force centres".[73]

Psychological and other attributes such as layers of the aura, developmental stages, associated diseases, Aristotelian elements, emotions, and states of consciousness were added still later.[61] A wide range of supposed correspondences such as with alchemical metals, astrological signs and planets, foods, herbs, gemstones, homeopathic remedies, Kabbalistic spheres, musical notes, totem animals, and Tarot cards have also been proposed.[61]

New Age

[edit]
Further information: New Age

In Anatomy of the Spirit (1996), Caroline Myss described the function of chakras as follows: "Every thought and experience you've ever had in your life gets filtered through these chakra databases. Each event is recorded into your cells...".[74] The chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the spine to the top of the head. New Age practices often associate each chakra with a certain colour. In various traditions, each chakra is associated with a physiological functions, an aspect of consciousness, and a classical element; these do not correspond to those used in ancient Indian systems. The chakras are visualised as lotuses or flowers with a different number of petals in every chakra.[61]

The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of a physical, emotional and mental nature. They are considered loci of life spiritual energy or prana, which is thought to flow among them along pathways called nadi. The function of the chakras is to spin and draw in this energy to keep the spiritual, mental, emotional and physical health of the body in balance.[75]

Rudolf Steiner considered the chakra system to be dynamic and evolving. He suggested that this system has become different for modern people than it was in ancient times and that it will, in turn, be radically different in future.[76][77][78]

Below are the common new age description of these six chakras and the seventh point known as sahasrara. This new age version incorporates the Newtonian colours of the rainbow not found in any ancient Indian system.[61]

New age descriptions of the chakras
Image Name Sanskrit Location No. of petals Modern colour Mantra & element Description
Sahasrara सहस्रार (सहस्र-आर)
"Thousand-petaled"		 Crown 1000 White or Violet -
(Time & Space , Divine Consciousness)		 Highest spiritual centre, pure consciousness, containing neither object nor subject. When the feminine Kundalini Shakti rises to this point, it unites with the masculine Shiva, giving self-realization and samadhi.[3] In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Mahasukha, the petal lotus of "Great Bliss" corresponding to the fourth state of Four Noble Truths.[30]
Ajna आज्ञा
"Command"		 Between
eyebrows		 96 or 2 large petals of 48 each Indigo Om
(Light Or Darkness)		 Guru chakra, or in New Age usage third-eye chakra, the subtle center of energy, where the tantra guru touches the seeker during the initiation ritual. He or she commands the awakened kundalini to pass through this centre.[3]

Corresponds to the upper dantien in the Qigong system.

Vishuddha विशुद्ध
"Purest"		 Throat 16 Blue Ham
(Space)		 16 petals covered with the sixteen Sanskrit vowels. Associated with the element of space (akasha). The residing deity is Panchavaktra shiva, with 5 heads and 4 arms, and the Shakti is Shakini.[3]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Sambhoga and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Enjoyment" corresponding to the third state of Four Noble Truths.[30]

Anahata अनाहत (अन्-आहत)
"Unstruck"		 Heart 12 Green Yam
(Air)		 Within it is a yantra of two intersecting triangles, forming a hexagram, symbolising a union of the male and female, and the element of air (vayu). The presiding deity is Ishana Rudra Shiva, and the Shakti is Kakini.[3]

In esoteric Buddhism, this Chakra is called Dharma and is generally considered to be the petal lotus of "Essential nature" and corresponding to the second state of Four Noble Truths.[30]

Corresponds to the middle dantien in the Qigong system.

Manipura मणिपुर (मणि-पुर)
"Jewel city"		 Navel 10 Yellow Ram
(Fire)		 For the Nath yogi meditation system, this is described as the Madhyama-Shakti or the intermediate stage of self-discovery.[29] This chakra is represented as a downward pointing triangle representing fire in the middle of a lotus with ten petals. The presiding deity is Braddha Rudra, with Lakini as the Shakti.[3]
Svadhishthana स्वाधिष्ठान (स्व-आधिष्ठान)
"Self-standing"		 Root of
sexual organs		 6 Orange Vam
(Water)		 Svadhisthana is represented with a lotus within which is a crescent moon symbolizing the water element. The presiding deity is Brahma, with the Shakti being Rakini (or Chakini).[3]

In esoteric Buddhism, it is called Nirmana, the petal lotus of "Creation" and corresponding to the first state of Four Noble Truths.[30]

Corresponds to the lower dantien in the Qigong system.

