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Statue dìguān dàdì (Three Great Emperor-Officials), in Taoism and Chinese folk religion in Magongsānguān shrine (澎湖三官殿) Magong Penghu, Taiwan
Statue of Bhumi, goddess of the earth, featured in Puranas

This is a list of earth deities. An Earth god or Earth goddess is a deification of the Earth associated with a figure with chthonic or terrestrial attributes. There are many different Earth gods and goddesses in many different cultures and mythology. However, Earth is usually portrayed as a goddess. Earth goddesses are often associated with the chthonic deities of the underworld.[1]

In Greek mythology, the Earth is personified as Gaia, corresponding to Roman Terra, Indic Prithvi, etc. traced to an "Earth Mother" complementary to the "Sky Father" in Proto-Indo-European religion. Egyptian mythology have the sky goddesses, Nut and Hathor, with the earth gods, Osiris and Geb. Ki and Ninhursag are Mesopotamian earth goddesses.

African mythology

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Akan mythology

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  • Asase Yaa, the goddess of the harsh earth, Truth and Mother of the Dead. An ancient religious figure worshipped by the indigenous Akan people of the Guinea Coast, Asase/Yaa is also known as Aberewa which is Akan for "Old Woman". Not only is she an Earth Goddess she also represents procreation, truth, love, fertility, peace, and the earth of the Akan.
  • Asase Afua, the Goddess of the lush earth, fertility, love, procreation and farming

Aksumite Religion

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Bakongo religion

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  • Nzambici, the God of Essence, the Earth and Sky Mother, mother of all animals

Egyptian mythology

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  • Geb, god of the earth, vegetation, earthquakes, and snakes; "God of Earth and Land"

Igbo mythology

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  • Ala, alusi of the earth, morality, fertility, and creativity

Malagasy mythology

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Yoruba mythology

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American mythology

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Aztec mythology

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Haudenosaunee mythology

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  • Atsi tsien ke:ion (pronunciation Ageejenguyuon) meaning Mature flower - Sky woman who fell from the sky and created North America on the back of a turtle.
  • Hah-nu-nah, the turtle that bears the world.

Inca mythology

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Inuit mythology

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  • Alignak, in Inuit mythology, a lunar deity, but also god of earthquakes, as well as weather, water, tides, and eclipses

Lakota mythology

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  • Maka-akaŋ, the earth goddess

Lucumi

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Mapuche

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Southwestern

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Asian mythology

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Ainu mythology

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Anatolian mythology

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  • Cybele, mother goddess of the earth

Chinese mythology

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Gondi mythology

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  • Bhivsen or Bhimal, god of the earth
  • Bhum, goddess of the earth and mother of humanity

Hittite mythology

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  • Sarruma, god of the mountains
  • Ubelluris, mountain god who bears the world in his shoulders

Hindu mythology

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Buddhist mythology

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Meitei mythology

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In Meitei mythology and religion:

Sumerian mythology

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Thai mythology

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Turkic and Mongolian mythology

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Vietnamese

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European mythology

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Albanian mythology

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Baltic mythology

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Celtic mythology

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  • Danu, ancient goddess of the earth

Etruscan mythology

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  • Cel, goddess of the earth

Finnish mythology

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Georgian mythology

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  • Mindort-batoni, god of the mountains

Germanic mythology

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  • Jörð, goddess of the earth
  • Nerthus, earth goddess
  • Skaði, goddess of the mountains and winter
  • Sif, goddess of the earth

Greek mythology

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  • Demeter, goddess of the harvest, sacred law, and the earth
  • Gaia, primordial goddess of the earth. She was one of the earliest elemental deities, having been created at the beginning of time. It was thought that all creation is descended from Gaia, the great mother of all things. According to Greek mythology, she was the creator of the universe and was responsible for the birth of both humanity and the first race of gods the Titans.
  • Cronus, god of the harvest.
  • Poseidon, one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth; god of the sea and other waters, earthquakes and horses.
  • Cybele
  • Persephone
  • Rhea

Latvian mythology

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Lithuanian mythology

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Roman mythology

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Romanian

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Slavic mythology

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  • Mat Zemlya, ancient goddess of the earth
  • Mokosh, goddess of fertility, moisture, women, the earth, and death. One of the oldest and only goddess in the slavic religion, Old Kievan pantheon of AD 980 mentions Mokoš, which survives in East Slavic folk traditions. Known as a woman who in the evening spins flax and wool, shears sheep, and has a large head and long arms.[6]
  • Troglav, deity in Slavic mythology whose three heads were believed to represent sky, earth and the underworld.
  • Veles, horned god of the underworld, water, the earth, wealth, and cattle
  • Volos, Slavic god of earth, waters, and the underworld.

Oceanian mythology

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Hawaiian mythology

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  • Papahānaumoku, goddess of the earth, one who brings islands from the sea.
  • haumea, goddess of the Hawaiian Islands.
  • Pele (deity), goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes.
  • Wakea, god of the earthly sky, sky father.
  • Hoʻohōkūkalani, goddess of the stars and celestial sky, and daughter of Wakea and Papahānaumoku.
  • Kū, god of war, politics, fishing, and farming. Full name Kūkāʻilimoku.
  • Kanaloa, god of the ocean, seamanship, cephalopods, the underworld, and magic.
  • Kāne, god of creation, associated with dawn, sun and the sky.
  • Lono, god associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace.

Maori mythology

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Western Asian mythology

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Levantine mythology

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  • Amurru, Amorite deity, occasionally called "lord of the steppe" or "lord of the mountain" [9]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

List of earth deities

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A list of earth deities compiles divine figures from global mythologies who personify the itself or its vital aspects, such as , , and the cycles of growth and renewal. These deities often emerge in ancient traditions as primordial beings or parental archetypes, symbolizing the nurturing and sustaining force of nature essential to human survival and cosmology. Common across cultures, earth deities typically embody chthonic (underworld-related) or terrestrial powers, frequently depicted as mothers or fathers of other gods and heroes, reflecting humanity's deep-seated reverence for the land's productivity. In , stands as the primordial Earth goddess, born and mother to the Titans and Olympians, representing the foundational layer of creation. Her Roman counterpart, Terra Mater, governs nature, fertility, and earthquakes, often portrayed half-emerged from the soil with symbols of abundance like the , and was honored through festivals such as the Fordicidia to ensure agricultural prosperity. , another Greek earth figure, specifically oversees grain and harvest as "Earth-mother," her myths explaining seasonal barrenness through the abduction of her daughter . Shifting to Egyptian mythology, Geb serves as the male god of the earth and fertility, depicted reclining beneath the sky goddess Nut, fathering key deities like and aiding bountiful harvests to maintain cosmic balance. In Mesopotamian traditions, earth deities like embody creation and nurturing, often paired with sky gods in myths of life's origins and agricultural cycles. These figures, traced back to and eras through artifacts and lore, underscore universal themes of renewal and interdependence with the environment, influencing rituals for sustenance and societal order across civilizations.

African Mythologies

Egyptian Mythology

In ancient , earth deities were central to the cosmology, embodying the fertile land, agricultural cycles, and the life-giving forces of the Valley. These gods and goddesses were often intertwined with creation myths, particularly the Heliopolitan tradition, where the earth emerged from primordial chaos to support human sustenance and cosmic order. Deities associated with the emphasized renewal, fertility, and the balance between the physical world and the divine, reflecting the ' dependence on the annual inundation for . Geb, the primary god of the earth, personified the fertile soil and geological features of . Depicted as a reclining man with green skin or plants sprouting from his body, Geb lay beneath his sister-wife Nut, the sky goddess, symbolizing the separation of earth and heaven by their father Shu, the god of air. As part of the Great in Heliopolitan theology, Geb fathered key deities including , , Set, and , linking him to royal succession and the earth's productivity. He was invoked for bountiful harvests and stability, with his laughter believed to cause earthquakes. Osiris, while primarily a god of the and , held strong associations with the earth's vegetative and the 's regenerative floods. Born to and Nut, Osiris ruled as king of Egypt before his murder by Set, after which his body was dismembered and revived by , embodying the cycle of death and rebirth akin to crop growth. His green or black skin represented fertile deposited by the , and he was worshipped as a whose annual revival ensured agricultural abundance. Festivals like the Osiris Mysteries reenacted his to promote . Hapy, the deification of the Nile's inundation, was closely tied to earth's nourishment through annual flooding that enriched the . Portrayed as an androgynous figure with a prominent belly, heavy breasts, and aquatic plants like or lotus on his head, Hapy embodied the life-sustaining waters that transformed arid land into arable fields. He was not a single but manifested in pairs representing , symbolizing national unity and the earth's dependence on river cycles for . Offerings to Hapy during flood seasons sought to avert poor yields. Other earth-related figures included , a of the harvest and nourishment, often depicted as a guarding granaries and ensuring the earth's bounty post-harvest. She was associated with the ripening of grapes and grains, blending serpentine protection with agricultural prosperity. These deities collectively underscored the ' reverence for the land as a divine entity sustaining life and order (ma'at).

