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Antipope Alexander V
Antipope Alexander V
Antipope Alexander V
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Peter of Candia, also known as Peter Phillarges (Greek: Πέτρος Φιλάργης) (c. 1339 – 3 May 1410), denominated Alexander V (Latin: Alexander PP.V; Italian: Alessandro V), was an antipope elected by the Council of Pisa during the Western Schism (1378–1417). He invalidly reigned briefly from 26 June 1409 to his death in 1410, in opposition to the true Roman Pope Gregory XII and the Avignon antipope Benedict XIII. In the 20th century, the Catholic Church reinterpreted the Western Schism by recognising the Roman Popes of the period as legitimate. The pontificate of Gregory XII was thus recognized to extend to 1415, and Alexander V was and is now recognized as an antipope.

Key Information

Life

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Peter was born near modern Neapoli in Crete, then subject to the Republic of Venice, in 1339.[1] Born into a Greek family, he was baptised Pietro Filargo, but is often known as Pietro di Candia and Peter Philarges.[1] Italian Franciscans raised him after being orphaned in his youth.[2]

Peter entered the Franciscan order, and his abilities were such that he was sent to study at the Universities of Oxford and Paris. While he was in Paris the Western Schism occurred. Peter supported Pope Urban VI (1378–89). He became an adviser to Giangaleazzo Visconti, the Duke of Milan, and for almost ten years, Peter was prime minister to Galeatus and his son.[2] He returned to Lombardy, where, thanks to the favour of Giangaleazzo Visconti, Peter became bishop, first of Piacenza (1386), then of Vicenza (1387), then of Novara (1389), and finally Archbishop of Milan (1402).[1] Pope Innocent VII (1404–1406) elevated him as cardinal in 1405.[2]

Invalid Papal election

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At the Council of Pisa (from 25 March 1409), the assembled cardinals invalidly elected Peter to the Supreme Pontificate, which they had declared vacant. Therefore, he was also invalidly coronated on 26 June 1409 as Alexander V, rendering him the third rival claimant to the Papal office. Following his election, most polities in Europe recognised him as the true Pope, except the Kingdoms of Aragon and Scotland, which remained loyal to the Avignon claimant, and some Italian states, which recognized the Roman Pope.[3]

During his invalid reign of 10 months, Alexander's object was to extend obedience to him with the assistance of France and, notably, Duke Louis II of Anjou, upon whom he conferred the investiture of the Kingdom of Sicily, having deprived Ladislaus of Naples of it. He proclaimed and promised rather than effected many reforms: abandonment of the rights of "spoils" and "procurations", and the re-establishment of the system of canonical election in the cathedral churches and principal monasteries.[4] He also generously granted Papal favours, from which the mendicant orders benefitted especially.

Alexander suddenly died while he was with Cardinal Baldassare Cossa in Bologna on the night of 3–4 May 1410. His remains were placed in the Church of St. Francis in Bologna. A rumour, though now considered false, spread that Cardinal Cossa, who succeeded him as Antipope John XXIII (1410–5), poisoned him.[5]

Legacy

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The Popes' drinking society at Greyfriars, University of Oxford, is traditionally held to have been founded by Peter during his time at the University. With the closure of Greyfriars in 2008, the society is now populated mainly by students of Regent's Park College, Oxford.[6]

Previously, the Catholic Church considered the pontificate of Pope Gregory XII to have ended in 1409 with the election of Alexander V. In 1958, Pope St. John XXIII selected the regnal number XXIII, citing "twenty-two Johns of indisputable legitimacy."[7] Because the previous "John XXIII" (r. 1410–5) had succeeded Alexander V, the Pisan line became illegitimate. The pontificate of Gregory XII was recognized to extend to 1415, and the Church now recognizes Alexander V as an antipope.[8] However, Alexander V remains in the numerical sequence of the regnal name Alexander because Rodrigo Borgia had taken the name Alexander VI in 1492.