Muladhara मूलाधार (मूल-आधार)
"Root"		 Base of
spine		 4 Red Lam
(Earth)		 Dormant Kundalini is often said to be resting here, wrapped three and a half, or seven or twelve times. Sometimes she is wrapped around the black Svayambhu linga, the lowest of three obstructions to her full rising (also known as knots or granthis).[79] It is symbolised as a four-petaled lotus with a yellow square at its center representing the element of earth.[3]

The seed syllable is Lam for the earth element. All sounds, words and mantras in their dormant form rest in the muladhara chakra, where Ganesha resides,[80] while the Shakti is Dakini.[81] The associated animal is the elephant.[82]

Skeptical response

[edit]
Further information: Scientific skepticism

There is no scientific evidence to prove chakras exist, nor is there any meaningful way to try and measure them scientifically.[83] The Edinburgh Skeptics Society claimed that there has never been any evidence for chakras.[84]

See also

[edit]
  • Aura
  • Dantian – energy centre in Chinese Taoist systems
  • Surya Namaskar – the Sun Salutation, in which each posture is sometimes associated with a chakra and a mantra

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Chakra

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In and certain Buddhist traditions, a chakra (Sanskrit: cakra, meaning "wheel" or "circle") refers to one of several focal points of energy, known as , within the , visualized as spinning wheels that regulate the flow of vital life force through channels called nadis. These energy centers are integral to practices in and , where they are believed to influence physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual well-being by connecting the material body to higher states of consciousness. The concept of chakras as energy centers originates from Tantric traditions in and , with the earliest textual references appearing around the 8th century CE and elaborated in literature from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. In Hindu traditions, the most commonly recognized system describes seven primary chakras aligned vertically along the spine, from the base to the crown of the head, each associated with specific physiological, psychological, and symbolic attributes. These include: the (root chakra) at the base of the spine, governing survival and grounding; Svadhisthana (sacral) in the lower abdomen, linked to creativity and emotions; (solar plexus) for personal power and digestion; (heart) for love and compassion; (throat) for communication; (third eye) between the eyebrows for intuition; and (crown) at the top of the head, representing spiritual enlightenment. While chakras hold no empirical basis in modern , they form the foundation of complementary therapies such as , , , and , which aim to balance these centers to alleviate imbalances potentially manifesting as physical ailments or emotional distress. In Buddhist contexts, the system varies, often emphasizing four main chakras focused on energy circulation during , though the model has predominated in global popularization since the through Western adaptations. The chakras' symbolism extends to mystical diagrams (yantras) and deities in Tantric rituals, underscoring their role in facilitating kundalini awakening—the ascent of dormant energy from the base chakra to achieve union with the divine.

Origins and Etymology

Etymology

The term chakra derives from the Sanskrit noun cakra (चक्र), literally meaning "wheel" or "circle," a concept rooted in the Proto-Indo-European *kʷékʷlos denoting something that revolves or moves in a circular motion. This etymological sense of rotation later informed esoteric interpretations of cakra as dynamic, spinning vortices of energy, though such connotations emerged much after its initial usage. In ancient Vedic literature, particularly the Rigveda (c. 1500–1200 BCE), cakra appeared over two dozen times to describe tangible wheels—such as those of chariots or carts—as well as metaphorical ones like the sun's disk (sūrya-cakra) or the chariot wheels of solar deities, and broader cosmic cycles symbolizing time and order (ṛta), without any reference to physiological or yogic energy loci. The semantic shift toward subtle body energy points occurred during the medieval period (c. 8th–16th centuries CE) within tantric texts, where cakra began denoting psychospiritual centers along the body's central channel, facilitating meditation and energy flow (prāṇa) in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Phonetically, the term adapted in related Indic languages: in Pali, the canonical language of Theravada Buddhism, it became cakka, preserving the "wheel" meaning in compounds like dhammacakka (wheel of dharma) to signify cosmic law and cyclic existence (saṃsāra). In Tibetan Buddhist contexts, it is transliterated as 'khor lo (འཁོར་ལོ་), equivalently "wheel" or "circle," applied to tantric energy nodes in practices like those of the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.