Yoruba Mythology

In Yoruba tradition, earth deities are revered as foundational forces within Ifá cosmology, serving as protective spirits of the land that ensure fertility, stability, and the enforcement of moral order among communities in West Africa. These entities are conceptualized as female principles, often intertwined with the physical soil and underground realms, reflecting the Yoruba worldview where the earth predates and sustains other divine beings. Unlike more anthropomorphic orishas, earth deities emphasize communal harmony through rituals that honor the soil's sanctity, prohibiting actions that disrupt its integrity. The personified earth spirit associated with Ile-Ife, known as Ilẹ (Earth), represents the sacred ground of creation and acts as a guardian of oaths and ethical conduct. In Yoruba lore, Ilẹ is depicted as a nurturing female deity, superior to the orishas because it literally supports their shrines and provides the foundation for human existence, with every patch of soil serving as a potential shrine. As the holy land of Ile-Ife—the mythic cradle of Yoruba origins—Ilẹ embodies the primordial expanse where creation unfolded, invoked in rituals to affirm truths through the Ilẹ-mimu oath, where participants sip water mixed with earth to bind pacts, with betrayal inviting severe cosmic retribution. This deity strictly prohibits murder and other defilements on its holy terrain, such as suicides or the death of pregnant women, requiring elaborate cleansing ceremonies performed by original inhabitants to restore balance and prevent communal calamity. Within the Mọle (Ogboni) society of Ile-Ife, Ilẹ is venerated as the patron deity, linking urban-ancestral traditions to Ifá divination practices that consult the earth for guidance on land disputes and moral governance. Onile, the deity of the earth's foundation, is invoked in Yoruba rituals to promote stability and safeguard against the of , often regarded as the "earth-owner" or a primordial spirit coeval with the supreme being. This provides essential crops, health, and , functioning as a life-sustaining counterpart to paternal divine aspects, with her cult emphasizing agricultural cycles through special sacrifices during planting and harvesting to ensure bountiful yields and communal well-being. Rituals honoring Onile focus on reinforcing the 's structural integrity, prohibiting actions like arbitrary land disturbance that could invite instability or misfortune, thereby upholding the moral order tied to territorial reverence in Yoruba society. Orishas such as Obatala are briefly noted in myths as creators who shaped the initial under Olodumare's directive, complementing these foundational deities without overshadowing their terrestrial primacy.

Akan Mythology

In Akan mythology, prevalent among the of and Côte d'Ivoire, earth deities are embodied primarily by maternal figures who oversee the land's fertility, ensuring agricultural prosperity, moral order, and the cycle of . These goddesses, often invoked in libations alongside the sky god Nyame, who is regarded as the creator paired with earth figures to sustain creation, represent the earth's nurturing yet stern nature. Asase Yaa (also known as Asase Afua or Asaase Efua), the goddess, embodies the fertile and serves as the enforcer of truth and justice within Akan society. Among the Asante, she is associated with , while among the Fante, she is linked to ; in both cases, she is highly revered as a provider, protector, owner, and mother who controls land productivity while upholding public morality, punishing those who defile the earth—through acts like spilling —with calamities such as diseases or poor harvests. These sacred days prohibit farming, tilling the , and any form of or spilling to prevent and societal harm; violations historically invoked severe communal repercussions to maintain harmony with the land. Asase Yaa abhors human on her domain, requiring elaborate appeasement rituals if such taboos are breached, underscoring her role in preserving the earth's integrity. She also fosters farming success, human procreation, and the safe passage of the deceased to the . Together, these aspects emphasize the Akan view of the as a living maternal entity demanding respect through taboos and rituals to ensure communal prosperity and ethical conduct.

Igbo Mythology

In Igbo odinani, the traditional religious system of the Igbo people of southeastern Nigeria, the earth is personified primarily through Ala, also known as Ani or Ana in various dialects, who serves as the chthonic goddess embodying the land itself. As the supreme arbiter of morality and fertility, Ala governs the moral order (Nso Ala) that sustains communal harmony and agricultural prosperity, ensuring the earth's productivity for crops and human sustenance. She is revered as the custodian of oaths and taboos, where individuals invoke her by touching the soil or placing bare feet upon it to affirm truth, believing she witnesses and enforces honesty in social contracts. Alas domain extends to prohibiting certain practices deemed abominations (nso ala) that pollute the , such as the birth of twins, which were viewed as evil omens reducing humans to animalistic levels and offending her sacred order; the infants were typically killed (e.g., suffocated) and their remains discarded in the "evil forest" (ajọ ọhịa) to cleanse the and avert communal contamination. Breaches of her code, including , , or , invoke her wrath, manifesting as , barrenness, or sudden death to restore balance and compel confession through rituals like the "earth confession" (Iko ). These sanctions underscore her role as a moral enforcer, where the earth's directly correlates with adherence to norms, promoting a where and are inextricably linked. Complementing Ala in some Igbo dialects is Igwe, conceptualized as the male sky force that pairs with her feminine earth essence, forming a metaphysical duality essential for cosmic harmony. This pairing influences communal land rites, such as yam festivals, where offerings honor their union to ensure bountiful harvests and . Chukwu, the high creator god, is believed to have delegated governance of the earth to Ala within this framework.

North American Mythologies

Haudenosaunee Mythology

In Haudenosaunee mythology, the central figure associated with the earth is Sky Woman, also known as Ataensic, who descends from the Sky World through a hole in the sky, carrying seeds and roots that form the basis of terrestrial life. Upon falling into the primordial waters below, she is caught by water birds and a great turtle, which becomes the foundation of —the Haudenosaunee name for the earth. With the aid of animals like the , who dives to retrieve mud from the ocean floor, Sky Woman spreads this soil on the turtle's back, causing it to expand into a living world teeming with and creatures. This act establishes her as the primordial Mother, embodying and the nurturing force of the land. Sky Woman's daughter, born upon the newly formed earth, plays a crucial role in its cultivation, teaching her own children—the twin grandsons of Sky Woman—about the plants and resources of the world. The right-handed twin, known as the Good Spirit or Tharonhiawakon, shapes beneficial aspects of the earth, such as fruitful vegetation, animals, and waters, while the left-handed twin, Tawiskaron, introduces challenges like weeds and predators, representing the balance of in nature. Upon the daughter's death, her body decomposes to yield the earth's staple crops: corn, beans, and squash, symbolizing the regenerative power of the and the cycle of life sustained by the land. The Three Sisters—corn (Deohako), beans, and squash—are revered as benevolent spirits or minor deities in Haudenosaunee tradition, personifying the earth's agricultural bounty and interdependence. These sisters are depicted as harmonious figures who support one another, much like their crops grow in symbiotic companionship, providing sustenance to the people. They are honored through festivals like the , where offerings acknowledge their role in maintaining the earth's productivity and the community's harmony with the land.