See also

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References

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Sources

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  • Artaud de Montor, Alexis François. The Lives and Times of the Popes. Volume 4 (New York: Catholic Publication Society of America, 1911), pp. 109–111.
  • Brown, Stephen F. (2010). "Peter of Canida's Commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard". In Rosemann, Philipp W. (ed.). Mediaeval Commentaries on the Sentences of Peter Lombard. Vol. 2. Brill. pp. 439–470.439
  • Frank, J.W., "Die Obödienzerklärung des österreichischen Herzöge für Papst Alexander V. (1409)," (in German), in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen, 20, 1978, pp. 49–76.
  • Gregorovius, Ferdinand. History of Rome in the Middle Ages. Volume VI. 2, second edition, revised (London: George Bell, 1906). [Book XII, chapter 5, pp. 598–612].
  • Kelly, J.N.D. & Walsh, M.J. Oxford Dictionary of Popes. second edition. Oxford: OUP 2010.
  • Logan, F. Donald (2013). A History of the Church in the Middle Ages. Routledge.
  • Oakley, Francis (2008). "The Conciliar Heritage and the Politics of Oblivion". In Christianson, Gerald; Izbicki, Thomas M.; Bellitto, Christopher M. (eds.). The Church, the Councils, and Reform: The Legacy of the Fifteenth Century. The Catholic University of America Press.
  • Pastor, Ludwig Freiherr von. The History of the Popes: From the Close of the Middle Ages. Volume 1, fifth edition. Herder, 1923 [pp. 177–191]
  • Petrucci, Armando. "Alessandro V, antipapa." (in Italian). In: Enciclopedia dei Papi (2000).
  • Schabel, Christopher (2002). "Peter of Candia". In Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Noone, Timothy B. (eds.). A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 506–507.
  • Sumption, Jonathan (2015). The Hundred Years War. Vol. IV: Cursed Kings. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812247060.
  • Tuilier, A. "L'élection d'Alexandre V, pape grec, sujet vénitien et docteur de l'Université de Paris," (in French), in: Rivista di Studi Bizantini e Slavi, 3, 1983, pp. 319–341.
  • Valois, Noël. La France et le grand schisme d'Occident. Tome IV: Recours au Concile général. (in French) Paris: A. Picard et fils, 1902. [pp. 102–129]


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Antipope Alexander V

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Antipope Alexander V (c. 1339 – 3 May 1410), born Pietro Philarghi (also known as Peter of Candia or Pietro di Candia) in to a family of Greek descent, was a friar, theologian, and cardinal who reigned as from his unanimous election by the on 26 June 1409 until his sudden death in . Orphaned in youth and raised by the , he pursued advanced studies in and at institutions including , , and , later serving as a of at before ascending through ecclesiastical ranks as bishop of in 1386, archbishop of in 1402, and cardinal-bishop of in 1405. The convened in 1409 primarily to resolve the by deposing both reigning popes—Gregory XII of the Roman obedience and Benedict XIII of the obedience—and installing a unifying successor; Alexander V's election fulfilled this aim in the council's view, though neither deposed pope recognized the council's authority, resulting in three simultaneous papal claimants and a temporary worsening of the division. During his brief pontificate, Alexander V established residence in under the protection of local lords, from where he promulgated bulls and decrees aimed at ecclesiastical reform and resolution, but achieved limited practical success owing to the brevity of his tenure and ongoing rivalries. Alexander V died abruptly on the night of 3–4 May 1410 in alongside Cardinal Baldassarre Cossa, who succeeded him as , continuing the Pisan line until its ultimate rejection by the in 1417, which affirmed the schism's end under and invalidated the Pisan elections as conciliar overreach lacking canonical legitimacy. His legacy, marked by scholarly repute and an earnest though unsuccessful bid for unity, underscores the era's conciliarist tensions between and collective church authority, with the failed intervention highlighting the schism's deep entrenchment rather than heralding resolution.

Early Life and Education

Birth and Family Background

Pietro Philarghi, who would take the name Alexander V as antipope, was born around 1339 in Crete (then known as Candia under Venetian control) to parents of Greek ethnicity. His original name, Petros Philargos, underscores his Hellenic heritage in a region that retained strong Byzantine cultural influences despite Latin rule following the Fourth Crusade. Details of his remain obscure, with no identifying specific parents or siblings, pointing to a humble, non-aristocratic background unconnected to prominent lineages in either Venetian administration or local . This lack of documented ancestry aligns with his early entry into the Franciscan order, typical for individuals from modest circumstances seeking education and advancement in medieval . Some contemporary accounts suggest he was transported to the Italian mainland as a , possibly through Venetian networks facilitating opportunities for colonial subjects, though primary evidence for his precise early relocation is scant.