Historical Development

Ancient Indian Context

In ancient Indian cosmology, the foundational concepts of , or vital life force, and nadis, the subtle energy channels through which it flows, laid the groundwork for later understandings of dynamics that would evolve into chakra systems. Prana is depicted as the animating principle sustaining all life, circulating through the body to maintain physical and mental functions, as elaborated in early yogic and Ayurvedic texts where it is regulated through breath control to harmonize bodily energies. Nadis, numbering in the thousands according to preliminary yogic descriptions, form an intricate network facilitating the distribution of prana, with principal channels like ida and influencing physiological balance in Ayurvedic preliminaries focused on health and vitality. These elements underscore a holistic view of the human form as interconnected with cosmic energies, predating formalized chakra mappings. Artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization, dating to approximately 2500 BCE, have been speculatively linked by some scholars to early yogic concepts, though such connections remain highly speculative and lack direct textual corroboration. However, rigorous analyses emphasize that these artifacts more likely relate to broader cosmological or ritualistic themes rather than specific subtle body physiology. The integration of these ideas with Samkhya philosophy's notion of the subtle body, or sukshma sharira, further enriched pre-tantric frameworks by positing a non-physical layer of existence comprising vital airs (pranas), sensory organs, and mental faculties that govern internal energies. In Samkhya, the sukshma sharira serves as the vehicle for consciousness across lifetimes, channeling prana through subtle mechanisms to interact with the gross physical body, thus providing a dualistic model of purusha (consciousness) and prakriti (matter) where energy flows underpin experiential cycles. This philosophical construct, articulated in foundational texts like the Samkhya Karika, emphasized equilibrium in pranic currents without explicit energy centers, influencing early yogic explorations of bodily harmony. Key figures among early Upanishadic sages, such as in the (circa 700–500 BCE), alluded to internal energy cycles through teachings on 's primacy and its division into five principal winds (vayus) that govern , , circulation, and digestion, portraying as a dynamic, self-regulating force originating from the atman. These discourses highlight 's upward and downward movements as essential for vital processes, implicitly suggesting circulatory patterns within the body that sages sought to master through meditative inquiry, without naming discrete centers. Similarly, in the described 's pervasive role in sensory and cognitive functions, framing it as the bridge between individual and universal energies in cosmological dialogues.

Evolution in Tantric Traditions

The concept of chakras began to formalize within tantric traditions during the medieval period, particularly in the 8th to 10th centuries, as part of the esoteric subtle body frameworks developed in Kaula tantra lineages. These early tantric movements, emphasizing ritual and yogic visualization, introduced multi-chakra models ranging from 4 to 9 centers along the central channel (sushumna nadi), serving as loci for energy (prana) and divine embodiment. A pivotal text in this emergence is the Kubjikāmata Tantra (c. 10th century), which describes a system of six chakras, from the base (adhara or muladhara at the anus) through the svadhisthana, manipura, anahata, vishuddha, to the ajna between the eyes, integrating them with yogic practices for awakening latent energies. The familiar seven-chakra system, including the sahasrara at the crown, was standardized later, in texts such as the 16th-century Ṣaṭ-chakra-nirūpaṇa, synthesizing earlier variations. Key tantric scriptures from both Hindu and Buddhist lineages further elaborated chakras as symbolic lotuses (padma) inhabited by deities, facilitating meditative ascent and union with the divine. In the Buddhist Hevajra Tantra (c. 8th century), chakras are outlined as four primary centers—at the navel, heart, throat, and head—conceptualized within the subtle body for tantric completion-stage practices, though without explicit lotus imagery in this text. Complementing this, the Hindu Kaulāvalinirṇaya (c. 10th century), attributed to the Kaula tradition, depicts chakras as multi-petaled lotuses populated by specific deities and syllables, emphasizing their role in ritual nyasa (placement of mantras) and energy circulation. By the 15th century, the synthesis of tantric chakra models with practices marked a significant evolution, particularly in texts that integrated awakening as a central mechanism. The Hatha Yoga Pradīpikā, composed by Svātmārāma, blends earlier tantric subtle body concepts with physical techniques (, , ), portraying as a coiled serpent at the chakra that rises through successive centers to achieve liberation, thus popularizing chakra-based for broader yogic communities. Prior to later standardizations, tantric traditions exhibited considerable variation in chakra counts, reflecting diverse sectarian emphases. For instance, some Shaiva tantric systems described five chakras, aligning with elemental associations and simplified yogic paths, while others expanded to nine or more, adapting to specific worship and meditative schemas across Hindu and Buddhist contexts.

