Hubbry Logo
Cod as foodCod as foodMain
Open search
Cod as food
Community hub
Cod as food
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Cod as food
Cod as food
Cod as food
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Preserved codfish

Cod and other cod-like fish have been widely used as food through history. Other cod-like fish come from the same family (Gadidae) that cod belong to, such as haddock, pollock, and whiting.

Cod

[edit]
Canned cod liver

Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavour and a dense, flaky white flesh. Young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. Cod's soft liver can be canned or fermented into cod liver oil, providing an excellent source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA).[citation needed] Cod flesh is moist and flaky when cooked and is white in colour. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock and plaice. Cod can be easily turned into various other products, such as cod liver oil, omega pills, etc.[citation needed]

According to the laws of kashrut, cod is considered kosher because it is a fish with both fins and scales.[1]

Other cod-like fish

[edit]

Haddock

[edit]
Haddock, roast
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy469 kJ (112 kcal)
0.0 g
Dietary fiber0.0 g
0.93 g
24.24 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.040 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
3%
0.045 mg
Niacin (B3)
29%
4.632 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
3%
0.150 mg
Vitamin B6
20%
0.346 mg
Folate (B9)
3%
13 μg
Vitamin C
0%
0.00 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
42 mg
Iron
8%
1.35 mg
Magnesium
12%
50 mg
Phosphorus
19%
241 mg
Potassium
13%
399 mg
Zinc
4%
0.48 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[2] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[3]

Haddock is a very popular food fish, sold fresh, smoked, frozen, dried, and, to a small extent, canned. Haddock, along with cod and plaice, is one of the most popular fish used in British fish and chips.

Fresh haddock has a clean white flesh and can be cooked in the same ways as cod. Freshness of a haddock fillet can be determined by how well it holds together, as a fresh one will be firm; also, fillets should be translucent, while older fillets turn a chalky hue. Young, fresh haddock and cod fillets are often sold as scrod in Boston, Massachusetts; this refers to the size of the fish which have a variety of sizes, i.e. scrod, markets, and cows. Haddock is the predominant fish of choice in Scotland in a fish supper. It is also the main ingredient of Norwegian fishballs (fiskeboller).

Unlike the related cod, haddock does not salt well and is often preserved by drying and smoking.

The smoking of haddock is something that was highly refined in Grimsby. Traditional Grimsby smoked fish (mainly haddock, but sometimes cod) is produced in the traditional smoke houses in Grimsby, which are mostly family-run businesses that have developed their skills over many generations.[4] Grimsby fish market sources its haddock from the North East Atlantic, principally Iceland, Norway and Faroe. These fishing grounds are sustainably managed[5] and have not seen the large scale depreciation in fish stocks seen in EU waters.[6]

One popular form of haddock is Finnan haddie, named for the fishing village of Finnan or Findon in Scotland, where it was originally cold-smoked over peat. Finnan haddie is often served poached in milk for breakfast.[7]

The town of Arbroath on the east coast of Scotland produces the Arbroath Smokie. This is a hot-smoked haddock which requires no further cooking before eating.

Smoked haddock naturally has an off-white color; it is very often dyed yellow, as are other smoked fish. Smoked haddock is the essential ingredient in the Anglo-Indian dish kedgeree.

In 2010, Greenpeace International has added the haddock to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."[8]

Pollock

[edit]
Further information: Alaska pollock as food

Atlantic pollock is largely considered to be a whitefish, although it is a fairly strongly flavored one. Traditionally a popular source of food in some countries, such as Norway, in the United Kingdom it has previously been largely consumed as a cheaper and versatile alternative to cod and haddock. However, in recent years pollock has become more popular due to over-fishing of cod and haddock. It can now be found in most supermarkets as fresh fillets or prepared freezer items. For example, it is used minced in fish fingers or as an ingredient in imitation crab meat.

Because of its slightly gray color, pollock is often prepared, as in Norway, as fried fish balls, or if juvenile sized, breaded with oatmeal and fried, as in Shetland. Year-old fish are traditionally split, salted and dried over a peat hearth in Orkney, where their texture becomes wooden and somewhat phosphorescent. The fish can also be salted and smoked and achieve a salmon-like orange color (although it is not closely related to the salmon), as is the case in Germany where the fish is commonly sold as Seelachs or sea salmon. In Korea, pollock may be repeatedly frozen and melted to create hwangtae, half-dried to create ko-da-ri, or fully dried and eaten as book-o.

In 2009, U.K. supermarket Sainsbury's renamed pollock 'Colin' in a bid to boost ecofriendly sales of the fish as an alternative to cod.[9] The supermarket also suggested some shoppers may be too embarrassed to ask for the species under its proper title, due to its reputation as an inferior fish, and its similarity to a popular English swear word (bollocks). Sainsbury's, which said the new name was derived from the French for cooked pollock (colin), launched the product under the banner "Colin and chips can save British cod".

List of dishes

[edit]
Name Image Origin Description
Ackee and saltfish Jamaica Salt cod sautéed with boiled ackee, onions, Scotch Bonnet peppers (optional), tomatoes, and spices, such as black pepper and pimiento. It can be garnished with crisp bacon and fresh tomatoes, and is usually served as breakfast or dinner alongside breadfruit, hard dough bread, dumplings, fried plantain, or bogreen bananas. Jamaica's national dish.
Bacalaíto Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic Salt cod fritters filled with minced cod fish and garnished with cilantro, tomatoes and onions. A traditional snack typically eaten with an entire meal. Bacalaítos are served at the beach, cuchifritos, and at festivals. They are crisp on the outside and dense and chewy in the inside.
Baccalà mantecato Italy A Venetian appetizer of whipped salt cod.[10][11]
Cabbie claw Scotland and Orkney

Made with speldings, young fish of the family Gadidae such as cod, haddock or whiting. The name is a derivative of cabillaud, the French name for cod. Other ingredients include parsley, horseradish and mashed potato. The sauce is made with butter, flour, milk, hard-boiled eggs, and nutmeg. Alternate versions outside the traditional version's only difference are usually an addition of more spices.