Inuit Mythology

In Inuit mythology, earth deities and spirits embody the animistic belief system of the peoples, where the land, animals, and natural forces are infused with vital essences that demand respect and ritual to ensure harmony and survival; traditions vary across regions such as , , and . Unlike centralized pantheons in other traditions, Inuit cosmology features decentralized beings who govern specific aspects of the terrestrial environment, such as , , and geological events, often invoked through shamanic practices to maintain balance between humans and nature. These figures reflect the harsh landscape, emphasizing sustenance from land animals and the earth's productivity amid perpetual challenges like famine and migration. Pinga, known in some accounts as Akna or "the one up on high," serves as a multifaceted overseeing , , , and the hunt, with particular dominion over terrestrial animals like caribou to provide abundance for communities. She is depicted as a protector of life cycles, ensuring the of animal spirits and intervening in affairs to promote healing and prosperity on earth. Among inland groups, Pinga is revered as the mother of caribou, dwelling in the heavens while influencing earthly game populations essential for survival. Alignak, the lunar deity, extends his influence to earthly phenomena as the controller of earthquakes, tides, and weather patterns that shape the land's stability. In legends, he causes seismic events as manifestations of cosmic order, reminding humans of the earth's dynamic and sometimes vengeful nature, particularly when taboos against overexploitation of resources are violated. Nanook, the lord of polar bears, acts as a guardian spirit of terrestrial hunting grounds, to whom Inuit hunters offer prayers and taboos before pursuits to secure ethical kills and avoid retribution. As a powerful animal deity, Nanook embodies the strength and ferocity of the Arctic wilderness, teaching lessons on reciprocity with the earth's fauna to prevent scarcity. Tekkeitsertok, the caribou-headed god of , presides over caribou herds—the primary source of , , and tools—ensuring their migration and multiplication through rituals that honor his authority over the land's vital herds. Hunters invoke him to guide successful pursuits, underscoring the deity's role in sustaining human life tied to the earth's migratory rhythms. Iinua represent the indwelling spirits animating geographic features such as mountains, lakes, and , infusing the land itself with consciousness and requiring offerings to appease potential disruptions like avalanches or . These pervasive earth essences highlight the Inuit view of the physical world as a living entity demanding ongoing dialogue. In creation narratives, the trickster figure Raven emerges as a primordial shaper of the earth, diving into primordial waters to retrieve mud and form landmasses, thereby establishing the foundational terrain inhabited by humans and animals. This act positions Raven as a foundational earth deity, blending creativity with the practical origins of the Arctic landscape.

Lakota Mythology

In Lakota mythology, the earth is revered as a living entity and primary source of life, personified through the deity Maka, often translated as "Earth" or "Mother Earth." Maka embodies the physical world and its nurturing qualities, serving as the foundation for all existence and the interconnectedness of natural elements. She is integral to the Lakota cosmological framework, where the earth is not merely a landscape but a sacred being that sustains human, animal, and plant life through cycles of growth and renewal. Central to the creation narrative is Inyan, the primordial rock spirit and first of the superior gods, who initiates the from a state of void. Inyan sacrifices his own blood and power to form Maka as a vast disk, representing the earthly realm; this act causes Inyan to harden and diminish, transferring his vitality to her. Maka is then endowed with a distinct spirit known as Maka-akan, the , who ranks as the second superior god yet remains an extension of Inyan. This spirit animates the earth, infusing it with the power to generate life and maintain harmony. Maka-akan's role extends to overseeing fertility, abundance, and the balance of ecosystems, often depicted with green as her sacred color to symbolize growth and vegetation. She interacts with other wakan (sacred) beings, such as Skan (sky motion) and the waters, to shape the world, ensuring the earth's stability against chaotic forces. In Lakota oral traditions, Maka is addressed as Unči Maka (Grandmother Earth), emphasizing her maternal authority and the reciprocal relationship humans must uphold through ceremonies like the Sun Dance, where offerings honor her generosity. Violations of this bond, such as environmental disrespect, are believed to invite imbalance or misfortune. While Maka dominates as the archetypal earth deity, related figures like Wohpe (goddess of peace and plenty) occasionally intersect with earth themes by distributing gifts from the natural world, though her domain is more broadly celestial and relational. Overall, Maka's prominence underscores the Lakota worldview of mitakuye oyasin ("all my relations"), where the earth goddess binds humanity to the web of creation. In Navajo mythology, earth deities are integral to the cosmology, representing the fertile, life-sustaining aspects of the land, seasons, and natural cycles. These figures, often referred to as Holy People or Diyin Dineʼé, embody the nurturing and transformative powers of the , guiding the Diné ( people) through creation stories and emergence from lower worlds into the current Glittering World. Central to this pantheon are deities associated with growth, renewal, and the earth's bounty, reflecting the Diné's deep connection to their defined by the four . The most prominent earth deity is Estsanatlehi, known as Changing Woman or the Woman Who Changes, who symbolizes the cyclical nature of life and the earth's fertility. Created from blue turquoise at the base of a or by the gods in some accounts, she is the wife of the Sun Bearer (Jóhonaaʼéí) and resides in the western ocean, from which she brings life-giving moisture, rain, and seasonal abundance. Estsanatlehi rejuvenates eternally, aging from youth to old age and returning to infancy, mirroring the earth's seasonal transformations from spring growth to winter dormancy and rebirth. As the embodiment of , she is revered for her role in creation, giving birth to the twin heroes Monster Slayer (Náhástʼéʼííshaał) and, in primary accounts, Born for Water (Tó bąájíłchíʼí), who rid the world of monsters to make it habitable. Her powers of renewal and fruitfulness underscore the Diné emphasis on harmony with the land (hózhǫ́). Closely associated with Estsanatlehi is her sister Yolkai Estsan, or White Shell Woman, formed from white shell and representing complementary aspects of earth's purity and generative forces. Less prominent in some narratives but equally vital, she is linked to water and rain, and in variant traditions, becomes the mother of Born for Water through union with a or , thus tying her to the earth's hydrological cycles that sustain vegetation and life. Together, these sisters populate the world with sacred elements like corn, , and shell, essential to Diné ceremonies and worldview. Additional earth-related figures include the —Sisnaajiní (Blanca Peak, east), Tsoodził (Mount Taylor, south), Dookʼoʼoosłííd (, west), and Dibé Nitsaa (Hesperus Peak, north)—which guard the boundaries of Diné Bikéyah ( land) and embody the earth's protective and directional powers. These localized spirits are invoked in blessings for harmony with the soil, plants, and animals. (Spider Woman), while primarily a teacher of and survival skills during the , connects to the earth through her role in linking all living things via her web, symbolizing the interconnectedness of the natural world.

Mesoamerican Mythologies

Aztec Mythology

In , earth deities personified the dual aspects of the land as both a nurturing provider of life and a voracious consumer of the dead, integral to the cyclical cosmology of creation, destruction, and renewal. These figures were often depicted as monstrous or maternal entities, reflecting the ' agrarian dependence on the 's while acknowledging its inherent violence through earthquakes, , and decay. Central to this pantheon was the concept of the as a living body requiring human blood to sustain cosmic balance, as articulated in codices and monumental sculptures. The preeminent earth deity was , a primordial monster known as "Earth Lord/Lady," portrayed with a crocodilian or toad-like form featuring gaping jaws, claws, and starry eyes to symbolize the night's . This bisexual entity represented the raw, fertile chaos from which the current world emerged; in creation myths, Quetzalcoatl and tore Tlaltecuhtli asunder to form the earth and , with its mouth becoming caves and mountains from its body, demanding ongoing sacrifices to prevent cosmic collapse. Tlaltecuhtli's iconography, often carved on the undersides of monoliths like the 2006 Templo Mayor discovery, emphasized duality—male and female attributes merged to embody generative and destructive forces—linking it to agricultural abundance and seismic upheavals. Complementing Tlaltecuhtli were the goddesses of the Earth-Mother complex, a category encompassing over twenty deities associated with fertility, birth, and the underworld, as classified by scholar H.B. Nicholson. Coatlicue, "Serpent Skirt," stood as a paramount earth mother, depicted with a skirt of writhing snakes, severed hands, and a necklace of hearts and skulls, embodying life's origins and inevitable death as mother to gods like Huitzilopochtli. Cihuacoatl, or "Snake Woman," served as a warrior-mother figure tied to creation, aiding in the forging of humanity from divine bones and blood, while also patronizing midwives and governance. Chicomecoatl, "Seven Serpent," functioned as the maize goddess, ensuring crop yields through rituals and symbolizing the earth's bounty in agricultural cycles. Tlazolteotl, "Filth Goddess," governed purification and vice, devouring sins to renew the land's productivity, often linked to midwifery and lunar influences. Toci, "Our Grandmother," acted as a multifaceted healer and earthquake-bringer, overseeing sweatbaths and corn growth as an elder aspect of the earth. Tonacacihuatl, "Lady of Our Sustenance," paired with Tonacatecuhtli in the creator duo Ometeotl, represented the earth's foundational nourishment in the uppermost heaven. These goddesses, often overlapping in attributes, underscored the Aztec view of the earth as a sacred, insatiable womb sustained by ritual offerings.