Traditional Frameworks

Hindu Tantric System

In the Hindu tantric traditions, particularly within Shakta and Shaiva lineages, chakras serve as pivotal energy centers representing the seats of , the divine feminine energy, aligned along the central sushumna in the . These centers facilitate the awakening and ascent of kundalini , enabling the practitioner to transcend ordinary and achieve union with the divine. In Shakta tantra, which emphasizes the worship of the as the supreme reality, chakras embody the dynamic interplay of () and (power), while Shaiva traditions integrate them into non-dual philosophies where the individual self mirrors the cosmic absolute. Key tantric texts, such as the 16th-century Shri-Tattva-Cintamani by Purnananda Swami, provide detailed visualizations of the chakra system, portraying each as a lotus with specific petals, associated deities, and geometric yantras that serve as meditative focal points. The sixth chapter of this text, known as the Shat-chakra-nirupana, describes the six primary chakras—from at the base to at the forehead—each linked to seed mantras (bijas) like lam for and vam for , which are intoned to invoke and balance the corresponding energies. These elements underscore the tantric emphasis on ritualistic to harmonize the , drawing from earlier Agamic traditions that evolved in . Practices within the Nath sampradaya, a key Shaiva tantric lineage, center on techniques designed to pierce the chakras and facilitate the upward flow of , often employing bandhas (energetic locks) and mudras (gestural seals) to direct and retain vital forces. For instance, bandha at the throat and mula bandha at the are used to seal energy within the sushumna, preventing dissipation and aiding kundalini's penetration of each chakra's granthis (psychic knots), as outlined in texts like the Gorakh-Samhita. These methods, rooted in the Nath tradition's experimental approach to the body as a yogic , aim to dissolve limitations and reveal innate siddhis (powers) while progressing toward liberation. Philosophically, chakras in Hindu tantra function as microcosmic reflections of the macrocosmic tattvas, the fundamental principles of reality derived from Sankhya cosmology, where the five lower chakras correspond to the gross elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether) evolving from primal consciousness. This correspondence embodies the tantric principle of "as in the macrocosm, so in the microcosm," allowing practitioners to purify and integrate personal energies with universal structures through meditative dissolution of elemental sheaths (koshas). Higher chakras, such as ajna and sahasrara, transcend these elements to access pure awareness, aligning the individual with the non-dual shiva-shakti reality central to tantric ontology.