Bacalhau à Brás Portugal Made with eggs, onions thinly sliced, potatoes in matchstick-size, salt codfish, soaked, minced garlic clove, extra virgin olive oil, bunch fresh parsley, chopped black Portuguese olives, salt and pepper.[12]
Crappit heid Scotland (English: stuffed head). Can be traced to the fishing communities of the North, Hebrides and North-Eastern Scotland in the eighteenth century. In a time when money was scarce, the more expensive fillets of fish, such as cod or haddock would be sold to market but the offal and less attractive parts were retained by the fisherfolk for the pot.
Cullen skink Scotland Thick soup made of smoked haddock, potatoes and onions. An authentic cullen skink will use finnan haddie, but it may be prepared with any other undyed smoked haddock. The soup is often served as a starter at formal Scottish dinners. It has been described as "smokier and more assertive than American chowder and heartier than classical French bisque".[13]
Fish and brewis Newfoundland Consists of cod and hard bread or hard tack. With the abundance of cod around the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador it became synonymous with many Newfoundland households as a delicacy to be served as a main meal. Salt fish is soaked in water overnight to reduce the salt content. The hard bread is broken into bite-size pieces, and is also soaked in water overnight. The next day, the fish and hard bread are boiled separately until tender, and then both are served together. The traditional meal is served with scrunchions,[14] salted pork fat which has been cut into small pieces and fried. Both the rendered fat and the liquid fat are then drizzled over the fish and hard bread.
Fish ball Widespread Usually made from a white fish, such as cod or haddock
Fishcake British Similar to a croquette, consisting of a filleted fish and potato patty sometimes coated in breadcrumbs or batter, and fried. Salted cod is traditionally used as a filling, though since cod stocks have become depleted other varieties of white fish are used, such as haddock or whiting.[15] The fishcake has been seen as a way of using up leftovers that might otherwise be thrown away. In Mrs Beeton's 19th century publication Book of Household Management, her recipe for fishcakes calls for "leftover fish" and "cold potatoes".[16]
Fish finger United Kingdom
Esqueixada Catalonia A salad of shredded salt cod, tomatoes, onions, olive oil and vinegar, salt, and sometimes a garnish of olives or hard-boiled eggs.
Fish fry Widespread
Fish pie
Fried fish Widespread
Lutefisk Nordic countries
Pescado frito Spain
Scrod New England and Atlantic Canada
Shirako (milt) Widespread
Taramosalata Greece
Traditional Grimsby smoked fish Grimsby, England

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cod as food

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is a demersal gadoid fish harvested primarily from the North Atlantic Ocean, valued in human diets for its firm, white flesh that provides a mild flavor and versatile texture suitable for frying, baking, steaming, or preservation via salting, drying, or smoking. Its nutritional profile features high-quality protein (approximately 18-20 grams per 100 grams of cooked fillet), low fat content (under 1 gram per 100 grams), and modest levels of omega-3 fatty acids, contributing to its role as a lean seafood option in various cuisines. Cod has underpinned major fisheries since medieval times, with dried and salted forms (stockfish and bacalhau) facilitating trade routes, colonial economies, and sustenance for long sea voyages due to their long shelf life without refrigeration. Iconic preparations include British fish and chips from fresh fillets, Portuguese shredded salt cod with eggs (bacalhau à Brás), and Scandinavian lye-treated lutefisk, reflecting adaptations to regional availability and preservation needs. Intensive exploitation, particularly in the 20th century, caused severe stock depletions—such as the 1990s Northwest Atlantic collapse from overfishing—necessitating strict quotas, rebuilding plans, and shifts to sustainable practices, though Gulf of Maine populations remain overfished while Georges Bank shows recovery signs as of recent assessments.

Species and Characteristics

Primary Species

The primary species of cod consumed as food is the (Gadus morhua), a gadoid inhabiting the cold, temperate waters of the from to the and south to the . This species is distinguished by its heavy-bodied form, large head, blunt snout, and chin barbel, with adults reaching lengths up to 1.3 meters (51 inches) and weights exceeding 35 kilograms (77 pounds), though typical market sizes are smaller. is prized for its firm, white flesh with a mild, slightly sweet flavor and large flakes, making it highly versatile for various culinary preparations including fresh, frozen, salted, and smoked forms. Atlantic cod has been one of the most commercially significant fish species historically, supporting major fisheries in regions like Newfoundland, , and , with global catches peaking at over 1.4 million metric tons in the early before declining due to . Its nutritional profile, including high protein content and low fat, contributes to its popularity as a lean option, though populations have faced depletion leading to management measures like quotas and seasonal closures. While Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) serves as a substitute in some markets, particularly in the United States where it constitutes the second-largest groundfish harvest off with over 200,000 metric tons annually in recent years, Atlantic cod remains the archetypal species associated with traditional cod dishes worldwide. Cod (Gadus morhua) belongs to the family , which encompasses approximately 22 species across 11 genera, primarily cold-water marine fishes characterized by elongate bodies, small mouths, and the absence of fin spines. Key related species include (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), a bottom-dwelling gadid similar in size and habitat to Atlantic cod, often co-occurring in the North Atlantic; (Gadus chalcogrammus), valued for its abundance and use in processed products; and (Gadus macrocephalus), a congener found in the North Pacific with comparable morphology and commercial significance. These gadids share ecological roles as demersal predators and have driven historical fisheries in temperate to waters. In culinary applications, substitutes for cod prioritize mild flavor, firm white flesh, and flakiness to replicate textures in preparations like frying or baking. Haddock serves as a primary alternative due to its analogous taste profile and leanness, commonly employed in British fish and chips where cod stocks have declined. Alaska pollock frequently replaces cod in frozen fillets and surimi, leveraging its high yield and lower cost amid Atlantic cod overfishing pressures documented since the 1990s. Hake (Merluccius spp., sometimes associated with gadiforms) and Pacific halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) offer viable options for denser fillets, though they differ in fat content and sourcing regions. Tilapia and other farmed whitefish like swai are used in budget recipes but diverge in wild-caught authenticity and omega-3 profiles compared to gadids. Selection often balances sustainability, with Marine Stewardship Council-certified pollock promoted as an eco-friendly swap since 2010.

Nutritional Profile

Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Cod flesh, particularly from (Gadus morhua), is a lean source of animal protein with negligible content. Per 100 grams of raw , it provides approximately 82 kilocalories, 17.8 grams of protein, 0.7 grams of total fat (of which about 0.15 grams are omega-3 fatty acids including EPA and DHA), and 0 grams of . The protein is complete, containing all essential in proportions suitable for , while the low fat profile makes it suitable for low-calorie diets. Key s in raw per 100 grams include at 1.05 micrograms (44% of the Daily Value, DV), at 33 micrograms (60% DV), at 203 milligrams (16% DV), niacin () at 2.5 milligrams (16% DV), and at 413 milligrams (9% DV). These levels can vary slightly with cooking method, as dry heat may concentrate nutrients by reducing water content, potentially increasing protein to 22.8 grams and calories to 105 per 100 grams in cooked portions. also supplies smaller amounts of (0.8 micrograms, 4% DV), iodine (around 100 micrograms in some analyses), and choline, contributing to its role as a nutrient-dense despite modest overall micronutrient diversity compared to fattier .
Nutrient CategoryExamples per 100g Raw Approximate % DV
Vitamins: 1.05 µg; Niacin: 2.5 mgB12: 44%; Niacin: 16%
Minerals: 33 µg; : 203 mg; : 413 mgSelenium: 60%; Phosphorus: 16%; Potassium: 9%
Fatty AcidsTotal omega-3: 0.15 g (EPA + DHA)Varies; supports heart health guidelines
Data derived from USDA analyses; DV based on 2,000-calorie diet for adults. Nutritional values for processed or preserved cod (e.g., salted or smoked) may differ due to added sodium or moisture loss, often elevating sodium to over 1,000 mg per 100 grams in dried forms.