Maya Mythology

In Maya mythology, the earth is conceptualized as a living entity, often depicted as a flat, animate surface floating on primordial waters, supported by divine bearers and formed through creative acts by supreme gods. This cosmology, reflected in texts like the , portrays the earth as a dynamic realm intertwined with the underworld () and the sky, where deities govern fertility, mountains, caves, and natural cycles. Earth deities embody the land's generative and destructive aspects, ensuring agricultural abundance while demanding rituals to maintain cosmic balance. Heart of Earth serves as a primordial co-creator alongside Heart of Sky (), initiating the formation of the world from a state of darkness and water. In the , this deity collaborates with other creators like Tepeu, (), and Sovereign-Plumed Serpent to separate from sea, forming mountains, valleys, rivers, and forests through divine word alone: "Earth arose suddenly, just as the mist was dissipating... the earth was formed first, the mountains and plains, the cacti and thorny trees." Heart of Earth represents the foundational essence of the terrestrial realm, invoked in prayers for sustenance and stability, symbolizing the paired hearts of sky and ground that sustain existence. Offerings to this figure were essential for agricultural prosperity, as the earth's productivity depended on harmonious divine intervention. Pawahtuun (God N or ) is a quadripartite manifesting in four aged forms at the world's corners, bearing the on their shoulders to prevent collapse. Depicted as stout old men with netted headdresses, shell ornaments, and sometimes shells, they link the earth to cardinal directions, seasons, and natural elements like and earthquakes. As patrons of the calendar's first day (Imix), Pawahtuun embodies abundance and renewal, with associations to mountains as sources of and ; caves within these mountains serve as portals to the . In rituals, they received offerings of and to avert seismic disturbances and ensure fertile soil, reflecting their role in upholding cosmic structure. The Earth Monster (Itzam Kab Ain or Witz Monster) personifies the earth's surface as a saurian or crocodile-like being, its body forming the land's backbone with mountains as spines and caves as mouths. In , this monster emerges from primordial waters, slain or reshaped by creator gods to stabilize the world; its bicephalic form (two-headed serpent) symbolizes day-night cycles and the earth's watery origins. shows it as a zoomorph with open jaws, from which the Maize God rises, linking earth to vegetation and fertility. Rituals involving targeted this to invoke earthquakes for renewal, as its agitation could cause tremors but also release subterranean waters for crops. These deities underscore the Maya's agrarian worldview, where earth's vitality required constant propitiation through ceremonies at caves and mountaintops to foster maize growth and avert catastrophe.

South American Mythologies

Inca Mythology

In Inca mythology, the earth was conceptualized as part of the broader pacha, a Quechua term encompassing the universe's space-time continuum, divided into hanan pacha (upper world), kay pacha (this world, including earth), and uku pacha (inner world or underworld). This worldview emphasized reciprocity (ayni) between humans and natural forces, with earth deities revered as sentient entities sustaining life through fertility and protection. The central earth deity was , meaning "mother earth" or "mother of the pacha," portrayed as a nurturing yet demanding responsible for agricultural abundance, earthquakes, and the overall vitality of the land. She was worshipped through offerings like ch'alla (libations of leaves or alcohol) to ensure bountiful harvests and avert , reflecting her role as both provider and punisher when disrespected. Chroniclers noted her integration into daily rituals, such as erecting stone altars in fields for prayers seeking , underscoring her embodiment of the earth's life-giving essence. Complementary to were the , powerful mountain spirits regarded as localized earth deities who governed specific peaks and valleys, acting as protectors of water sources, , and community well-being. These anthropomorphic entities, often visualized as authoritative lords, demanded offerings and rituals to maintain harmony, with beliefs in their ability to shape-shift into animals like condors for communication. Pilgrimages to , such as those linked to , reinforced their status as intermediaries between the earthly realm and higher cosmic forces. Lesser earth-associated figures included Urcaguary, a overseeing underground treasures like metals and minerals, symbolizing the earth's hidden wealth and requiring during activities. Overall, these deities highlighted the Inca's animistic reverence for the as a living, relational entity integral to survival and cosmology.

Mapuche Mythology

In Mapuche cosmology, the earth is revered as Ñuke Mapu, or Mother Earth, a foundational concept representing not merely the physical land but the interconnected web of territory, habitat, and life-sustaining forces central to indigenous sovereignty and ecological harmony. Ñuke Mapu embodies the relational values of the Az-Mapu ethical system, guiding Mapuche interactions with the environment through principles of reciprocity and balance, influencing practices in wetlands, forests, and marine ecosystems. The primary earth deity is Trentren Vilu (also spelled Trentrén or Ten Ten-Vilu), depicted as a massive serpent embodying the land's stability and fertility. As protector of terrestrial life, Trentren Vilu uplifts the ground into hills and mountains during cataclysmic events, safeguarding humans and animals from destruction. This role is vividly illustrated in the foundational , where Trentren Vilu battles the oceanic serpent Kai Kai Vilu, who seeks to submerge the world in waters symbolizing tsunamis and floods; the earth's serpent prevails by creating refuges on elevated terrain, reflecting how geological processes like earthquakes and volcanic activity shape narratives of resilience and cosmic order. Complementing Ñuke Mapu and Trentren Vilu are the Ngen, a class of benevolent spirits that serve as guardians of specific ecosystems and elements, such as rivers, forests, or soils, ensuring the earth's vitality and mediating human conduct to prevent imbalance. These spirits derive authority from Ñuke Mapu, reinforcing a where the earth is animated and demands respectful to maintain newen, the vital energy flowing through all creation.

East Asian Mythologies

Chinese Mythology

In , earth deities are prominently featured as guardians of soil, fertility, and agricultural prosperity, reflecting the agrarian foundations of ancient society. The most significant among them is (后土), revered as the sovereign spirit of the earth and overlord of all land-related divinities, including local soil gods (), mountain spirits (Shan Shen), and city guardians. originated as a male deity associated with the , tasked with equalizing land and governing the realm (), but evolved into a female goddess in later traditions, symbolizing nurturing fertility. This figure is mentioned in classical texts such as the Chuci (Songs of Chu), where rules the dark subterranean domain, and the Liji (Book of Rites), portraying the deity as the spirit of the central earth alongside the as heavenly sovereign. Local earth worship manifests through Tudigong (土地公), the , a ubiquitous protective unique to each village, neighborhood, or household, often depicted as an elderly bearded man accompanied by his wife. Tudigong oversees soil fertility, human welfare, and local boundaries, functioning as a subordinate to higher city gods (Chenghuang) and embodying the intimate connection between communities and their land. This cult traces back to pre-imperial soil spirits (she), integrated into during the (206 BCE–220 CE), with shrines present in nearly every settlement to ensure bountiful harvests and protection from misfortune. At the state level, the Sheji (社稷) altars honor paired deities of soil (She, personified as Houtu) and grain (Ji, personified as Houji, Lord of Millet), essential for imperial rituals symbolizing national stability and agricultural bounty. Originating in the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), these spirits were invoked in sacrifices using livestock like sheep or cows, performed biannually or more to express gratitude and seek blessings, as detailed in the Zhouli (Rites of Zhou) and Shangshu (Book of Documents). Additionally, the creator goddess Nüwa (女娲) holds an earth association through her myth of molding humanity from yellow clay, underscoring themes of earthly origin and repair, though she is not exclusively an earth deity. These deities collectively emphasize harmony between humans, land, and cosmos in Chinese cosmological thought.