Buddhist Tantric System

In Buddhism, chakras are conceptualized as "wheels of energy" or focal points within the , integral to advanced meditative practices that integrate visualization with the manipulation of internal energies for realizing and enlightenment. These energy centers serve as junctions where subtle winds (), channels (nadis), and drops (bindu) converge, facilitating the transformation of ordinary into non-dual during both generation and completion stages of tantric sadhana. Unlike more devotional frameworks, the Buddhist approach emphasizes a non-theistic orientation, where chakras are tools for dissolving conceptual elaborations into the primordial mind, often in conjunction with visualizations of deities such as or Chakrasamvara. A prominent application appears in Tibetan Buddhism's tummo (inner heat) practices, outlined in the Six Yogas of Naropa, a 11th-century system attributed to the Indian mahasiddha Naropa and transmitted through Tibetan lineages like the Kagyu and Gelug. Tummo meditation ignites blissful heat at the navel chakra to draw winds into the central channel, melting the white drop at the crown and generating four joys that purify obscurations, thereby accessing subtler states of consciousness. This practice, foundational to highest yoga tantra, uses the four primary chakras—navel (red, triangular, 64 petals), heart (white, circular, 8 petals), throat (red, circular, 16 petals), and crown (variegated, triangular, 32 petals)—as sites for wind dissolution, enhancing physical vitality and meditative stability. Key tantric texts, such as the Kalachakra Tantra (composed around the 10th century), describe a system of five to ten chakras intertwined with wind-energies and channels to propel practitioners toward buddhahood by synchronizing internal cycles with cosmic rhythms. In this framework, the six main chakras—crown (space), forehead (water), throat (fire), heart (wind), navel (earth), and secret (genitals, awareness)—host the dissolution of gross winds into the indestructible drop at the heart, culminating in the clear light of reality, free from dualistic grasping. Variations across Indo-Tibetan traditions often emphasize four principal chakras (navel, heart, throat, crown), each associated with specific winds and red/white drops carrying karmic potentials, allowing for targeted yogic control to transcend samsaric rebirth. In mahamudra traditions, which build on these subtle body practices, meditators visualize chakras sequentially dissolving—winds aggregating at the heart chakra, elements withdrawing inward—mirroring the death process to directly encounter the clear light mind during meditation or at the moment of dying. This visualization, drawn from completion-stage yogas, integrates the chakras' energies into non-conceptual luminosity, fostering the simultaneous arising of bliss and emptiness as the path to full awakening, without reliance on external rituals.

Core Chakra Models

The Seven-Chakra System

The seven-chakra system represents the most widely recognized model in Hindu Tantric traditions, comprising a linear arrangement of seven primary energy centers aligned along the from the base of the spine to the crown of the head. This framework gained its standardized form in the 16th-century text Sat-Cakra-Nirupana ("Description of the Six Centers," often including the seventh), composed by Purnananda , which synthesizes earlier Tantric concepts into a cohesive system for awakening. The chakras are visualized as lotus-like wheels or vortices (cakra meaning "wheel" in ) along the central sushumna , with each center corresponding to specific psycho-physical functions and serving as a locus for (vital energy). While modern interpretations associate chakras with colors progressing from red to violet, the original Tantric texts like Sat-Cakra-Nirupana describe different hues specific to each center. In sequence from lowest to highest, they are: at the base of the spine (perineum or root), Svadhisthana in the sacral region (near the genitals), at the solar plexus ( area), at the heart, at the throat, at the third eye (between the eyebrows), and at the crown. This vertical progression symbolizes the ascent of from material to transcendent states. Each chakra is associated with traditional symbolic elements, including colors as described in the text, the five gross elements plus subtler principles, presiding deities embodying divine aspects, and varying petal counts on their lotus mandalas representing phonetic seeds (matrika letters). The following table summarizes these core associations as detailed in Sat-Cakra-Nirupana:
ChakraLocationColorElementDeities (Examples)Petal Count
Base of spineCrimsonEarthBrahma, 4
SvadhisthanaSacral regionVermilionWater, Rakini6
Solar plexusBlue (rain-cloud)Fire, Lakini10
HeartVermilionAirIsha, Kakini12
ThroatSmoky purpleEtherSada-Shiva, Sakini16
WhiteMindHakini, Itara Siva2
CrownWhiteThoughtParama-Shiva1,000
These symbols facilitate , with the increasing petal numbers signifying expanding awareness. Activation of the system traditionally involves awakening , the dormant serpent power coiled at , and guiding its ascent through the chakras to union with at , dissolving psychic knots (granthis) along the way. Key methods include (breath control techniques like nadi shodhana and to balance ida and nadis and direct into sushumna), asanas (postures such as and bhujangasana to stabilize the physical body and align energy channels), and recitation (bija sounds like "Lam" for or "Om" for to vibrate and purify each center). These practices, rooted in hatha and tantric , are performed sequentially under guidance to ensure safe progression and culminate in (enlightened absorption).