Academic and Theological Training

Pietro Filargo, born around 1340 in Candia (modern , ), entered the Franciscan Order in his youth, likely around 1357, where his intellectual promise was quickly recognized. The order directed him to pursue theological studies initially in , , followed by further education in and . Filargo advanced to the , where he earned a degree and engaged in scholarly pursuits within Franciscan houses. He subsequently studied at the , the premier center for scholastic theology in medieval , attaining mastery in the discipline. There, he distinguished himself as a professor, preacher, and writer, producing notable works including a commentary on Peter Lombard's , a foundational text in theological education that structured debates on doctrine, sacraments, and metaphysics. His training emphasized rigorous methods, combining Aristotelian logic with patristic and scriptural , which equipped him for later roles in governance and conciliar debates. Filargo's multilingual background—Greek heritage aiding access to patristic sources—enhanced his engagement with both Latin and Eastern traditions, though his primary output remained in Latin .

Ecclesiastical Rise

Franciscan Ministry and Teaching

Pietro Filargo, born around 1340 in Candia (modern ) to Greek parents, was orphaned young and adopted by Franciscan friars who provided his initial education, leading him to join the Franciscan Order as a youth. His early ministry within the order involved theological study across , including time in and , where he earned a degree. By the late 1370s, he advanced to lecturing ordinarie on Peter Lombard's at the from 1378 to 1380, culminating in his doctorate in theology in autumn 1381. Filargo's teaching emphasized rigorous scholastic analysis, particularly in his extensive commentary on the Sentences, which explored themes like the nature of truth, , and within a Franciscan framework influenced by nominalist traditions. He delivered sermons praising as a foundational theologian, positioning the Sentences as central to doctrinal instruction and defending its role against critics. His lectures and writings contributed to fourteenth-century debates on , where he distinguished between divine and human knowing, arguing for theology's capacity to yield certain truths through scriptural and rational means. As a peripatetic Franciscan scholar, Filargo taught in order houses across Eastern Europe, including in Russia, Bohemia, and Poland, disseminating Franciscan theology amid regional ecclesiastical tensions. His reputation as a precise and erudite instructor facilitated his rise, though his nominalist leanings—stressing conceptual distinctions over universals—drew from Ockhamist precedents without fully endorsing radical skepticism, prioritizing empirical scriptural fidelity in teaching. This phase solidified his commitment to the order's intellectual apostolate, blending mendicant ministry with academic rigor before higher appointments.

Appointments to High Offices

Pietro Filargo received his first episcopal appointment on 5 October 1386, when he was named Bishop of by , marking the beginning of his ascent in the Roman obedience amid the . This position, held until 1387, reflected his growing reputation as a theologian and administrator within Franciscan circles and Italian ecclesiastical networks. Filargo's promotions continued swiftly: in 1387, he transferred to the Bishopric of , serving until 1388, followed by appointment as Bishop of in 1389, a role he maintained until 1402. These successive bishoprics, granted under Popes Urban VI and Boniface IX, were facilitated by his scholarly prominence and connections to northern Italian powers, including the patronage of the Visconti family, which bolstered his influence in . On 17 May 1402, Filargo was elevated to Archbishop of , a prestigious metropolitan see, again with Visconti support from Gian Galeazzo, Duke of , who sought to counterbalance papal interference in regional affairs. In this capacity, he navigated tensions between the Roman papacy and local secular authority, administering the archdiocese until his later deposition by in 1405 amid schism-related disputes. Filargo's culminating appointment came on 12 June 1405, when created him a cardinal priest, assigning the of Santi Silvestro e Martino ai Monti, and simultaneously named him to to mediate conflicts and secure obedience to the Roman line. This cardinalate, comprising one of eleven elevated in that consistory, positioned him as a key and reinforced his alignment with the Pisan faction's eventual efforts to resolve the , though his legation yielded limited success against entrenched regional rivalries.