Japanese Mythology

In Japanese mythology, as documented in ancient texts like the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, earth deities known as embody the foundational elements of land, soil, and mountains, reflecting beliefs in the sacred vitality of nature. These emerge during the cosmogonic processes, contributing to the separation of heaven and earth and the formation of the . Unlike more anthropomorphic figures, many earth are abstract or tied to natural phenomena, symbolizing stability, fertility, and the enduring presence of the terrestrial realm. They are invoked in rituals for , , and harmony with the landscape, underscoring their role in human-nature interdependence. One of the earliest earth-associated kami is Kunitokotachi no Kami, a primordial deity representing the "foundation of the land." In the Kojiki, Kunitokotachi appears as the first of the "seven generations of kami," following the separate heavenly deities, and embodies the initial unfolding of the earthly realm without form or gender. The Nihon Shoki describes Kunitokotachi as the inaugural kami after heaven and earth's separation, emerging from chaos to establish terrestrial stability. Scholars interpret this kami as originating from pre-Kojiki traditions, distinct from heavenly creation narratives, and linking to the essence of soil and enduring landforms like mountains. Ōyamatsumi no Kami serves as a prominent deity of mountains, which in Shinto cosmology represent the earth's backbone and sources of life-giving resources. According to the Kojiki, Ōyamatsumi is born to Izanagi and Izanami during the kuniumi (land-creation) phase, signifying a great spirit overseeing mountainous domains. The Nihon Shoki offers an alternate origin, portraying Ōyamatsumi as arising from a fragment of the fire deity Kagutsuchi severed by Izanagi, emphasizing themes of renewal from destruction. As a tutelary figure, Ōyamatsumi is father to key kami like Konohanasakuya-hime (goddess of volcanoes and blossoms) and Iwanaga-hime (goddess of rocks), and is venerated at numerous shrines where mountains are seen as sacred abodes. In folk practices, this kami manifests in stone cairns and local mountain worship, blending mythology with communal reverence for the earth's protective features. Haniyasu-biko no Kami and Haniyasu-bime no Kami are twin deities specifically tied to clay, , and , embodying the malleable and fertile aspects of . The Kojiki recounts their birth from Izanami's feces during her purification after descending to , highlighting their emergence from the underworld's earthy decay to symbolize renewal and craftsmanship. In the Nihon Shoki, an alternate account names Haniyasu no Kami as a singular tutelary of produced by and post-island creation, with variants like Haniyamahiko and Haniyamabime sharing similar attributes. The name derives from "kneading to soften it," reflecting their role in softening for human use, and they are invoked in modern ceremonies (jichinsai) to ensure auspicious on the land. These earth kami, alongside figures like Okuninushi (ruler of the great land and patron of ), illustrate Shinto's holistic view of the earth as a living, divine entity integral to creation and daily life. Their myths emphasize balance between human endeavors and natural forces, with worship persisting in shrines and rituals that honor the soil's generative power.

South Asian Mythologies

Hindu Mythology

In , the primary earth deity is , also known as Bhumi Devi or Bhu Devi, personifying the Earth as a nurturing who sustains life through and stability. She embodies the physical and cosmic aspects of the ground, often depicted as a cow symbolizing abundance, and is central to the Vedic concept of rta (cosmic order), where she provides nourishment and upholds the balance of creation alongside the sky god . Hymns in the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda praise Prithvi as the "universal mother of physical creation," invoking her for protection, prosperity, and the yielding of grains, herbs, and waters that support human existence. In the Vedic tradition, originates from divine sources such as Vishnu's foot or Prajapati's generative energy, forming a parental pair with that fertilizes the through rain to ensure growth and renewal. This duality reflects her role as a stable, all-encompassing entity, distinct from more anthropomorphic goddesses, and she receives offerings in rituals to maintain ecological harmony and human well-being. Later Puranic texts evolve her portrayal as Vishnu's consort, emphasizing her dependence on his preservation, while underscoring her intrinsic divinity as the bearer of all life forms. A key myth involves the demon Hiranyaksha, who drags (as Bhudevi) into the cosmic ocean, disrupting the world and leaving no land for habitation. incarnates as the boar , dives into the depths, slays the demon, and lifts Bhudevi on his tusk to restore her to the surface, symbolizing the triumph of order over chaos and the earth's vital role in sustaining creation. This narrative highlights her vulnerability and resilience, with 's act ensuring the earth's fertility for humanity. Another foundational story explains Prithvi's name through , born from the tyrannical Vena's body via sage intervention to restore . Facing as the earth hides her bounty in grief over Vena's misrule, Prithu pursues her in the form of a cow across the universe, threatening to shoot her with his divine bow. She relents, allowing Prithu—positioned as the milker with Svayambhuva Manu as the calf—to extract vegetation, grains, and resources from her, thereby civilizing the barren land into fertile plains, mountains leveled for habitations, and . By this act, Prithu becomes her protector and father figure, naming her ("the broad one") in his honor, establishing the ideal of kingship as earth's steward. Prithvi's significance extends to ecological and spiritual ethics in Hindu thought, where she is invoked as Prithvi Mata to foster reverence for nature as a divine manifestation, promoting harmony between humans and the environment through rituals and moral duties. While other deities like share prosperity attributes, Prithvi remains the archetypal earth mother, rarely depicted independently in later but integral to Vishnu's as his supportive base.

Meitei Mythology

In , which forms the core of , the indigenous religion of the of , , Leimarel Sidabi stands as the principal earth goddess and universal mother. She embodies the nurturing aspects of the , , and household life, serving as the source of all creation and the protector of domestic spaces. As the spouse of the supreme creator Tengbanba Mapu (also known as Atiya Sidaba or Sidaba), she is depicted as a primordial being who plays a central role in cosmogonic myths, often symbolized by an earthen pot filled with water (Eshaipu) placed in the southwestern corner of Meitei homes for daily worship. Her veneration underscores the Meitei worldview, where the is not merely a physical entity but a divine maternal force integral to sustenance and fertility. Leimarel Sidabi's myths highlight her as the mother or foster mother of key deities, including Sanamahi (the guardian god of humanity), Atiya Sidaba, and Pakhangba (the dragon king). In one creation narrative, she emerges alongside Tengbanba Mapu as part of the divine pair that births the , adopting the infant Sanamahi discovered in an earthen vessel and raising him within the household shrine. Another legend portrays her advising Pakhangba to perform a around the supreme god's throne, securing his sovereignty over the seven clans of the Meitei, though this act of favoritism leads to her symbolic marriage to Sanamahi as a form of divine . These stories emphasize her role in maintaining cosmic balance and familial harmony, with rituals like the Manipuri (Cheiraoba) and marriage ceremonies (Tin-Lai-Thaba) dedicated to her alongside Sanamahi. While Leimarel Sidabi dominates as the earth deity, she manifests in multiple incarnations (known as Shayon), each with specific attributes related to natural elements and human affairs, reinforcing her omnipresence in the Meitei pantheon. For instance, one form links her to the 's and aquatic , overlapping with deities like Ima Hiyangthang Lairembi, though the latter is more narrowly associated with . No other deities are exclusively designated as figures in core Sanamahist texts, positioning Leimarel Sidabi as the singular, multifaceted embodiment of terrestrial . Her persists in both pre-Vaishnava traditions and contemporary Meitei practices, reflecting the enduring reverence for the as a maternal, life-giving entity.

Gondi Mythology

In Gondi mythology, the earth is personified through several deities that embody , strength, and the nurturing aspects of , reflecting the Gonds' deep animistic connection to their forested and agrarian landscapes. Bhimal, also known as Bhivsen or Bhimana among Gondi speakers, is revered as the god of the and physical strength, closely associated with geological features such as rocks, mountains, and rivers. This deity is considered benevolent and integral to clan identity, with shrines serving as sacred sites where hereditary priests conduct rituals to honor ancestral territories, often involving the circulation of symbolic objects among villages every few years. Bhimal's role extends to cosmological functions, such as wielding comets to purify worldly sins, underscoring the Gonds' view of the as a dynamic, protective force intertwined with celestial events. Complementing Bhimal is Dharti Mata, or Mother Earth, a prominent goddess ranked immediately below the supreme deity Dharm Devta in the Gond pantheon, symbolizing the substance from which all earthly life—humans, plants, and animals—emerges. Known variably as Basu Maata, Bhum, or Nat Awal, she is the goddess of fertility and the village's protective mother, invoked for bountiful harvests and communal harmony. Worship of Dharti Mata occurs without physical idols or temples, emphasizing oral traditions and ecological balance; rituals include offerings during agricultural festivals like Akshaya Tritiya, where cooked foods are placed in fields, and Matipuja in the month of Poush, featuring clay effigies, animal sacrifices (such as goats or chickens), and prayers led by priests for soil vitality and protection from famine. These practices highlight the Gonds' reverence for the earth as a living entity, avoiding actions like deep tilling that might injure her, as seen in related tribal customs. Gondi earth deities like Bhimal and Dharti Mata are embedded in a broader cosmology where clan gods (persa pen) link human lineages to specific lands, fostering rituals that affirm territorial bonds through seasonal ceremonies such as Durari, involving offerings of coconuts and pulse cakes to boundary spirits and earth mothers. This integration of earth worship with daily life underscores the Gonds' sustainable relationship with , preserved through bardic recitations by Pardhans despite influences from .

