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Srinagar
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Srinagar[a] is a city in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region.[1] It is the largest city and summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, which is an Indian-administered union territory. It lies in the Kashmir Valley along the banks of the Jhelum River, and the shores of Dal Lake and Anchar Lakes, between the Hari Parbat and Shankaracharya hills. The city is known for its natural environment, various gardens, waterfronts and houseboats. It is also known for traditional Kashmiri handicrafts like the Kashmir shawl (made of pashmina and cashmere wool), papier-mâché, wood carving, carpet weaving, and jewel making, as well as for dried fruits.[12][13] It is the second-largest metropolitan area in the Himalayas (after Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal).

Key Information

Founded in the 6th century during the rule of the Gonanda dynasty according to the Rajatarangini, the city took on the name of an earlier capital thought to have been founded by the Mauryas in its vicinity. The city remained the most important capital of the Kashmir Valley under the Hindu dynasties, and was a major centre of learning. During the 14th–16th centuries the city's old town saw major expansions, particularly under the Shah Mir dynasty, whose kings used various parts of it as their capitals. It became the spiritual centre of Kashmir, and attracted several Sufi preachers. It also started to emerge as a hub of shawl weaving and other Kashmiri handicrafts. In the late 16th century, the city became part of the Mughal Empire, many of whose emperors used it as their summer resort. Many Mughal gardens were built in the city and around Dal lake during this time, of which Shalimar and Nishat are the most well-known.

After passing through the hands of the Afghan Durranis and the Sikhs in the late 18th and early 19th century, it eventually became the summer capital of the Dogra kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir in 1846. The city became a popular tourist destination among Europeans and Indian elites during this time, with several hotels and its iconic houseboats being built. In 1952, the city became the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir, a region administered by India as a state, with Jammu being its winter capital. It was the flashpoint of violence during the 1990s and early 2000s insurgency in the region. In 2019, it became the summer capital of a smaller region which is administered by India as a union territory, after the former state's reorganisation.

Etymology

[edit]

The earliest records, such as Kalhana's Rajatarangini, mentions the Sanskrit name shri-nagara which have been interpreted distinctively by scholars in two ways: one being "The city of "Śrī" (श्री), the Hindu goddess of prosperity, meaning "City of Lakshmi"[14][15][16][17][18][19] and other being sūrya-nagar, meaning "City of the Surya" (trans) "City of Sun."[20][21][22][23] The name was used for an older capital in the vicinity of the present-day city, before being used for it.[24] Between the 14th and 19th centuries, and especially during Mughal rule, the city was also referred to simply as Kashmir or Shahr-i-Kashmir (lit. 'City of Kashmir').[25]

History

[edit]
Shiva Temple at Pandrethan, near Srinagar, built c. 8th–9th century CE

Early history

[edit]

According to the Rajatarangini of Kalhana, a capital city by the name of Srinagari was built in the Kashmir valley by Ashoka.[b] Kalhana calls this capital puranadhisthana, Sanskrit for 'old capital', identified as present-day Pandrethan, 3.5 kilometres south-east of Srinagar.[26] A 'new capital' was built by king Pravarasena, called Parvarapura, in 6th century CE. Srinagari continued to be used as a name for this capital. This new capital was located at the base of the Hari Parbat hill on the right bank of the Jhelum, corresponding to the location of modern-day Srinagar.[28] Kalhana describes the capital having several markets, mansions, wooden houses, grand temples and canals, and also refers to the Dal lake and Jhelum river.[29] A long embankment was constructed on the Jhelum by Pravarasena to protect the city from floods, parts of which have survived to the present day.[30] The two capitals are also mentioned in the chronicle of Chinese traveller Huein Tsang who visited the city in 631 CE.[31][32] Although several other capitals of Kashmir were constructed by other rulers over the next few centuries, Pravarasena's Srinagar survived as the capital.[c] The city was divided into several parts, each with its own guardian deity, which continue to be worshipped by Hindu Kashmiris.[34] The 8th century scholar Adi Shankara visited the city and founded the Shankaracharya Temple here, at the site of the earlier Jyeshteshwara Temple.[35] The city gradually extended to the left bank of the Jhelum river, and in the early 12th century the royal palace was shifted to this side.[36]