Prelude to the Papacy

Involvement in Schism Diplomacy

Prior to his pivotal role at the , Pietro Filargo engaged in the diplomatic maneuvers among cardinals seeking to bridge the divide between the Roman and Avignon obediences during the . Elevated to the cardinalate on 12 June 1405 by , Filargo initially aligned with the Roman line, participating in the conclave that elected Gregory XII on 30 November 1406. However, Gregory's reluctance to abdicate or authorize a unifying general council—despite repeated diplomatic overtures from secular rulers and prelates—frustrated efforts toward resolution, prompting dissident cardinals to explore alternative paths. By early 1408, Filargo had abandoned obedience to Gregory XII, aligning instead with a of cardinals from both papal lines who pursued a conciliar solution outside direct papal control. This shift reflected broader diplomatic initiatives, including clandestine meetings such as those at Giarolo in March 1408, where representatives coordinated to withdraw collective support from the rival popes and compel their resignation or deposition. Filargo's decision to defect, as a prominent Italian cardinal and administrator of , lent significant weight to these negotiations, which emphasized pragmatic unity over loyalty to individual claimants amid the schism's paralysis of ecclesiastical authority. These efforts culminated in joint encyclicals issued on 2 and 5 July by the united cardinals, summoning a general council to on 25 March 1409 to adjudicate the definitively. Filargo's support for this strategy underscored a causal prioritization of institutional restoration over personal allegiance, though it exacerbated short-term divisions by challenging . The diplomatic process highlighted tensions between and traditional hierarchy, with Filargo's involvement signaling the cardinals' assertion of collective authority to enforce reform.

Role Leading to the Council of Pisa

As of and a cardinal aligned initially with the Roman obedience under , Pietro Filargo grew frustrated with Gregory's intransigence in resolving the , particularly his reluctance to abdicate or summon a general despite repeated diplomatic overtures. By 1406–1408, Filargo had withdrawn his support from Gregory, aligning instead with dissident cardinals who advocated a conciliar solution to depose both rival claimants—Gregory XII and ’s Benedict XIII—and elect a unifying pope. This shift positioned him as a key proponent of the conciliarist approach, which posited that a general held superior authority to an individual pontiff in extraordinary crises like the ongoing schism since 1378. Filargo played a central role in organizing the , convened on March 25, 1409, by rallying support among European powers and prelates. He actively secured endorsements from , , and significant portions of the German ecclesiastical territories, leveraging his influence in and his Franciscan networks to broaden the council's perceived legitimacy beyond the withdrawing cardinals' initial manifesto of July 1408. These efforts aimed to pressure the rival popes into resignation through overwhelming conciliar representation, including over 300 participants such as bishops, abbots, and theologians, though the strategy ultimately exacerbated the by producing a third claimant rather than resolution. His promotion of the council reflected a pragmatic, if controversial, prioritization of institutional unity over strict adherence to papal legitimacy, drawing on his long-standing theological expertise in and developed during his Paris tenure.

Election and Pontificate

The Council of Pisa and Deposition of Rivals

The was convoked by dissident cardinals from the obediences of both and , who issued letters on July 2 and July 5, 1408, summoning a general council to assemble in on March 25, 1409, with the explicit aim of resolving the by compelling the rival pontiffs to resign or face deposition. These cardinals, numbering around 22 in attendance (with representatives from both sides), represented a coalition frustrated by the popes' repeated failures to fulfill prior agreements for , such as those negotiated at in 1407 and elsewhere, which had instead perpetuated division and obstructed reform. The initiative drew support from secular rulers, including King Charles VI of and various Italian states, though and some German princes initially withheld endorsement, viewing the gathering as presumptuous without broader consensus. The opened ceremonially on March 25, 1409, in , under the presidency of Cardinal Simon de Cramaud, , with an estimated 500 prelates and theologians present, including 4 patriarchs, 80 bishops (plus proxies for 100 absent ones), 87 abbots, 41 priors, and over 300 doctors of theology and ; ambassadors from major Christian kingdoms also attended, underscoring the assembly's scale as the largest church since Lateran IV in 1215. Early sessions focused on procedural matters and theological deliberations, with Peter Philarghi, the future Alexander V, delivering the opening sermon that condemned the rival popes and presiding over commissions of theologians who systematically examined Gregory XII's and Benedict XIII's actions, declaring them guilty of , , and for their obstinate refusal to convene a or abdicate despite oaths to do so. Benedict XIII's delegates arrived late on June 14, only to face derision for defending his claims, while Gregory XII, having fled to under Malatesta protection, refused participation and excommunicated the participants, further justifying the assembly's proceedings in their view. In its 15th session on June 5, 1409, the council formally pronounced Gregory XII and Benedict XIII as , heretics, and perjurers, citing their "obstinacy in maintaining the , violation of promises solemnly made, and given to the Church" as rendering them unworthy of the papacy; the decree declared the papal see vacant and ipso facto deposed both men, invoking scriptural and precedents for superior to intervene in cases of prolonged . This act of deposition, while intended to unify the Church under a new, neutral pontiff, lacked universal acceptance—Gregory retained nominal obedience in parts of , , and , and Benedict held and —exacerbating the temporarily by creating a third claimant line, as later affirmed by the . The council's reformers argued the depositions were justified by the popes' causal role in perpetuating division, evidenced by diplomatic records of broken truces, though critics, including later Roman partisans, contended the assembly overstepped its absent papal .