Western Asian Mythologies

Mesopotamian Mythology

In Mesopotamian mythology, earth deities were central to the cosmological framework, often personifying the fertile ground, motherhood, and the primal substance from which life emerged. These figures, primarily from Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian traditions, were frequently depicted as consorts to gods, symbolizing the union of heaven and that engendered creation. The was conceptualized as a nurturing yet sometimes barren entity, requiring divine intervention for , as seen in myths where gods separated the from the to enable human habitation and . The Sumerian goddess Ki, meaning "earth," represented the physical world and was personified as a primordial mother figure. She was regarded as the spouse of An (the sky god), and their separation by their son Enlil allowed for the ordering of the cosmos, with Ki embodying the fertile soil that sustained vegetation and humanity. In early Sumerian cosmogony, Ki was invoked as the source of all earthly life, often paired with An in creation hymns that describe their embrace as the origin of mountains, rivers, and divine offspring. Ninhursag, also known as Ninmah or Nin-tu, emerged as a prominent earth mother goddess in Sumerian lore, closely associated with Ki and often identified as an aspect of the earth itself. She was the goddess of birth, fertility, and the mountains, credited with shaping humanity from clay in collaboration with Enki, the water god, in myths like "Enki and Ninhursag." This narrative portrays her as a healer and creator who restores life to barren lands, emphasizing her role in agricultural abundance and the nurturing aspects of the earth. Temples dedicated to her, such as those at Adab and Kesh, underscored her cult's importance in ensuring prosperous harvests. In later Akkadian and Babylonian traditions, Antum (or Antu) served as the goddess and consort to , the sky god, evolving from earlier Sumerian concepts. She was sometimes equated with Ki, representing the terrestrial realm in opposition to the celestial domain, and was invoked in royal inscriptions as a symbol of stability and fertility for the land. Antum's worship, though less mythologically detailed than that of , highlighted the enduring motif of the as a principle in Mesopotamian religion.

Levantine Mythology

In Levantine mythology, which includes the religious traditions of the ancient Canaanites and Phoenicians in the region encompassing modern-day , , and , earth deities were central to agricultural societies dependent on the land's productivity. These figures often embodied , , and the cyclical renewal of , reflecting the arid environment's reliance on , soil, and seasonal growth. Unlike more anthropomorphic earth mothers in other cultures, Levantine earth deities frequently overlapped with , , and harvest aspects, emphasizing the interconnectedness of weather and soil fertility. Asherah stands as a key Canaanite associated with motherhood, , and the earth's nurturing essence, often symbolized by sacred trees and wooden cult objects known as asherim that represented her life-giving presence. As the consort of the high god El and mother of the divine assembly, she was invoked for bountiful harvests and familial prosperity, with her linking her to serpents and lions as emblems of healing and power derived from the land. In Phoenician contexts, her attributes influenced later veneration of similar figures. Astarte, prominent in Phoenician mythology and borrowed from Canaanite traditions, served as a multifaceted of love, sexuality, war, and , directly tied to the 's reproductive capacities through rituals involving and offerings for agricultural abundance. She was equated with the Mesopotamian Ishtar and worshipped in city-states like and Tyre, where her cult emphasized the vitality of soil and human reproduction as parallel forces of nature. (or Dagan), a widely revered Canaanite and Philistine deity, functioned as the god of , seeds, vegetation, and crop , with his name deriving from the Semitic term for "" and temples dedicated to him in agricultural centers like . , while primarily a storm and warrior god, complemented these earth figures by ensuring rainfall essential for 's productivity, as depicted in myths where his victories over chaos deities revived the land's barrenness.

Anatolian Mythology

In Anatolian mythology, encompassing the religious traditions of the , , , , and related cultures of ancient Asia Minor, earth deities often embodied , the , and the nurturing or chthonic aspects of the land. These figures, frequently syncretized with solar or motherly attributes, played central roles in rituals ensuring agricultural prosperity and cosmic balance. Mother goddesses dominated, reflecting the region's agrarian society and its emphasis on renewal and the subterranean forces sustaining life. Hannahanna, the Hittite mother goddess known as "the grandmother," was closely tied to birth, creation, and destiny, serving as a mediator in myths involving disruptions. In the Telepinu myth, she dispatches a bee to locate the vanished vegetation god Telepinu, restoring earth's productivity and averting , underscoring her role in earthly renewal. Her temperamental nature highlights her influence over domestic and cosmic harmony, positioning her as a primordial nurturer of the land. Wurusemu, a Hattian whose name derives from "wur" meaning , represented passive productivity and subterranean waters, equated with the Hittite Sun- of Arinna in syncretic . As of the of Nerik, she embodied and the creative forces of the , often invoked in rituals blending chthonic and solar elements to ensure bountiful harvests. Her identification with aspects linked her to cycles of and rebirth in the . The Sun-goddess of the (Hittite: dUTU an.ki), a chthonic , governed the and nocturnal solar journey, receiving offerings in rituals to neutralize evils and protect the living world. Distinct from the Sun-goddess of Arinna, she symbolized the earth's hidden depths, beneath the surface, and the containment of destructive forces, appearing prominently in magical texts from the Old Hittite period onward. Her Hurrian counterpart reinforced her ties to earthly gates and judgment. Cybele (Phrygian: Matar Kubileya, "Mother of the Mountain"), the preeminent mother goddess of and broader , deified the earth as a source of fertility, wild , and mountainous landscapes. Worshipped from times through the , she was mistress of animals and vegetation, with cults involving ecstatic rites to invoke earth's generative power; her , often featuring lions, emphasized her dominion over untamed terrestrial forces. Scholarly analysis traces her continuity from earlier Anatolian figures, influencing later Greco-Roman traditions. Kubaba, a Syro-Anatolian prominent in Luwian-influenced regions like , functioned as a protective mother figure with chthonic undertones, associated with city gates, , and the earth's bountiful aspects in Late cults. Though primarily urban, her rituals invoked her as a guardian of terrestrial prosperity, blending local Anatolian and Mesopotamian elements.

European Mythologies

Celtic Mythology

In Celtic mythology, earth deities often embody , the land's abundance, and the cycles of growth and decay, reflecting the ancient ' deep connection to and . These figures, primarily from Irish and Welsh traditions preserved in medieval manuscripts, include mother goddesses associated with rivers, forests, and , as well as male deities linked to earth's bounty. While evidence comes from fragmented oral traditions recorded by Christian scribes, archaeological finds like votive offerings near sacred groves support their worship across Celtic regions from to the . Danu, also known as Ana or , stands as a central earth-mother goddess, revered as the ancestral matron of the , the divine race of . Her name, meaning "divine waters," ties her to rivers and the life-giving forces of the earth, symbolizing fertility, wisdom, and elemental sustenance; she is often depicted as the mother of gods like and , nurturing the land's prosperity. Scholarly analysis links her to continental river names like the , suggesting a pan-Celtic of deities that emphasized abundance and the sacred flow of nature's resources. Worship of Danu likely involved rituals at water sources, where Druids sought her wisdom, underscoring her role in balancing human life with the earth's rhythms. Tailtiu, a Fir Bolg queen and foster mother to the god , exemplifies the sacrificial aspect of earth deities, embodying the toil required for agricultural fertility. In Irish lore, she cleared the dense forests of (modern ) to create for the , dying from exhaustion and thus linking her death to the 's renewal; her burial site became the venue for the festival, honoring harvest and sovereignty through games and assemblies. Described in some texts as a "child of the " born from the great plain Mag Mór, Tailtiu represents the enduring labor of the land, with her story preserved in pseudo-historical accounts that blend myth and genealogy. This narrative highlights the Celtic view of earth goddesses as both nurturers and victims of the soil's demands. Flidais, an Irish woodland goddess of wild animals and fertility, governs the untamed aspects of the earth, particularly forests and herds. Known as Foltchaín ("of the beautiful hair"), she drives a pulled by deer and possesses a magical cow whose milk feeds armies, symbolizing the earth's wild abundance and domestic provision; her connects her to venery and nature's vitality, akin to continental huntress figures. In the Táin Bó Flidais, a cattle-raid tale, she aids heroes with her shape-shifting prowess and sovereignty over beasts, illustrating her dual role in wilderness preservation and human sustenance. Archaeological parallels, such as stag motifs in , reinforce her as a protector of earth's and . The , or "Good God," serves as an earth-associated father figure among the , embodying the land's inexhaustible fertility through his magical possessions. His bottomless cauldron provides endless food, representing earth's perpetual , while his controls seasonal cycles, ensuring growth and renewal; linked to Danu as a son or consort, he shapes Ireland's landscape in myths of conquest and abundance. As Ollathair ("All-Father"), the Dagda's immense strength and appetite mirror the earth's generative power, with rituals likely involving communal feasts to invoke prosperity. This portrayal aligns with Celtic emphasis on male deities as stewards of soil and weather in tandem with female earth principles. Sovereignty goddesses like , , and Fódla further personify the earth as a living entity in Irish tradition, each claiming dominion over the island and demanding ritual unions with kings to legitimize rule. , for instance, welcomes the Milesians but exacts a promise to name after her, symbolizing the land's fertile covenant with its people; these figures, often tripled, evoke the earth's multifaceted bounty—rivers, plains, and hills—ensuring prosperity through symbolic marriage. Their myths, rooted in invasion narratives, underscore the Celtic concept of the goddess as both generous provider and fierce guardian of territorial integrity.