Variations and Symbolism

While the seven-chakra model has gained prominence in many traditions, tantric texts describe numerous alternative configurations tailored to specific meditative or yogic practices. For instance, some early hatha yoga frameworks emphasize a four-chakra system focused on the lower body, integrating centers at the perineum, genitals, navel, and heart to facilitate energy ascent through physical postures and breath control. In advanced tantric lineages, such as those in the Nath tradition, a nine-chakra system extends beyond the standard model by incorporating additional transpersonal centers above the crown, including points at the palate and beyond the head to symbolize expanded consciousness and union with the divine. Similarly, the Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra, a key Shaiva text from around the 9th century, outlines a twelve-chakra arrangement along the central channel, with four centers between the eyebrow and crown, emphasizing subtle energy flows for non-dual realization. These variations reflect the mutable nature of chakra mappings in tantra, where the number and placement adapt to the practitioner's lineage and goal, often prioritizing fewer or more centers over a fixed seven. Central to chakra symbolism across these models is the lotus-like structure, where the number of petals corresponds to specific letters from the alphabet, representing vibrational essences that awaken latent energies when meditated upon. For example, the root chakra's four petals bear the letters va, śa, ṣa, and sa, evoking element stability, while higher centers like the chakra feature sixteen petals linked to sounds for expressive purification. At the core of each chakra lies the bindu, a radiant point symbolizing the union of (pure ) and (dynamic ), depicted as a white or red drop that integrates opposites into wholeness during contemplative practices. Chakras also align with sensory faculties and celestial bodies; the root center corresponds to smell and the planet Saturn for grounding, the heart to touch and the Sun for , and the third eye to mind and the for , illustrating how these centers harmonize bodily perceptions with cosmic rhythms in tantric cosmology. In broader cultural contexts, chakra-like subtle centers appear in Jain esotericism, where energy wheels along the spine connect to the soul's purification, sometimes associated with the enlightened states of tirthankaras as archetypal guides for karmic dissolution. Sufi traditions offer parallels through the lataif-e-sitta, six psycho-spiritual organs (, , sirr, ruh, khafi, akhfa) mapped to the body—such as the heart for divine love and for hidden essence—functioning as loci for purifying the ego toward unity with the divine, akin to tantric energy awakenings. Artistically, chakras manifest in medieval Indian temple iconography as intricate mandalas and yantras, geometric diagrams etched in stone or bronze that encode chakra lotuses for ritual focus; for example, the 10th-12th century Chola temples in feature motifs with interlocking triangles symbolizing chakra bindus, inviting devotees to visualize energy ascension amid sacred architecture. These depictions, rooted in Shaiva and Shakta , transform temples into living yantras where walls and shrines mirror the body's subtle .

Western Adaptations

Transmission and Early History

The transmission of chakra concepts to the West occurred primarily through colonial-era Orientalist scholarship and esoteric movements in the 19th and early 20th centuries, bridging traditional Indian Tantric frameworks with Western intellectual and spiritual interests. British judge and scholar Sir , under the pseudonym Arthur Avalon, was instrumental in this process with his 1919 book The Serpent Power, which provided the first comprehensive English translation and commentary on Tantric texts like the Ṣaṭ-cakra-nirūpaṇa by Pūrṇānanda Yati, detailing the seven-chakra system along the subtle body's central channel. Woodroffe's work drew from authentic sources encountered during his tenure in , emphasizing the esoteric physiology of awakening without the clairvoyant embellishments that later characterized popular adaptations. Complementing this scholarly introduction, the integrated chakras into Western occultism by fusing Eastern metaphysics with clairvoyant insights. , a prominent Theosophist, published The Chakras in 1927, describing the centers as luminous wheels observed through higher perception, assigning them specific colors, petal counts, and associations with physical nerve plexuses and endocrine glands—elements not uniformly present in classical Tantric descriptions. This text, reprinted extensively since its release, marked a shift toward visualizing chakras as accessible tools for within Theosophical circles, influencing subsequent esoteric literature. Preceding these efforts, Indian yoga pioneer contributed to the conceptual groundwork in his 1896 book Raja Yoga, where he referenced subtle internal centers or plexuses governing flow and psychic powers, adapting Patanjali's Yoga Sutras for Western readers while alluding to the body's energetic architecture. These discussions of subtle centers, akin to the traditional chakra loci along the sushumna, resonated in Western occult groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, fostering early interest in yogic esotericism. The post-World War II era saw accelerated dissemination through direct teachings by Indian gurus in the United States, amid the rise of countercultural spirituality. In 1969, (Harbhajan Singh Khalsa) immigrated from and established the Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization (), openly instructing practices that focused on activating chakras via kriyas, breathwork, and mantras—traditionally secretive techniques now shared publicly to address modern stresses. However, Bhajan and have been the subject of significant controversies, including allegations of , financial manipulation, and cult-like practices, as detailed in independent investigations and former members' accounts up to 2025. Bhajan's classes in and beyond attracted Western seekers in the 1960s and 1970s, embedding chakra awareness within the broader boom and laying the foundation for its mainstream integration.