Election as Alexander V

Following the Council of Pisa's declaration of the papal see vacant after the attempted depositions of and on June 5, 1409, the assembled cardinals proceeded to elect a successor to resolve the . The council, convened from March 25, 1409, sought to impose unity by selecting a compromise candidate unaligned with the rival obediences. On June 26, 1409, Cardinal Philarghi of Candia, a Franciscan scholar and Archbishop of , received the unanimous votes of the participating cardinals, numbering 24 in total, and assumed the Alexander V. His election was anticipated due to his reputation for learning and perceived neutrality, though he had been elevated to the cardinalate by the Roman line under Urban VI in 1381. Alexander V was crowned pope on the same day in Pisa's cathedral, marking the creation of a third papal claimant. Prior to the vote, Philarghi pledged to maintain the council in session until comprehensive church reforms were enacted, reflecting the conciliarists' emphasis on addressing abuses amid the . This commitment underscored the election's intent to prioritize institutional renewal over mere papal succession, though the council's authority to depose incumbents remained contested, later invalidated by subsequent ecumenical councils.

Key Decrees and Administrative Actions

Upon his election on June 26, 1409, Alexander V promptly ratified and published the decrees of the on July 1, 1409, thereby endorsing the council's declarations of deposition against Popes Gregory XII and Benedict XIII, as well as its broader calls for ecclesiastical unity and reform. On August 7, 1409, he formally dissolved the council, promising to convene a follow-up assembly in three years to address unresolved issues, though this plan was never realized due to his short tenure and the ongoing schism. In administrative matters, Alexander favored his Franciscan order by appointing numerous to bishoprics and benefices within weeks of his election, often displacing incumbent and challenging university privileges, which alienated local hierarchies and undermined the reformist expectations set by the . On , 1409, he issued a granting expanded rights to preach and hear confessions, reviving privileges that had been curtailed under previous pontificates; this decree provoked strong resistance from who viewed it as a regression from conciliar reform efforts aimed at curbing monastic influence. Politically, in January 1410, Alexander excommunicated King Ladislaus of Naples, who controlled Rome, and invested Louis II of Anjou as king of Naples in his stead, an action intended to secure territorial support for the Pisan obedience but which instead facilitated Louis's temporary capture of Rome without yielding lasting gains for Alexander's claim. Additionally, on December 20, 1409, he promulgated a bull to the Archbishop of Prague authorizing suppression of Wycliffite teachings, mandating the surrender and public burning of John Wycliffe's works and empowering inquisitorial proceedings against adherents, including Jan Hus, in an effort to combat perceived heresy in Bohemia. These measures, while assertive, largely prioritized partisan appointments and doctrinal enforcement over substantive schism resolution, contributing to perceptions of ineffectiveness in his brief pontificate.

Diplomatic Efforts and Failures

Alexander V, upon his election on June 26, 1409, initiated diplomatic overtures to consolidate support across Europe, dispatching envoys to secular princes and urging the of Gregory XII and Benedict XIII to achieve church unity. These efforts secured recognition from , the , , and several Italian states, but failed to sway holdouts like and , which adhered to Benedict XIII, or Gregory XII's partisans in and parts of . Direct appeals to the rival popes proved fruitless, as Gregory XII denounced the Council of Pisa's depositions as invalid, excommunicated its cardinals, and retreated to under Malatesta protection, refusing any compromise. Benedict XIII similarly rejected the council's authority, withdrawing to the fortified Peñiscola in with loyalist backing, thereby perpetuating divided obediences. The absence of mutual resignation, despite pre-council negotiations between Gregory and Benedict having collapsed earlier, left Alexander V unable to enforce the Pisan resolutions diplomatically. Further diplomatic maneuvers in aimed to neutralize Gregory's supporters, including alliances with the Malatesta lords of and for territorial control, but encountered resistance from King , who championed Gregory and mobilized armies against Pisan forces. In a bid to counter this, Alexander V crowned as King of on August 5, 1410, leveraging French interests to challenge Neapolitan dominance, yet this alliance yielded no decisive gains before his death. A brief entry into on May 5, 1410, buoyed by local acclaim, collapsed under Ladislaus's counteroffensive, exposing the inadequacy of diplomatic overtures without sustained leverage. These setbacks not only prolonged the but intensified factional strife, as the proliferation of claimants eroded Alexander V's legitimacy despite initial broad endorsements.