Germanic Mythology

In , earth deities primarily embody , the , and the nurturing aspects of , often depicted as maternal figures central to agrarian societies. These goddesses reflect a broader Indo-European of earth mothers paired with sky fathers, influencing cosmic order and seasonal cycles. Key figures emerge from Roman ethnographic accounts, texts, and later interpretations, with roles tied to prosperity, rituals, and divine lineages. Scholarly analysis, drawing on primary sources like and the Eddas, highlights their evolution across continental Germanic and Norse traditions. Nerthus, known as Terra Mater or Mother Earth, is one of the earliest attested Germanic earth deities, described in the 1st-century CE Germania by Roman historian as a goddess worshipped by tribes including the Angles, Reudigni, and others in a shared . She was venerated through a sacred procession where her image was carried in a veiled drawn by cows, followed by rituals of purification in a lake, symbolizing and renewal; during these events, war ceased, and peace prevailed across regions. Scholars identify her name as deriving from Proto-Germanic nerþuz, meaning "strength" or "vital force," linking her to earth-based abundance and possibly to later sea-god Njörðr, though portrays her distinctly as female and chthonic. Archaeological evidence, such as bog offerings in , supports her association with sacrificial rites for agricultural bounty. In , a branch of Germanic tradition, Jörð ( for "") personifies the physical world as a and , serving as the mother of the thunder god Thor by . She appears in Snorri Sturluson's 13th-century , where she is listed among the Ásynjur (goddesses) and invoked in kennings for land, emphasizing her role in sustaining life and cosmic stability. Jörð is also called Fjörgyn or Hlódyn in poetic contexts, names that scholars interpret as synonyms reinforcing her earthy essence, with Fjörgyn etymologically tied to "" or "land" and used interchangeably for the terrain itself. Her limited narrative presence underscores a poetic rather than dramatic function, aligning with and the primal forces of nature. Frigg, Odin's wife and queen of the gods, is interpreted by some scholars as an earth mother figure in , embodying domestic , , and the union of heaven and earth. In the and , she resides in (Fen-halls), a evoking earth's moist productivity, and as mother of , she nurtures divine offspring akin to agricultural cycles. William P. Reaves argues in Odin's Wife: Mother Earth in Germanic Mythology that Frigg originated as the continental Germanic Terra Mater, akin to , with her attributes of weaving (symbolizing fate and growth) and foreknowledge linking her to earth's generative power; this view draws on etymological ties to Proto-Germanic frijjō ("beloved" or "free") and comparative Indo-European motifs. Her role extends to protecting marriage and hearth, reflecting earth's role in human sustenance. Gefjun (or Gefion), a Danish goddess in Norse lore, functions as an earth deity associated with , plowing, and territorial creation. In Snorri's Ynglinga Saga (part of ), she plows the island of from using four oxen (her sons), granting it to the Danish king, symbolizing 's yielding to human labor and divine favor. This act underscores her aspect, with oxen representing draft animals essential to farming; scholars link her to broader Germanic earth cults, possibly overlapping with in ritual processions. Her name, meaning "giver" or "generous one," highlights bestowal of land and prosperity.

Greek Mythology

In Greek mythology, earth deities were central to the cosmogony and agricultural life, embodying the fertile ground, its bounty, and the cycle of growth and decay. These figures often overlapped with primordial forces and Olympian domains, reflecting the ancient Greeks' reverence for the land as a nurturing yet powerful entity. Primary sources like Hesiod's Theogony describe the earth as emerging early in creation, personified as a goddess who births other divinities and sustains life. Gaia (also known as Gaea or Ge), the primordial goddess of the , was one of the first beings to arise , serving as the foundational mother of the . She personified the physical earth itself, providing the substance from which mountains, seas, and skies formed, and was depicted as a matronly figure emerging from the ground, often accompanied by fruits and seasonal spirits. Gaia mated with her son (the Sky) to produce the Titans, , and other primordial entities, and later with Pontus (the Sea) to birth marine deities like . Her role extended to nurturing humanity and intervening in divine conflicts, such as aiding against the Titans by providing the thunderbolt. Hesiod's (lines 116–138) establishes her as the "mother of all" who "bore the starry Heaven," emphasizing her generative power over the terrestrial realm. Demeter, an Olympian goddess, governed the earth's agricultural fertility, harvest, and the growth of grains, ensuring the sustenance of mortals through her control over the soil's productivity. Unlike the abstract primordial , Demeter was actively worshipped in cults like the , where her search for her daughter symbolized the earth's seasonal barrenness and renewal. She was portrayed with sheaves of wheat, a , and a , representing the earth's gifts, and her anger could cause by withholding crops from the land. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter details her withdrawal to Eleusis, causing the earth to wither until Persephone's partial return restored fertility, underscoring Demeter's dominion over terrestrial abundance. Rhea, a Titaness and daughter of and , embodied maternal and the earth's generative flow, often titled "Mother of the Gods" for birthing the Olympians including . Her name derives from the Greek for "flow" or "ease," linking her to the earth's life-giving streams and enrichment that promote growth. Rhea protected her children from by hiding on , where earth-nymphs nurtured him, and she was sometimes syncretized with as a universal earth mother wielding power over land and sea. In Apollonius Rhodius' (1.1149), she is invoked as a of , , and , highlighting her broad terrestrial influence. Post-Titanomachy, Rhea mediated between generations of gods, reinforcing her role in earth's enduring . Other figures like Persephone (Kore) complemented these as the earth’s queen, ruling its subterranean depths and symbolizing spring's emergence, while local chthonic nymphs and daimones represented specific landscapes. These deities collectively underscored the earth's dual nature as both benevolent provider and formidable force in Greek cosmology.

Roman Mythology

In Roman mythology, earth deities were predominantly goddesses embodying the fertile soil, agricultural abundance, and the life-giving forces of the land, often invoked in rituals to secure prosperity and avert famine. These figures reflected the agrarian foundations of Roman society, blending indigenous Italic traditions with later Greek influences, and were honored through state-sponsored festivals and private cults. Central to this pantheon was Tellus, also known as Terra Mater, the personification of the earth itself as a nurturing mother. Tellus represented the physical ground and its fertility, perceived by Romans as the cultivated soil that receives seeds and yields plant life, ensuring the sustenance of human and divine order. She was frequently paired with sky gods like Jupiter in oaths and ceremonies, symbolizing the union of heaven and earth for cosmic harmony. Closely associated with Tellus was Ops, the consort of Saturn, who governed the 's resources, wealth, and productive power. In archaic Roman religion, Ops was not merely an abstract of abundance but a distinct of material and vital resources, forming a sacred couple with Saturn as the counterpart to his heavenly domain. Her emphasized the hidden potentials of the , with involving secretive rites that underscored her role in agricultural cycles and societal plenty. Festivals like the Opalia celebrated her as the provider of 's bounty, linking her to the foundational myths of Rome's origins. Ceres, the goddess of grain, harvest, and vegetative growth, extended the earth deity archetype into the realm of cultivated , embodying the earth's transformative and chthonic powers. Her primary function lay in overseeing the growth of crops from seed to sustenance, making her indispensable to Roman farmers and the state's grain supply. Closely aligned with Tellus as a fellow agricultural and underworld-linked deity, Ceres featured prominently in the festival, where rituals dramatized the earth's renewal and the mysteries of fertility. Her myths, including the search for her daughter , highlighted themes of seasonal death and rebirth tied to the land's rhythms. Another key figure was Bona Dea, an ancient goddess revered especially by women, who embodied the 's maternal and regenerative aspects. Pictured as a primordial mother, Bona Dea oversaw human and vegetal , with her exclusive female cults focusing on , , and the propagation of life from the . Her May rites involved offerings of earth-produced goods like wine and figs, reinforcing connections between female potency and the land's vitality, while excluding men to preserve the sanctity of these earth-centered mysteries.