New Age and Contemporary Interpretations

In the movement, chakras have been reinterpreted as psychological and emotional energy centers, mapping stages to the traditional seven-chakra system. Anodea Judith's seminal 1987 book Wheels of Life: A User's Guide to the Chakra System popularized this framework, associating the root chakra () with themes of security, survival, and grounding in the physical world, while linking the heart chakra () to , , and relational . These mappings extend to other chakras, such as the sacral (Svadhisthana) for creativity and emotions, and the throat () for communication, influencing countless practices by framing chakra imbalances as manifestations of unresolved psychological issues. Contemporary therapeutic applications integrate chakra balancing into holistic wellness modalities. In , practitioners channel universal life energy to align chakras, often placing hands over specific centers to clear blockages and restore flow, as outlined in foundational Reiki training materials. Crystal healing assigns stones to chakras for vibrational resonance; for instance, red jasper supports the chakra for stability, while rose quartz aids the heart chakra for emotional healing. Sound therapy employs solfeggio frequencies, such as 396 Hz for the chakra to release and 639 Hz for the heart chakra to foster connections, drawing from ancient tonal scales adapted for modern . Chakras permeate pop culture through digital tools and self-help literature, making ancient concepts accessible for daily . Post-2010 works by authors like , such as Super Attractor (2019), weave chakra awareness into manifestation practices, encouraging alignment for stress reduction and purpose-finding. classes worldwide incorporate chakra-focused sequences, blending poses like child's pose for the chakra with breathwork, while apps like Insight Timer offer guided chakra meditations, with over 250,000 free sessions including chakra-specific tracks for beginners. These integrations appear in self-help ecosystems, from podcasts to wellness retreats, democratizing chakra work for emotional resilience. Globally, chakras hybridize with modern , where practitioners correlate doshas (Vata, , Kapha) to chakra health; for example, Vata imbalances may disrupt the root chakra, addressed through grounding herbs like ashwagandha and poses in Ayurvedic yoga therapy. apps further this fusion, such as Calm's chakra-balancing series combining Ayurvedic principles with guided visualizations for holistic energy management. Surveys indicate growing Western acceptance, with 26% of U.S. adults in 2023 reporting belief in spiritual energy residing in physical forms like , often linked to chakra concepts, reflecting a 21st-century rise in such views.