Health Benefits

Cod provides a lean source of high-quality protein, supplying approximately 20 grams per 4-ounce serving, which supports muscle maintenance and repair without contributing significant calories or saturated fats. This protein profile, combined with low caloric density around 90 calories per serving, aids in and , as consumption has been associated with improved appetite control and smaller post-meal glycemic responses compared to other animal proteins. Additionally, cod is rich in essential micronutrients such as , , and ; for instance, a serving delivers substantial portions of the daily recommended intake for B12, which is crucial for formation and neurological function, and , an that supports health and . Consumption of baked fillet has been shown in clinical trials to lower serum total levels, likely due to reduced endogenous synthesis and improved , independent of its modest omega-3 content. While contains lower amounts of omega-3 fatty acids (about 0.14 grams per serving) compared to fatty like , regular intake of lean such as still contributes to cardiovascular by potentially reducing triglycerides and inflammation markers, aligning with broader evidence that consumption supports heart function through nutrient synergies rather than high-dose omega-3 alone. Studies indicate that incorporating lean into diets may lower risks of coronary heart disease and improve overall metabolic outcomes, including regulation. In animal models, cod protein intake has demonstrated benefits for function, reducing urinary markers of damage and loss, suggesting potential protective effects against renal stress in high-protein diets, though trials are needed for confirmation. Overall, cod's density positions it as a valuable component of balanced diets aimed at preventing deficiencies, particularly in populations reliant on affordable for protein and minerals.

Potential Risks

Cod contains parvalbumin, a heat-stable protein that serves as a major , potentially eliciting IgE-mediated reactions in susceptible individuals. Symptoms may include , gastrointestinal distress, respiratory issues, or , with as little as 5 mg of cod sufficient to provoke a response in allergic persons. allergy often cross-reacts with other gadoid species due to shared epitopes, though tolerance to certain non-gadoid like may occur. allergies account for a notable portion of severe food-induced anaphylactic events, necessitating avoidance in diagnosed cases. Raw or undercooked harbors risk of anisakiasis from third-stage larvae of Anisakis simplex, a parasite prevalent in marine including . Infection occurs via ingestion of viable larvae, leading to acute , , , and eosinophilic granuloma formation in the ; larvae may penetrate the or intestinal wall, mimicking or requiring endoscopic removal. While cooking above 60°C or freezing at -20°C for 24-48 hours inactivates larvae, traditional preparations like lightly marinated or ceviche-style increase exposure if sourced from endemic waters. Incidence remains low in regions with proper handling, but underreporting may underestimate prevalence. Atlantic cod exhibits low concentrations, averaging 0.111 ppm, classifying it among "best choices" for consumption even by pregnant women and children per federal guidelines, with minimal risk from chronic exposure at recommended intakes of 8-12 ounces weekly. Other contaminants like PCBs are sporadically detected but generally below action levels in monitored commercial supplies. However, locally sourced or bottom-feeding cod from polluted areas may accumulate higher residues, warranting adherence to regional advisories. Salted or preserved cod, such as , contains elevated sodium levels—often exceeding 1,000 mg per 100 g after desalting—posing risks of , , and fluid retention in individuals with salt sensitivity or renal impairment. Excessive intake correlates with increased gastric cancer risk via formation from salt-cured proteins, though evidence is stronger for heavily processed Asian varieties than European salted cod. Desalting reduces but does not eliminate sodium, and overconsumption may surpass WHO limits of 2,000 mg daily.

Culinary Preparation

Traditional Preservation and Cooking Methods

Cod has been preserved traditionally through air-drying and salting, methods developed in to enable long-term storage without refrigeration. Air-drying produces , where fresh cod is headed, gutted, split open, and hung in pairs on wooden racks known as hjell, exposed to cold winter winds and air for 2-3 months, reducing water content to about 10-15% and concentrating proteins through enzymatic fermentation. This unsalted process, practiced since Viking times in regions like , , yields a lightweight, rigid product that retains nutritional value but requires mechanical breaking and soaking before use. Salting creates salt cod (bacalhau or bacalao), involving layering fresh cod fillets with dry salt in barrels or containers at a ratio of approximately 1:3 salt to fish by weight, which draws out moisture via osmosis and inhibits bacterial growth through high salinity. The dry salting method, refined by Basque fishermen by the 15th century, allows storage for up to two years; alternatively, brine salting submerges fish in a salt-water solution before optional light drying into clipfish. These techniques, documented in Icelandic and North American fisheries from the medieval period, preserved cod for transatlantic trade and inland consumption where fresh fish spoiled quickly. To cook preserved cod, rehydration and desalting precede thermal preparation to restore texture and reduce salt content. Stockfish or salt is soaked in cold water for 24-48 hours, with water changes every 6-8 hours to leach excess salt, followed by gentle boiling for 5-20 minutes to further tenderize and flavor with aromatics like bay leaves. Traditional cooking then involves in or broth for flakiness, pan-frying in oil for crisp exteriors, or in stews with potatoes and onions to integrate the fish's concentrated . These methods, rooted in 19th-century practices from to , minimize moisture loss during reheating to preserve the firm, fibrous quality imparted by preservation.

Global Dishes and Regional Variations

In Portugal, salted and dried cod, known as bacalhau, forms the basis of over 365 traditional recipes, underscoring its status as a culinary cornerstone tied to the nation's Age of Exploration when preservation methods enabled long voyages. One emblematic dish, Bacalhau à Brás, combines shredded soaked cod with fried matchstick potatoes, scrambled eggs, onions, and black olives, often garnished with parsley. Another variant, Bacalhau com natas, layers boiled cod with fried onions, potatoes, and a creamy béchamel sauce, baked until golden. These preparations highlight cod's versatility in absorbing flavors after desalting, with annual consumption exceeding 100,000 tons in Portugal as of recent trade data. Across , particularly and , lutefisk represents a distinctive treatment of dried cod soaked in solution to gelatinize its texture, a method documented since the for Lenten before . The fish is then rinsed, boiled or steamed, and served simply with melted butter in or white sauce in , accompanied by boiled potatoes, peas, and bacon. This holiday staple, especially for julebord in , preserves the fish's mild flavor while creating a jelly-like consistency that divides palates but endures as cultural tradition. In the , batter-fried fillets paired with thick-cut chips constitute , a dish popularized in the by Jewish immigrants adapting Sephardic techniques to abundant . Served wrapped in historically, it remains a icon, with preferred for its firm white flesh that holds batter without disintegrating during at 180°C. Variations include and tartare sauce, reflecting working-class origins amid 19th-century industrialization. In , ackee and saltfish—the —pairs desalted salted cod with the creamy, nutty pods of the ackee fruit, sautéed with onions, tomatoes, peppers, and scallions for a staple rich in . Introduced via colonial trade, the cod's saltiness balances ackee's delicacy, often served with fried dumplings or , embodying fusion of African, European, and indigenous elements since the . Iberian influences extend to Spain's bacalao al pil pil, where poached salted cod emulsifies olive oil and garlic into a sauce, and France's brandade de morue, mashed cod with olive oil, milk, and garlic spread on bread. In the Caribbean beyond Jamaica, saltfish appears in Antiguan ducana wraps or Trinidadian pelau, while Newfoundland's fish and brewis soaks hardtack with boiled salt cod and pork fat scraps, a fisherman's meal from 18th-century settlements. These variations demonstrate cod's adaptability through salting and drying, enabling global dissemination via trade routes.