Death and Immediate Aftermath

Circumstances of Death

Alexander V died suddenly on the night of May 3–4, 1410, in , where he had resided since his election, without ever entering . At the time of his death, he was in the company of Cardinal Baldassare Cossa, who would succeed him as . His remains were interred in the Church of St. Francis in . Contemporary rumors immediately alleged that Cossa had poisoned Alexander V, possibly to hasten his own elevation to the Pisan papacy, but these claims lacked substantiation and are now widely regarded as unfounded. No definitive medical cause for the sudden death—occurring just ten months into his pontificate—has been established in historical records, though the advanced age of Pietro Filargo (approximately 70–71 years old) may have contributed to natural frailty amid the stresses of the . The absence of forensic evidence from the era and the dismissal of poisoning theories in subsequent scholarship underscore the speculative nature of such accusations, often arising from political rivalries during the .

Succession by John XXIII

The death of Antipope Alexander V on 3 May 1410 in prompted the cardinals loyal to the Pisan line to convene a conclave in the same city to select his successor, seeking to preserve the legitimacy of their obedience amid the ongoing . These electors, numbering among the twenty-four who had participated in Alexander's own election at , included figures who had previously adhered to either the Roman or papacies before uniting at . On 17 June 1410, the conclave elected Cardinal Baldassarre Cossa of , a former supporter of who had defected to the Pisan cause and played a leading role in the Council of Pisa's proceedings, as the new pontiff; he adopted the regnal name John XXIII. Cossa's selection reflected the cardinals' preference for a vigorous administrator capable of advancing the Pisan claims, though his reputation for worldly ambitions and alleged involvement in Neapolitan politics had drawn prior criticisms. Contemporary rumors alleged that Cossa had poisoned Alexander V to hasten his own elevation, but these claims lack substantiating evidence and are now widely regarded as unfounded by historians, possibly stemming from political opponents' efforts to discredit the Pisan succession. John XXIII's immediate thus continued the Pisan antipapacy's opposition to in and in , relocating the curia to under the protection of the Malatesta lords while failing to secure broader European recognition.

Historical Assessment and Controversies

Validity of the Pisan Papacy

The Council of Pisa's deposition of and on June 5, 1409, and subsequent election of Alexander V lacked legitimacy, as the assembly was convened unilaterally by dissident cardinals without the convocation authority of a reigning , violating established norms for ecumenical councils under . This procedural irregularity invalidated its pretensions to superior jurisdiction, as medieval Church governance required papal summons or broad consensus absent a vacancy, neither of which obtained amid the ongoing . The council's assertion of conciliar supremacy to depose papal claimants presupposed a heretical or status provable by doctrine, yet Gregory XII maintained Roman continuity from Urban VI's 1378 election, recognized by key powers like the , while Benedict XIII held Avignon allegiance; neither faced formal trials, rendering the depositions arbitrary and beyond conciliar competence. This overreach exacerbated division, producing a tripartite rather than resolution, as both ousted figures rejected the acts and persisted in claims, with Gregory XII excommunicating participants on June 8, 1409. Catholic tradition, informed by the resolution at Constance (1414–1418), affirms papal primacy over councils, a principle retrospectively applied to deem Pisa's acts null; Constance, summoned under Pisan pope John XXIII but pivoting via Gregory XII's July 4, 1415 resignation, deposed John XXIII on May 29, 1415 without endorsing prior Pisan validity, and elected Martin V on November 11, 1417, restoring unity under Roman lineage. Modern assessments by Church historians concur that the Pisan line failed universal acceptance, a pragmatic test of legitimacy, confining Alexander V to antipapal status.