Critical Perspectives

Scientific and Skeptical Views

Scientific and skeptical perspectives on chakras emphasize the absence of supporting their existence as literal energy centers, viewing them instead as cultural or psychological constructs without verifiable physiological correlates. Numerous reviews in medical and conclude that there is no robust, peer-reviewed proof for chakras as detectable entities, with claims often dismissed as pseudoscientific due to failure to meet criteria under controlled conditions. Skeptics argue that chakras lack any anatomical basis, as they do not correspond to identifiable structures in human physiology and cannot be observed using standard imaging techniques such as MRI or through devices measuring physiological responses like or skin conductance. Some studies suggest possible associations between chakras and endocrine glands or plexuses, such as the hypogastric plexus for the chakra, but these remain preliminary, speculative, and unconfirmed by robust independent replication, with critics noting that any perceived alignments are post-hoc correlations rather than causal evidence. A 2005 pilot study in the Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine on for knee osteoarthritis reported symptom improvements, which the authors suggested may be due to the physical aspects of , aligning with broader evidence attributing benefits to exercise and relaxation rather than concepts like chakra activation. From a psychological standpoint, experiences associated with chakras are often explained as somatic metaphors for emotional states, serving as symbolic frameworks for self-reflection similar to , but devoid of any validated subtle energy component. himself interpreted the chakra system psychologically in his writings on , seeing it as a map of inner development rather than literal , a view echoed in modern analyses that frame chakra work as therapeutic imagery without empirical support for energetic claims. Prominent skeptics, including magician and investigator through his , have debunked related claims like energy healing since the 1980s, offering million-dollar challenges unmet by chakra proponents demonstrating measurable effects under test conditions. The (CSI, formerly CSICOP) has similarly critiqued chakra-based practices in publications like , highlighting instances of sessions invoking chakras as reliant on suggestion rather than objective energy transfer. In the 2020s, some perspectives attribute sensations from chakra-related practices to placebo effects or physiological mechanisms like from breathing exercises, though direct evidence for chakra-specific effects remains absent. As of 2025, major health organizations continue to state there is no supporting chakras as functional energy centers. While chakra-related practices such as and are acknowledged for potential benefits like reduced stress and improved mood—evidenced in systematic reviews showing decreased levels and enhanced through physiological pathways—these outcomes are not attributed to chakra energy but to established mechanisms like and .

Cultural and Psychological Analyses

The Western commodification of chakras within the global wellness industry has fueled ongoing debates about cultural appropriation, where ancient Indian spiritual concepts are repackaged for profit, often detached from their original tantric and yogic contexts. Scholarly analyses highlight how this process transforms chakras into accessible self-help tools in yoga studios, books, and merchandise, contributing to the U.S. yoga market's valuation of USD 16.9 billion as of 2023, a sector that frequently incorporates chakra balancing as a core offering. In contrast, contemporary Indian movements seek to revive chakras as integral to authentic Hindu spiritual practices, emphasizing their role in meditation and energy work to reclaim cultural heritage amid globalization. In , chakras have been integrated as metaphorical frameworks for human development, notably in Ken Wilber's spectrum model introduced in the 1970s, which maps psychological growth across prepersonal, personal, and transpersonal stages aligned with the seven chakras. This model posits chakras as evolving centers of , from the root chakra's focus on survival instincts to the crown chakra's transcendent unity, providing a holistic lens for understanding ego transcendence and spiritual awakening. Such integrations extend transpersonal theory by bridging Eastern energetics with Western , influencing therapeutic approaches that view chakra imbalances as indicators of arrested growth. Chakras play a growing role in global therapeutic practices, particularly in trauma recovery and creative expression. In somatic experiencing therapy, chakra concepts are adapted to facilitate awareness of bodily energy blockages, helping clients process trauma by aligning physical sensations with emotional release, as explored in holistic interventions that combine evidence-based methods with energy-centered visualization. Similarly, research from the demonstrates chakra-focused exercises promoting self-healing; for instance, studies involving chakra visualizations through drawing revealed enhanced emotional regulation and core belief shifts among participants dealing with stress and identity issues. These applications underscore chakras' utility in cross-cultural therapy, fostering resilience without requiring adherence to traditional rituals. Emerging trends point to technological and neuroscientific intersections with chakras, including AI-driven applications that personalize balancing practices. Apps like Leela Chakra AI employ to simulate Vedic guidance for chakra alignment, offering interactive journeys based on user inputs for and self-assessment. Some post-2020 reviews of practices, including those focused on chakras, suggest links to , such as increased gray matter density from long-term practice in areas tied to emotion regulation, though evidence specific to chakras remains preliminary and often draws from general research. These developments suggest chakras' evolving relevance in digital wellness and brain science, potentially broadening access to ancient wisdom.

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  63. https://apps.apple.com/us/app/leela-chakra-ai/id1296604457
  64. https://journal-steam.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/Meditation-and-Energy-Chakra-Balance.pdf
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