Historical Consumption

Ancient and Medieval Periods

Archaeological evidence from indicates early human consumption of cod by coastal hunter-gatherers, with cod bones identified in sites dating to approximately 10,000 years before present, reflecting opportunistic exploitation near fishing grounds. Similar findings from contexts in , such as and , suggest sporadic use in prehistoric diets, though cod remained secondary to local freshwater and nearer-shore species until preservation methods advanced. In , cod played a minimal role in Mediterranean societies like and , where warmer-water fish dominated; northern European evidence points to limited, localized fresh consumption without widespread . The medieval period marked cod's emergence as a preserved staple, enabled by air-drying into stockfish, which allowed inland transport and storage without salting. The earliest documented reference to stockfish appears in Egil's Saga, describing its use around 875 AD during Viking expeditions. Genetic analysis of Viking Age cod bones from Haithabu, Germany (circa 800–1066 AD), traces their origin to Northeast Arctic stocks in Lofoten, Norway, providing the first direct evidence of long-distance trade from northern fisheries to continental markets. This trade coincided with Christian fasting practices, which mandated meat abstinence on roughly 40% of days annually, boosting demand for durable fish like cod over perishable alternatives. By the 10th–11th centuries, zooarchaeological records show a marked increase in marine gadoid consumption, including , across Northern and , linked to technological improvements in and netting that expanded offshore harvests. Basque whalers adapted these techniques around 1000 AD to supply salted and dried cod to international ports, predating the Hanseatic League's later dominance in trade routes. These developments transformed cod from a regional resource into a caloric mainstay, often decapitated and processed for efficiency in bulk shipment to urban centers.

Age of Exploration and Colonial Trade

During the early 16th century, Basque whalers and fishermen from northern established a secretive off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, exploiting the region's abundant Gadus morhua stocks as early as the 1510s, predating widespread European knowledge of the area. These operations involved salting and drying on shore to produce bacalao, a lightweight, durable protein source essential for long sea voyages, which sustained crews during the by providing non-perishable nutrition superior to alternatives like fresh meat. vessels arrived by 1501, followed by French and English fleets, transforming the migratory into an international enterprise that drew on the Grand Banks' estimated millions of tons of biomass, far exceeding depleted European stocks like those off . This abundance incentivized further , as reports of vast shoals—documented by figures like Anthony Parkhurst in 1578—encouraged settlement and mapping efforts, with processing sites emerging along Newfoundland's coasts by the 1540s. Cod's preservability via salting and drying made it a staple for provisioning transatlantic expeditions and early colonies, enabling sustained human presence in North America where fresh food supplies were unreliable. In New England, cod fisheries underpinned colonial economies from the 1620s onward, with Massachusetts Bay Colony exports reaching thousands of tons annually by the mid-17th century, funding infrastructure and trade imbalances with Europe. Lower-grade salted cod was exchanged in the Atlantic triangle trade for West Indian molasses and rum, serving as a primary ration for enslaved laborers on sugar plantations, where it provided caloric density—approximately 300-400 kcal per 100g dried—critical for labor-intensive operations. This trade linked North American fisheries to Mediterranean markets via Iberian ports, where demand from Catholic fasting rituals drove imports exceeding local Iberian production shortfalls post-1500. By the late , cod had become a cornerstone of colonial commerce, with ports like and shipping over 100,000 quintals (about 4,500 metric tons) yearly to and the , generating wealth that rivaled fur or timber trades and influencing geopolitical tensions, such as Anglo-French naval skirmishes over fishing rights. The fishery's scale—peaking at hundreds of European vessels annually on the Grand Banks—relied on empirical adaptations like staged drying stages to achieve 60-70% weight loss for transport, ensuring cod's role as a reliable, verifiable in an era of uncertain colonial .

Modern Industrial Era

The industrialization of in the expanded production through larger vessels and bank fisheries off Newfoundland, where annual catches averaged around 398,000 tonnes as part of a cumulative exceeding 200 million tonnes from 1508 to 2023, primarily processed into salted and dried forms for to and the . This era saw the persistence of traditional curing methods alongside emerging , such as steam-powered schooners, which facilitated offshore operations and increased supply to markets like and , where salted cod (bacalhau) remained a dietary staple for religious observances and daily meals. Concurrently, cod liver oil production industrialized in starting in 1854, with Peter Möller's factories yielding 20 tons in the first year using steam extraction, transforming livers—a former waste product—into a medicinal commodity valued for treating conditions like due to its content. In the , diesel-powered trawlers and draggers from the onward dramatically boosted harvests, enabling distant-water fleets from , the , and the to target stocks like those on and the Grand Banks, shifting consumption patterns toward fresher products via rail transport and early icing techniques. advancements post-World War II facilitated frozen processing, culminating in the invention of fish sticks in 1953 by under the brand, which used fillets breaded and quick-frozen for convenience, rapidly gaining popularity in the and as an affordable, child-friendly protein source amid rising household freezer ownership. This era also saw integrated into everyday dishes like British , supported by abundant and Atlantic supplies until signals emerged in the mid-20th century, though per capita seafood intake in , including , rose with and technological access to preserved forms. By the late 20th century, industrial overcapacity contributed to stock collapses, such as the 1992 moratorium on Newfoundland cod fishing after decades of intensified trawling that depleted populations from billions in the 1850s to critically low levels, prompting a pivot in consumption toward farmed or alternative whitefish and reduced reliance on wild cod in many markets. Despite this, processed cod products like fish sticks persisted in global trade, with salted variants sustaining cultural roles in Iberian and Latin American cuisines, reflecting a transition from abundance-driven mass consumption to regulated, sustainability-constrained use.