Sultanate period

[edit]
The Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, built in the beginning of 15th century CE

Rinchana, a Buddhist convert to Islam who briefly ruled Kashmir in the early 14th century, built the first mosque in Kashmir on the site of a Buddhist temple in a colony of Srinagar built by him.[37] The Muslim rulers that came after him established their capitals in areas of present-day old city Srinagar.[38] During the rule of the Sultans, the city became synonymous with the Kashmir valley, and 'Srinagar' fell into disuse as a name for it.[d][36] During the rule of Qutbuddin, Islamic preacher Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited the valley and established his seat of preaching in Srinagar. Sultan Sikandar Shahmiri (1389–1413 CE) built the Khanqah-e-Moula at this location, and also built the Jamia Mosque at Nowhatta in 1402.[39] The oldest surviving example of forcible conversion of a Hindu place of worship into Muslim shrine in Kashmir also appears from Srinagar under Sikandar's rule.[40] Sikandar's successor Zain-ul-Abidin undertook several constructions in and around Srinagar. He built the Zainakadal bridge connecting the two halves of the city on either side of the Jhelum river, the Mar canal and two islands inside Dal lake called Sona Lank and Rupa Lank.[41] He also built a stone shrine for his Islamic teacher at Madin Sahib, and a brick mausoleum for his mother constructed using materials from a Hindu structure and showing Timurid influences,[42] where he was also buried after his death. He is also credited with establishing industries around the arts of shawl and carpet weaving, papier-maché, and wood carving in Srinagar.[43]

Mughal rule

[edit]
Nishat Bagh, a Mughal Garden built during the reign of Shah Jahan on the northern bank of the Dal lake, in the vicinity of Srinagar

The Mughals annexed Kashmir in 1586 after a period of internal instability in the valley, and added it to their Kabul province. Mughal emperor Akbar visited the valley three times. During his second visit in 1592, an elaborate Diwali celebration was held in Srinagar.[44] On the final such visit, he was accompanied by the first recorded European visitors to the area.[e] Akbar built fortifications around the Hari Parbat hill, and established a township called Nagar Nagar there.[45] He also built a shrine for Hamza Makhdoom, a Sufi mystic of Kashmir's Rishi order, on the southern slope of Hari Parbat which was later expanded several times.[46] His successor Jahangir was particularly fond of the Kashmir valley and frequently visited it.[45] His rule brought prosperity to Srinagar, and several Mughal gardens were built in the city and around the Dal lake during his and his successor Shah Jahan's reign, including the Shalimar and Nishat Bagh. Empress Nur Jahan built the Pathar Mosque on the left bank of Jhelum river opposite the Khānqāh-e-Moula in 1623, the mosque was however deemed unfit for worship soon after its construction and used instead for non-religious purposes.[47] Shah Jahan made Kashmir into a separate Subah (province) with its administrative seat at Srinagar in 1638. The Aali Masjid was built during the reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707), as was the Safa kadal bridge over the Jhelum. The moi muqaddas, a relic believed to be the hair strand of prophet Muhammad's beard, also arrived in Kashmir during this time, and was housed in a Mughal palace at Hazratbal, which became the Hazratbal Dargah. A number of Europeans visited the city during the later Mughal period.[f]

Afghan and Sikh rule

[edit]

In 1753, Kashmir passed into the hands of the Afghan Durrani Empire. The Afghans undertook reconstructions in Srinagar and built the palace at Shergarhi at the site of a pre-existing ancient palace, as well as the fort atop Hari Parbat.[49] However, contemporary accounts describe the city as filthy and deteriorating, and it also saw worsening inter-community relations during Afghan rule, with repeated Hindu-Muslim and Shia-Sunni riots, and state persecution of Pandits.[50] In 1819, the Sikh Empire assumed control of Kashmir. Under them, Srinagar, the old name of the city, was restored. The situation in the city did not improve much under Sikh rule, and the city remained in a state of decay.[51] They also imposed several restrictions on Muslim religious expression, and closed the gates of the Jamia Mosque, which remained closed until 1843. A Shia-Sunni riot happened in the city in 1837.[50]

Dogra rule

[edit]
An 1872 painting depicting the city of Srinagar.