Impact on the Western Schism and Conciliarism

The Council of Pisa's election of Alexander V on June 26, 1409, sought to terminate the (1378–1417) by nullifying the claims of and , but this maneuver instead intensified the division, resulting in three concurrent papal claimants and extending the crisis by approximately eight years until its resolution at the . Neither nor acknowledged the council's authority or the deposition decrees issued on June 5, 1409, leading to widespread rejection among European powers and clergy loyal to the Roman or obediences, which undermined the Pisan papacy's legitimacy from the outset. This outcome discredited the immediate efficacy of unilateral conciliar intervention in papal disputes, as the absence of unified secular support—evident in the failure of major powers like and the to fully endorse Alexander V—exposed the practical limits of council-driven resolutions without papal convocation or broader consensus. Yet the council's bold assertion of superiority over popes, including the power to depose incumbents for the sake of ecclesiastical unity, provided a foundational for , the doctrine positing that general councils hold ultimate authority in the Church, influencing subsequent assemblies like Constance (1414–1418). Alexander V's brief pontificate (1409–1410) and the continuation of the Pisan line under John XXIII (1410–1415) thus inadvertently paved the way for Constance's more successful application of moderated conciliar principles, where the secured resignations and depositions through diplomatic pressure rather than outright defiance, ultimately electing Martin V in November 1417 and restoring singular papal authority. However, the Pisa episode's radicalism—evident in its composition of cardinals from both obediences yet its failure to achieve ecumenical status—highlighted tensions within conciliar theory, contributing to its later curtailment by papal reaffirmations of supremacy, such as those under Martin V.

Personal Character and Criticisms

Pietro Filargo, taking the name Alexander V upon his election, was characterized by contemporaries and later historians as possessing a stainless character, marked by scholarly rigor and administrative competence honed through his Franciscan formation and ecclesiastical career. Orphaned and raised from beggar origins in Crete around 1339, he demonstrated intellectual discipline as a theologian trained at Oxford, Paris, and Padua, earning a reputation as a fine teacher and preacher unburdened by national or familial allegiances that might bias papal decisions. His adherence to Franciscan ideals of poverty and simplicity persisted into his cardinalate, though his rise to prominence under Urban VI in 1385 reflected pragmatic engagement with curial politics. Criticisms of Alexander V centered on perceived shortcomings in his brief ten-month pontificate (26 June 1409 to 3 May 1410), where initial zeal for structural reforms in the Church waned amid diplomatic failures to unify obediences or secure . He faced reproach for excessive liberality, granting ecclesiastical favors and benefices with "undiscriminating munificence" that depleted papal resources without strategic discernment. Favoritism toward , especially , provoked resentment from secular parish priests and university theological faculties, who viewed it as undue preference exacerbating tensions between regular and secular . Rivals in the Roman (Gregory XII) and Avignon (Benedict XIII) lines dismissed Alexander V's legitimacy outright as a product of conciliar overreach, branding the Pisan papacy schismatic without delving into personal moral failings, though this rejection amplified perceptions of his election as exacerbating rather than healing the Western Schism. Posthumous suspicions of poisoning—alleged by enemies of his successor John XXIII—arose around his sudden death in Bologna on 3 May 1410, but lacked substantiation beyond partisan accusations. Overall, assessments portray a figure of evident piety and learning whose administrative impulses faltered under the schism's intractable pressures, yielding no evidence of personal corruption but highlighting the limits of individual virtue in resolving institutional crises.

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  22. https://cardinals.fiu.edu/bios1405.htm
  23. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/great-western-schism-13781417/great-western-schism/34ACD7F88583E615BC961B8BD13C7F07
  24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3168142
  25. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-papacy/avignon-papacy-and-the-great-western-schism/C087DE0771736B8BB3BB6F81B2F45463
  26. https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Pisa-Roman-Catholicism-1409
  27. https://www.1517.org/articles/three-popes-and-the-burning-of-jan-hus
  28. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/plethora-of-pontiffs
  29. https://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=read&author=sisters&book=leading3&story=schism
  30. https://www.brewminate.com/the-great-occidental-schism-division-in-the-catholic-church-1378-1417/
  31. https://culturemosaic.co.uk/council-of-pisa-1409-the-failed-unity-of/
  32. http://cardinals.fiu.edu/conclave-xv.htm
  33. https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-XXIII
  34. https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/john-xxiii
  35. https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/john-xxiii-antipope
  36. https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc6/hcc6.iii.iii.iv.html
  37. https://www.catholicstand.com/does-vatican-iis-collegiality-conflict-with-vatican-is-papal-supremacy/
  38. https://www.gotquestions.org/Council-of-Constance.html
  39. https://certitude.org.uk/virtual-library/EWPFrl/6OK119/what-is_the__great-western-schism.pdf
  40. https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/today/8/7
  41. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-medieval-history/popes-and-councils/AFF4A220931A4AD6D84C44E9B268DD03
  42. https://academic.oup.com/book/26811/chapter/195788384
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