Production Methods

Wild Fisheries and Harvesting Techniques

Wild cod fisheries target primarily Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod) in the North and Gadus macrocephalus (Pacific cod) in the North , with major stocks in regions such as the , , Newfoundland, , and the off . These fisheries rely on demersal species inhabiting continental shelves at depths typically between 50 and 400 meters. Global wild cod landings reached approximately 1.3 million metric tons in 2023 but declined to 1.1 million metric tons in 2024, reflecting quota adjustments amid stock assessments. In the U.S., Pacific cod harvest alone totaled 375 million pounds (about 170,000 metric tons) in 2023, valued at $152 million ex-vessel. The predominant harvesting technique is , where vessels tow large cone-shaped nets with weighted doors and otter boards to keep the mouth open, herding into a codend bag along the . This method captures schooling efficiently in open waters but often results in higher and physical stress to landed compared to alternatives. Trawl nets vary in mesh size to meet selectivity regulations, with smaller codends retaining legal-sized while allowing juveniles to escape. In Atlantic fisheries, has historically dominated due to scalability for industrial fleets, though modifications like rockhopper gear reduce contact in rugged terrains. Longlining represents a key selective method, deploying a weighted mainline up to several kilometers long with baited hooks on branch lines spaced at intervals, anchored or buoyed to target bottom-dwelling . This gear minimizes unintended capture of non-target and preserves flesh quality by enabling rapid post-capture handling, as evidenced by studies showing superior rigor and reduced gaping in longline-caught versus trawl-caught specimens. In Pacific cod fisheries, longlines are deployed from midwater or pot vessels, often in combination with quota systems to control effort. Supplementary techniques include gillnetting, where vertical nets with monofilament mesh entangle cod by their gills, and trapping via baited pots or handlines for smaller-scale operations. Gillnets are common in inshore Atlantic areas, offering lower fuel use but risking ghost fishing from lost gear. These methods collectively support directed fisheries under total allowable catch (TAC) regimes, with vessels ranging from small inshore boats to large factory trawlers processing catches at sea for efficiency.

Aquaculture and Farming Innovations

Aquaculture efforts for Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) emerged in the late , primarily in , , , and , driven by declining wild stocks and demand for consistent supply. Initial commercial production peaked at around 20,000 tonnes annually by the mid-2000s, but collapsed to under 5,000 tonnes by 2010 due to biological challenges including high larval mortality, skeletal deformities, , and early sexual maturation, which reduced fillet yield and increased operational costs. Recent progress has spurred a modest resurgence, with — the leading producer—exporting about 10,000 tonnes of fresh farmed cod in 2023, projected to increase in 2024 amid wild harvest restrictions and rising whitefish demand. Key innovations address maturation and growth bottlenecks. Selective breeding programs, initiated in Norway around 2010, prioritize strains with delayed puberty, achieving maturation rates as low as 5-10% in select cohorts compared to 50% or higher in wild-derived stock, thereby enhancing biomass accumulation and product quality. Triploid induction—using pressure or temperature shocks on eggs to produce sterile fish—has shown promise in trials, with triploid cod exhibiting 20-30% faster growth and negligible maturation, though adoption remains experimental due to variable survival rates of 70-85% in hatcheries. Improved larval nutrition, incorporating enriched Artemia and formulated microdiets, has reduced deformities from over 20% to under 10% in optimized systems, while vaccines against vibriosis and other bacterial pathogens have lowered post-smolt mortality from 40% to below 15% in commercial pens. Technological advancements in containment and feeding enhance efficiency. Offshore cage designs with deeper nets (up to 50 meters) and advanced mitigate escape risks and environmental impacts, while automated surface and submerged feeders optimize feed conversion ratios to 1.2-1.5:1, reducing waste and costs in high-energy-density environments. Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) trials in land-based facilities, such as those in , recycle 95-99% of water and enable year-round production, though high capital costs limit scaling beyond pilot levels of 500-1,000 tonnes. Investments like the December 2024 partnership between Ocean 14 Capital and Norwegian firm KIME Akva aim to expand capacity and integrate digital monitoring for real-time . Sustainability-focused developments include certification frameworks. The Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) launched standards for farmed in Q4 2025 under its revised and protocol, emphasizing low , minimal use, and monitoring to verify environmental compliance. Despite these innovations, aquaculture remains niche—comprising less than 1% of global supply—owing to persistent challenges like disease transmission risks to wild populations and economic viability thresholds requiring prices 20-30% above wild for profitability. Ongoing research into genomic selection and climate-resilient feeds seeks to overcome these, potentially enabling broader commercialization by 2030.

Economic Role

Global Production and Trade Statistics

Global production is predominantly derived from wild capture fisheries, with negligible contributions from as of 2023, where farmed output remained limited to around 12,000 metric tons primarily from . Total global cod landings in 2023 were estimated at approximately 1.12 million metric tons, comprising (Gadus morhua) at 791,000 metric tons and (Gadus macrocephalus) at 329,000 metric tons. accounted for roughly 70% of total cod production historically, though this share reflects capture data up to 2019; recent trends show slight declines due to quota reductions in key stocks like the . Major producing countries for include , , and , with poised to lead output in 2023 amid 's production falling to around 1 million tons total for the species. In European capture fisheries, held 49% of production value in 2023, followed by at 39%. production is concentrated in the North Pacific, led by the ( fisheries harvesting about 170,000 metric tons commercially in 2023) and , with U.S. landings valued at $152 million.
Cod TypeEstimated 2023 Production (metric tons)Key Producers
Atlantic791,000, ,
Pacific329,000,
in remains substantial, driven by demand for frozen, fresh, and processed forms, with global for products estimated at $11.3 billion in 2023. Exports of frozen (excluding livers and roes) totaled over $500 million in value, led by at $250 million (51,000 metric tons) and the at $143 million (41,000 metric tons). Fresh and chilled trade reached $617 million globally, reflecting a 2.5% decline from 2022 amid supply constraints. 's cod exports highlighted growth in farmed fresh segments, with 8,700 tons valued at 463 million Norwegian kroner (approximately $43 million USD), though overall volumes dipped slightly. Key importing markets include the , , and , where serves as a staple whitefish, with trade flows often rerouted due to geopolitical factors affecting Russian supplies.