Slavic Mythology

In Slavic mythology, earth deities are predominantly female figures representing the fertile , agricultural abundance, and the nurturing aspects of , often invoked in rituals tied to planting, , and oaths sworn upon the ground. These deities reflect the agrarian of ancient Slavic peoples, with worship centered on ensuring bountiful yields and protection from natural calamities. Primary sources, such as medieval chronicles and ethnographic records, document their , though much knowledge derives from preserved after . However, due to the ' oral and the process, which destroyed many records, the pantheon is poorly attested, with much derived from indirect or later sources, sparking debates on authenticity. The central earth deity is Mati Syra Zemlya, literally "Moist Mother Earth," personified as the earth itself and embodying its life-giving moisture essential for growth. She is invoked as a witness in oaths, where supplicants place on their heads to affirm truthfulness, and in protective rites, such as plowing a furrow around a village to ward off plague. Mati Syra Zemlya aids women in and oversees seasonal cycles, trembling in tales to signify her vital force, as seen in narratives where she opens chasms to restore balance after disasters. Her persisted in rural customs, blending with Christian saints, and she is equated with Baltic variants like Zemes Màte. Mokosh serves as a key fertility goddess closely linked to Mati Syra Zemlya, possibly as her handmaiden, governing women's labor, weaving, and the earth's productivity. Documented in the of the (circa 1118 CE), she ensures the fertility of fields, livestock, and human reproduction, protecting sheep during lambing and women in labor. Mokosh's domain extends to fate and moisture, symbolized by her association with spinning threads of life, and her idols were among the seven principal deities in early Slavic temples near the . Post-Christianization, her attributes merged with Saint Paraskeva, patroness of marriage and trade. Other notable earth-related figures include Zhiva, a West Slavic goddess of summer, life, and , worshipped near sacred springs and linked to the renewal of ; her Friday observances involved offerings for bountiful crops. These deities, often paired in dualistic cycles with winter figures like Marzanna, underscore the Slavic view of as a dynamic, maternal entity sustaining communal life.

Australian and Oceanian Mythologies

Australian Aboriginal Mythologies

Australian Aboriginal mythologies encompass a vast array of spiritual traditions spanning over 250 distinct language groups, each with unique Dreamtime narratives that describe ancestral beings shaping the land, water, and life forms. deities in these traditions are often not anthropomorphic gods but powerful ancestral spirits or totemic beings responsible for creating and sustaining the physical world, emphasizing the interconnectedness of land, fertility, and human existence. These figures embody the earth's generative and transformative powers, with stories varying by region but commonly linking the landscape's features to their actions. The Rainbow Serpent, known by names such as Yingarna among the or Ngalyod in Kunwinjku traditions, is one of the most prominent creator beings across northern and . This serpentine ancestor emerged during the Dreamtime to carve rivers, mountains, and waterholes through its movements, bringing life to barren land by releasing water and fostering fertility. As a dual force of creation and destruction, it renews the by shedding its skin, symbolizing cycles of life and guarding sacred sites while punishing those who disrupt natural balance. Its association with rainbows underscores its role in bridging sky and , ensuring the land's vitality. Kunapipi, revered by tribes in such as the Gunabudbu and other groups, functions as a embodying the womb and earth's nurturing essence. She traveled the ancestral landscape with heroes and heroines, giving birth to humans, animals, and plant species, thereby populating and enriching the world. Often depicted as an "old woman" accompanied by a that cleared her path, Kunapipi represents the earth's generative capacity, with her body metaphorically linked to the land itself in rituals celebrating and renewal. Her involves ceremonies that honor the earth's productivity, blending creation myths with communal rites. Eingana, a creator goddess in the mythology of the Jawoyn people of northern Australia, is recognized as the mother of all beings and the earth itself. She formed the land, waters, animals, and humans from her body, serving as the primordial source of life and the physical world. As an earth mother, Eingana embodies the totality of creation, with her vast serpentine form traversing the continent to establish its features and sustain its inhabitants through inherent fertility.

Hawaiian Mythology

In Hawaiian mythology, the earth is embodied by the primordial goddess , also known as Papa, who serves as the mother of the land, islands, and numerous deities, symbolizing fertility and the foundational substance of creation. As the consort of Wākea, the sky father and god of light and heavens, Papahānaumoku represents the earth's surface where life takes root, complemented by Wākea's provision of sunlight and rain to nurture growth. Together, this divine pair forms the core of Hawaiian cosmogony, with Papahānaumoku birthing the major islands—such as Hawaiʻi, , Kauaʻi, and Oʻahu—as their children, personifying the archipelago's emergence from the primordial union. Papahānaumoku is a reincarnation of Haumea, an ancient earth goddess revered for her roles in fertility, childbirth, and the cycles of reproduction and reincarnation, underscoring the earth's regenerative essence. Haumea, who assumes multiple forms across Hawaiian lore, is deeply tied to the natural landscape, including associations with the ‘ulu (breadfruit) tree as a symbol of sustenance and her manifestations in various islands like Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, and Maui. One of her kino lau (physical manifestations) is the hāpuʻu fern, linking her directly to terrestrial flora and the verdant earth. As mother to figures like the Pele clan and progenitors of broader genealogies, Haumea's progeny extend the earth's creative lineage, reflecting Hawaiian views of the land as a living, ancestral entity. Worship of these earth deities centered on honoring their generative powers through offerings, including black pigs, black ‘awa, and red fish, often at sacred sites such as and Kilohana on Oʻahu, where rituals invoked abundance and harmony with the land. The broader sacred marine area of Papahānaumokuākea, encompassing the , encapsulates this mythology as a realm of divine origins, embodying Pō—the primordial source of creation tied to and sea. These figures emphasize the interconnectedness of , , and human ancestry in Hawaiian worldview, where the land itself is a deity demanding respect and stewardship.

Maori Mythology

In , Papatūānuku embodies the earth as a primordial mother figure, serving as the foundational source of all life and nourishment. She is the consort of Ranginui, the , and together they represent the initial unity of heaven and earth in a state of darkness before creation. Their separation by their children, particularly , allowed light to enter the world and enabled the proliferation of , , and humanity, with Papatūānuku providing the physical and spiritual sustenance for all existence. This separation underscores her role as a nurturing entity, often equated with the land (whenua), which also symbolizes the in , highlighting the deep connection between birth, land, and ancestry. Papatūānuku is revered as the progenitor of numerous deities and natural elements, giving birth to gods who govern specific aspects of the environment. Among her prominent children are , the deity of uncultivated foods such as ferns, who ensures the availability of wild sustenance from the earth's bounty; and Rongo-mā-tāne (or Rongomātāne), the god of cultivated foods and peace, associated with and the earth's fertile produce. Another key offspring is Rūaumoko, the god of earthquakes and volcanoes, born after the separation and said to dwell within Papatūānuku, expressing his grief through seismic activity that shapes and renews the land. These deities function as kaitiaki (guardians), reflecting cosmological views where the earth is not merely a but a living ancestor demanding respect and reciprocity. Culturally, Papatūānuku's significance extends to concepts of belonging and identity, as seen in terms like (people of the land), denoting indigenous ties to specific territories, and tūrangawaewae (standing place), a personal connection to the as a site of rootedness. Her mythology emphasizes and guardianship, influencing modern practices in environmental conservation and (tribal) land rights. While regional variations exist across , Papatūānuku remains the central earth deity, embodying the interconnectedness of all life forms.

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