Impacts on Employment and Regional Economies

The 1992 moratorium on northern cod fishing in Newfoundland and Labrador, , following stock collapse, directly eliminated around 19,000 jobs in harvesting and while contributing to broader losses estimated at 35,000 across the sector, representing a major share of the province's employment base. This led to sustained high rates exceeding 20% in fishing-dependent communities, accelerated out-migration from rural areas, and increased dependence on federal support programs like the Atlantic Groundfish Strategy (TAGS), which cost over CAD 2 billion through 1998. The event exemplified how can cascade into regional economic contraction, with processing plants closing and ancillary industries like boatbuilding and supplies declining sharply. In regions with more , bolster employment and local economies. Norway's sector, where cod accounts for a significant portion of wild-caught volume, directly employs about 13,900 people in , , and related activities as of 2023, generating ripple effects that support up to 47,600 jobs nationwide, particularly in northern coastal districts with limited alternative opportunities. Each core industry job yields an average of 1.89 million annually, underscoring cod's role in maintaining viable rural livelihoods amid seasonal fluctuations. Iceland's economy similarly relies on cod as a foundational export commodity, with the sustaining thousands of jobs in harvesting, processing, and ; exports, led by products, comprised about 40% of merchandise exports in recent years, indirectly supporting broader employment in a where fisheries contribute 7-10% to GDP. Policy shifts like individual transferable quotas since 1990 have stabilized operations, reducing volatility and enabling year-round processing jobs, though vulnerability to stock fluctuations persists. Projections for stock recovery highlight untapped potential: rebuilding the northern fishery to historical levels could create 16 times more jobs than current restricted quotas allow, with a up to fivefold higher, emphasizing how effective management causally links restoration to gains in affected regions. In the U.S. Northeast, cod-dependent have seen dips from climate-driven shifts, averaging 16% county-level reductions tied to warmer conditions, illustrating environmental pressures on job stability. Overall, cod's economic footprint extends to global processing and trade, but localized dependencies amplify risks from depletion, as evidenced by historical collapses outweighing diversified benefits in vulnerable areas.

Sustainability Challenges

Evidence of Overfishing and Stock Declines

Intensive , particularly after the expansion of distant-water fleets in the mid-20th century, led to sharp declines in stocks across multiple regions. In the Northwest Atlantic's Northern cod stock (NAFO divisions 2J3KL), exploitation intensified in the 1950s and with the arrival of factory freezer trawlers from and the , driving annual catches to peaks exceeding 800,000 metric tons by the early before plummeting amid evident . The stock collapsed in the early 1990s, with biomass falling to less than 1% of pre-industrial levels, prompting to impose a moratorium on in July 1992. Despite this closure, the stock has failed to recover substantially after more than three decades, with spawning biomass remaining critically low—estimated at around 10-20% of levels needed for —and recent assessments indicating persistent high natural mortality alongside illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) as complicating factors. Similar patterns emerged in other Atlantic basins, where multiple declined by over 95% from maximum historical biomass during the , even as catches were curtailed. In the , spawning stock biomass has hovered at historically low levels for over 25 years, with mortality rates consistently exceeding sustainable thresholds until the early 2000s. Northeast Atlantic populations, including those in the Icelandic and areas, exhibited brief recoveries in the but collapsed again due to resumed high exploitation, with data showing that elevated pressure alone accounts for the lack of rebound across these . Canada's 4X5Y , for instance, has remained in the "critical zone" since the , with biomass continuing to decline despite reductions in legal harvests, underscoring the lagged effects of prior and challenges in enforcing quotas. Evidence from genetic and phenotypic studies further documents the impacts, revealing that selective harvesting of larger, older fish has driven evolutionary shifts, halving average cod body lengths from about 40 cm in the 1990s to 20 cm by 2019 in affected populations. As of 2025 assessments, projections for Northern cod indicate a 56-71% probability of further biomass decline by 2028 under current management, even with moderated fishing, highlighting ongoing vulnerability. Partial reopening of the Newfoundland fishery in 2024, increasing allowable catches to 18,000 tonnes, reflects cautious optimism but risks exacerbating pressures if recovery benchmarks are not met. Pacific cod stocks have faced less catastrophic declines but show localized overfishing signals, with U.S. Gulf of Alaska biomasses dropping 50-70% from 1970s peaks due to trawl fisheries.

Management Policies and Regulatory Debates

Management of fisheries primarily relies on total allowable catches (TACs) set by regional bodies to prevent , with stocks assessed against (MSY) benchmarks. In the United States, the (NOAA) oversees cod under the Northeast Multispecies Fishery Management Plan, which includes annual catch limits (ACLs) adjusted based on stock assessments from the Northeast Fisheries Science Center. For fishing year 2025, NOAA implemented a transition to four distinct cod management units—, , Southern New England/Mid-Atlantic, and Inshore —to better align regulations with biological stock structures, setting separate ACLs for 2025-2027 while maintaining to delay full restructuring amid ongoing declines. Internationally, the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) coordinates TACs for transboundary stocks, with decisions at its 2024 annual meeting establishing limits for in divisions like , emphasizing sustainable harvesting amid variable recruitment. The sets TACs via Council Regulation (EU) 2025/219, fixing quotas for 2025 based on International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) advice, though actual catches often exceed scientific recommendations due to negotiation compromises. Canada's 1992 moratorium on northern fishing off Newfoundland, enacted after stocks fell to 1% of historical levels from decades of , halted commercial harvests and led to 30,000 job losses but failed to achieve full recovery, with partial reopening only in June 2024 after 32 years. Regulatory debates center on the gap between scientific advice and implemented quotas, where politically influenced TACs frequently surpass recommended levels, exacerbating risks of in multispecies fisheries. challenges, including illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) and limited physical inspections (under 1% of transactions in some regions), undermine quota efficacy, as seen in Norway's controls. Critics argue individual transferable quotas (ITQs), like Iceland's system allocating species-specific shares annually, concentrate harvesting power and incentivize high-grading over , though proponents claim they reduce race-to-fish dynamics and costs. Recent disputes, such as 2025 quota negotiations post-Brexit, highlight tensions between economic imperatives for fleets and evidence-based conservation, with calls for prioritizing stock models over short-term political gains. Despite these measures, persistent stock declines question the causal effectiveness of current policies in reversing pressures from historical inertia and inadequate compliance.

Recovery Data and Alternative Solutions

Efforts to recover stocks have yielded mixed results across regions, with some populations showing partial rebound through stringent quota management, while others remain critically depleted despite regulatory interventions. In the Northeast Arctic, the world's largest cod stock, spawning stock biomass (SSB) stood at a medium level as of early , supported by harvest control rules implemented by and since the 1990s, which have historically stabilized the population after earlier . However, recent assessments indicate a decline, with ICES advising a total allowable catch (TAC) reduction to approximately 193,000 tonnes for 2025, down from higher levels in prior years, due to projected SSB falling below precautionary thresholds amid variable and environmental pressures like warming waters. In contrast, Western Atlantic stocks, particularly in the , have not recovered significantly; assessments show an 80% decline from historical peaks, with current at less than 5% of target levels as of 2023 extended into rebuilding projections. U.S. NOAA Fisheries' plan targets recovery by 2033 through near-zero commercial quotas and recreational limits, but predation by grey seals—estimated to consume 60-70% of juvenile in southern areas—and climate-induced shifts in prey distribution have hindered progress, underscoring that reductions alone insufficiently address ecosystem dynamics. Similarly, Canadian stocks in the northern remain below limit reference points, with SSB at 15,793 tonnes in 2024, prompting cautious reopenings of fisheries after decades-long moratoriums, though experts warn of shaky . Alternative solutions emphasize diversification beyond wild capture. Cod aquaculture, pioneered in during the 2000s boom, collapsed by 2010 due to early sexual maturation, disease outbreaks like viral nervous necrosis, and high feed costs, but has seen tentative rebirth with improved juvenile rearing protocols and closed-containment systems to mitigate escapes and pathogens. Production remains marginal globally—under 10,000 tonnes annually—hampered by biological bottlenecks, though ongoing into and aims to enhance viability as a supplement to fisheries. Sustainable substitutes for cod in cuisine include other gadoid species like from well-managed U.S. fisheries in the , which offer similar flaky texture and lower depletion risk, or European and whiting, rated as preferable alternatives by advisory programs for their rebuilding trajectories under quotas. These swaps reduce pressure on cod while maintaining nutritional profiles high in protein and omega-3s, with production exceeding 3 million tonnes yearly from certified sources. Basa and farmed in provide affordable, mild-flavored options, though their intensive pond systems raise effluent concerns absent in marine alternatives.

References

  1. https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/culturedspecies/gadus_morhua/en
  2. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/distributed/C/bo184798261.html
  3. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-cod
  4. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/s3/2025-07/Q1-2025-FSSI-and-non-FSSI-Stock-Status-Tables.pdf
  5. https://academy.pittmanseafoods.com/en/2021/12/atlantic-and-pacific-cod-whats-the-difference/
  6. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/pacific-cod
  7. https://www.alaskaseafood.org/species/cod/
  8. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=183
  9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/gadidae
  10. https://www.virginiaseafood.org/buying-preparing-seafood/how-to-prepare-perfect-seafood/substitution-chart/
  11. https://www.msc.org/what-you-can-do/eat-sustainable-seafood/smart-fish-swaps-alternatives-substitute-species-pt-1
  12. https://www.epicurious.com/expert-advice/fish-substitutes-salmon-tuna-cod-article
  13. https://cookscrafter.com/cod-fish-substitutes/
  14. https://www.verywellfit.com/cod-nutrition-facts-and-health-benefits-5075574
  15. https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Fish%252C_raw%252C_Atlantic%252C_cod_nutritional_value.html
  16. https://foodstruct.com/food/cod
  17. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/is-cod-healthy
  18. https://www.webmd.com/diet/health-benefits-cod
  19. https://www.nutritionvalue.org/Fish%252C_dried_and_salted%252C_Atlantic%252C_cod_nutritional_value.html
  20. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8182174/
  21. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6073601/
  22. https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/the-story-on-fish-and-heart-health
  23. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/dietary-intake-of-cod-protein-beneficially-affects-concentrations-of-urinary-markers-of-kidney-function-and-results-in-lower-urinary-loss-of-amino-acids-in-obese-zucker-fafa-rats/4BBC1AF92C35BD57C36495E9635F6B42
  24. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2025.1564315/full
  25. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9048527/
  26. http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/index.aspx?FoodId=5005
  27. https://acaai.org/allergies/allergic-conditions/food/fish/
  28. https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/anisakiasis/index.html
  29. https://www.verywellhealth.com/anisakis-raw-fish-parasite-1958783
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6626974/
  31. https://www.fda.gov/food/environmental-contaminants-food/mercury-levels-commercial-fish-and-shellfish-1990-2012
  32. https://www.fda.gov/food/consumers/advice-about-eating-fish
  33. https://epi.dph.ncdhhs.gov/oee/mercury/safefish.pdf
  34. https://borges1896.com/blog/fresh-cod-salted-cod/
  35. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000291652301660X
  36. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK304384/
  37. https://www.skreiconvention.no/exhibit/stockfish-how-is-it-made/
  38. https://visitlofoten.com/en/topic/lofoten-food/skrei-and-stockfish/
  39. https://www.immateriellkulturarv.no/en/bidrag/the-cultural-and-culinary-traditions-of-stockfish/
  40. https://cfeseafoods.com/history-of-saltfish/
  41. https://globalseafoods.com/blogs/news/salting-cod-fish
  42. https://cookdom.blog/the-cod-fish-that-shaped-history-of-the-legend/
  43. https://www.cargohandbook.com/Codfish_%28Stockfish%29
  44. https://yourfriendinreykjavik.com/salted-fish-in-iceland-a-historical-overview/
  45. https://onthewater.com/the-history-of-cod
  46. https://www.alphafoodie.com/how-to-desalt-and-cook-salted-cod/
  47. https://casadebacalhau.com/rehydrating-and-desalting/Salt-Cod-c19222197
  48. https://aksalmonco.com/blogs/learn/salted-cod
  49. https://quinlanbros.ca/blog/from-ocean-to-table-the-timeless-tradition-of-the-salting-cod-method/
  50. https://www.tasteoflisboa.com/blog/for-the-love-of-cod-a-historical-look-behind-portugals-obsession-with-bacalhau/
  51. https://www.idealista.pt/en/news/lifestyle-portugal/2025/05/09/191-ultimate-guide-best-bacalhau-dishes-portugal-has-offer
  52. https://www.tasteatlas.com/best-rated-dishes-with-cods
  53. https://www.portugal.com/history-and-culture/bacalhau-understanding-the-portuguese-obsession-with-cod/
  54. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/scandinavians-strange-holiday-lutefisk-tradition-2218218/
  55. https://www.visitnorway.com/things-to-do/food-and-drink/lutefisk/
  56. https://www.atlasobscura.com/foods/lutefisk-lutfisk-lye-fish-scandinavia
  57. https://acis.com/blog/a-history-of-fish-and-chips-in-great-britain/
  58. https://docksidehhi.com/the-history-of-fish-and-chips/
  59. https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z4hb8p3
  60. https://www.seriouseats.com/ackee-and-saltfish
  61. https://www.bbc.co.uk/travel/article/20210315-ackee-and-saltfish-jamaicas-breakfast-of-champions
  62. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/29/dining/bacalao-with-an-iberian-point-of-view.html
  63. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3SwUFZA8ctQ
  64. https://www.tcd.ie/tceh/projects/foodsmartdublin/recipes/May_Cod/HistoryEcology_cod.php
  65. https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6gjizw/cod_consumption_in_europe/
  66. https://www.historytoday.com/archive/historians-cookbook/history-salt-cod
  67. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1710186114
  68. https://www.medievalists.net/2020/11/medieval-fishing/
  69. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440311000562
  70. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/review-of-cod-a-biography-of-the-fish-that-changed-the-world-152948483/
  71. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/cod-history
  72. https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/exploration/16th-century-fishery.php
  73. https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/exploration/origins-migratory-fishery.php
  74. https://ogsl.ca/en/sentinel-fisheries-groundfish-cod/
  75. https://terp.umd.edu/the-almighty-cod
  76. https://nauticalarch.org/ship-biscuit-and-salted-beef/the-cod-rush/
  77. https://blogs.loc.gov/maps/2024/05/in-cod-we-trust/
  78. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783625000621
  79. https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/economy/19th-century-cod.php
  80. https://www.mollersomega3.com/history-of-mollers/
  81. https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-man-with-a-fish-on-his-back/
  82. https://www.marinalife.com/articles/history-of-maines-cod-fisheries
  83. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/surprising-success-story-fish-sticks-180977578/
  84. https://www.gortons.com/our-story/
  85. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10920564/
  86. https://www.seaaroundus.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/SAUP64.pdf
  87. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288815397_The_rise_of_the_frozen-fish_industry_in_Iceland_and_Norway_The_case_of_fish_fingers
  88. https://www.seafoodwatch.org/recommendation/cod/atlantic-cod-23710
  89. https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/cod-fish-market
  90. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783620301892
  91. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3434912/
  92. https://www.alaskaseafood.org/alaska-seafood-101/seasonality-harvesting/
  93. https://agris.fao.org/search/en/providers/125318/records/6748e0508834da021e381972
  94. https://openknowledge.fao.org/bitstreams/ddc0093a-d252-40b4-a201-d8f1436d55d4/download
  95. http://www.tradexfoods.com/3mmi/2025/03-24-farmed-atlantic-cod-the-resurgence-of-a-sustainable-seafood-category-set-for-expansion
  96. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/aquaculture/norway-finds-early-cod-maturation-a-continuing-challenge-updates-operating-regulations
  97. https://agris.fao.org/search/en/providers/122535/records/65de629e6eef00c2cea081a2
  98. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144860925001025
  99. https://www.vetinst.no/en/research-and-innovation/ongoing-research-projects/cod-disease-risk
  100. https://thefishsite.com/articles/ocean-14-capital-announces-partnership-to-boost-cod-aquaculture
  101. https://www.intrafish.com/aquaculture/aquaculture-stewardship-council-sets-launch-date-for-farmed-cod-certification/2-1-1878462
  102. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0044848623002946
  103. https://openknowledge.fao.org/bitstreams/121ea8a1-e6e8-4a0e-a08a-df8620785176/download
  104. http://www.tradexfoods.com/3mmi/2023/11-13-pacific-cod-update-reduction-in-global-cod-supply-mpact-on-markets-and-prices-urgency-in-securing-inventory
  105. https://cdn.tridge.com/market_report_report/6e/b2/49/6eb249dfef6ba39fbd58d9890ab5022df1233ec1/Cod_Market_Report.pdf
  106. https://www.tridge.com/news/russia-may-become-world-leader-in-atlantic-cod-pro
  107. https://www.reportlinker.com/dataset/e8214dba18a984c7e472a53fa84478402b048597
  108. https://www.skyquestt.com/report/cod-fish-market
  109. https://wits.worldbank.org/trade/comtrade/en/country/ALL/year/2023/tradeflow/Exports/partner/WLD/product/030360
  110. https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/cod-freshchilled
  111. https://www.tendata.com/blogs/export/6208.html
  112. https://www.easyfish.net/en/top-5-atlantic-cod-exporters/
  113. https://www.britannica.com/event/cod-fishery-collapse-of-1992
  114. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143622813001434
  115. https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/economy/moratorium-impacts.php
  116. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X04000600
  117. https://nofima.com/results/new-report-shows-the-norwegian-fishing-industry-is-key-for-employment/
  118. https://www.fromnorway.com/stories-from-norway/keeping-communities-afloat/seafood-creating-jobs-and-activity-along-the-coast/
  119. https://thefishingdaily.com/latest-news/2023-record-year-for-norways-seafood-industry-in-value-creation/
  120. https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/facp/isl
  121. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0308597X1200214X
  122. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3977218/
  123. https://oceana.ca/en/reports/oceans-opportunity-economic-case-rebuilding-northern-cod/
  124. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6936693/
  125. https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/78/8/2675/6359257
  126. https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas-sccs/Publications/SAR-AS/2025/2025_043-eng.pdf
  127. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2025/mpo-dfo/fs70-7/Fs70-7-2025-009-eng.pdf
  128. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4282283/
  129. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228481420_Causes_of_Decline_and_Potential_for_Recovery_of_Atlantic_Cod_Populations
  130. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/jun/25/cod-shrinking-size-overfishing-study
  131. https://theindependent.ca/commentary/seasplainer/politicizing-science-how-quota-quarrels-lose-sight-of-sustainable-fishing/
  132. https://theconversation.com/the-federal-government-has-lifted-the-moratorium-on-northern-cod-fishing-after-32-years-233522
  133. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-cod/management
  134. https://www.nefmc.org/library/atlantic-cod-management-transition-plan
  135. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/noaa-fisheries-extends-emergency-rule-for-northeast-cod-and-haddock-fisheries
  136. https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/news/nafo-annual-meeting-2024-key-decisions-cod-and-red-fish-stocks-2024-10-01_en
  137. https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/fisheries/rules/fishing-quotas/tacs-and-quotas-2025_en
  138. https://subscriber.politicopro.com/article/eenews/2024/06/27/canada-ends-cod-moratorium-in-newfoundland-after-30-years-00165331
  139. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3824872/
  140. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X2300283X
  141. https://thecommonwealth.org/case-study/case-study-individual-transferable-quotas-cod-fisheries-iceland-going
  142. https://islandstudies.com/files/2014/04/The-Dark-Side-of-the-Quota-System.pdf
  143. https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cdp-2025-0070/
  144. https://mosj.no/en/indikator/fauna/marine-fauna/stock-of-northeast-arctic-cod/
  145. https://www.hi.no/hi/nettrapporter/imr-pinro-en-2024-6
  146. https://www.easyfish.net/en/atlantic-cod-supply-sustainability-risks/
  147. https://news.northeastern.edu/2023/02/15/atlantic-cod-gulf-of-maine-fishing-stocks/
  148. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/supply-trade/north-american-east-coast-cod-stocks-facing-very-dire-situation
  149. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2025/mpo-dfo/fs70-6/Fs70-6-2025-011-eng.pdf
  150. https://phys.org/news/2025-06-canada-reopened-cod-fishery-shaky.html
  151. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jwas.12811
  152. https://www.seafoodwatch.org/recommendations/download-consumer-guides/sustainable-cod-and-haddock-guide
  153. https://frymagazine.com/features/fish/five-sustainable-alternatives-to-cod-and-haddock/
  154. https://www.mcsuk.org/ocean-emergency/sustainable-seafood/seafood-buying-guides/sustainable-and-affordable-whitefish-swaps/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.