With the establishment of Dogra rule following the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar, Srinagar became the capital of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Taxes were increased and the production of silk, saffron, paper, tobacco, wine, and salt, as well as the sale of grain, became the monopoly of the state. It was a capital offence for a Muslim to kill a cow as late as the 1920s; later, the penalty was reduced to ten years of imprisonment and still later to seven years (Section 219 of Ranbir Penal Code).[52] The Dogras found Srinagar deteriorating, filthy and overcrowded.[53] The city used to see several break-outs of cholera, as well as earthquakes, floods, fires and famines. The famine of 1877–79 is said to have halved the city's population.[54] Consequently, due to the famine and forced labour in the villages, a considerable number of people migrated to Srinagar.[55]

Early 20th century painting of Sher Garhi Palace, the official residence of the Dogra rulers in Srinagar
1893 map of Srinagar and its surroundings

The Darbar Move was introduced in 1872 by Ranbir Singh, whereby the capital moved to Jammu for six months during the winter[56] albeit later phased down by Hari Singh who "fixed his headquarters permanently at Jammu". The Ministers and Heads of Departments continued to followed it, nevertheless, it was still a move which was resented by Kashmiris, particularly Pandits.[57] The Raghunath Temple was also completed during Ranbir Singh's rule.[58] With a global decline in shawl trade during late 19th century, the shawl weaving class of the city was upended. Several changes were ushered in during the reign of Pratap Singh (1885–1925). A British Residency was established in Srinagar and direct British influence on the administration of the state grew. During this time, Srinagar, and in turn the Kashmir Valley, was connected to the rest of India via roads, which saw increased trade with Punjab. In 1886, a municipality was established for the city of Srinagar.[59] Works for sanitation and urban development undertaken by the municipality were often met with stiff opposition by the residents, who were averse to changes.[60] In the late 19th and early 20th century, modern tourism began to take hold in the city, especially on and around the Dal lake, with houseboats being built to accommodate British officers and their families who came in the summers seeking respite from the heat of the plains of northern India.[61] The Shergarhi Palace was greatly modified by the Dogras, who used it as their official residence in the city. Pratap Singh and his successor Hari Singh also laid out several parks in the city. The city expanded rapidly between 1891 and 1941, partly due to increased migration from the countryside as a result of famines and due to improvements in sanitation and urban development as well as economic expansion, in particular the growth of the textile and tourism industries in the city.[62] Many Punjabis also settled in Srinagar during this time for trade, commerce and administration.[63][64]

Srinagar emerged as the hub of political activity within the Kashmir valley during later Dogra rule. Kashmiris at large despised the Dogra rule and considered the dynasty an "alien rule".[65] Many Muslim leaders competed for influence and control over Muslim shrines in the city through which they sought to become representatives of Kashmiri Muslims.[66] Sheikh Abdullah, and his National Conference (NC), eventually succeeded in doing so.

Partition and Independence

[edit]

In 1947, after the princely state's accession to India following an invasion of the state by Pakistani irregulars in the aftermath of the partition of India, Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October to defend the city and the larger Kashmir valley.[67] The National Conference also established a popular people's militia in the city to aid the army in their defence of the territory.[68][69] Srinagar became the summer capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir when it was established in 1952.

Indian Prime Miniter Jawaharlal Nehru attending a parade of NC's Kashmiri militias in Srinagar in 1948
A 1959 map of Srinagar city and its vicinity

In 1963–1964, the relic at the Hazratbal Shrine in Srinagar briefly disappeared, causing political turmoil.[70] Following this, the shrine was reconstructed between 1968 and 1979 in a Mughal-inspired style.[71] In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. The city saw increased violence against the minority Hindus—particularly the Kashmiri Pandits—during the insurgency which resulted in their ultimate exodus.[72][73] Kashmiri Hindus constituted 8.39% of Srinagar's population in the 1981 census and 2.75% in the 2011 census.[74][75] The Gawakadal massacre took place in the city in January 1990, resulting in 50–100 deaths.[76] As a result, bunkers and checkpoints are found throughout the city, although their numbers have come down in the past few years as militancy has declined. Protests against Indian rule still occur with large demonstrations happening in 2008, 2010, 2013, and 2016.[77][78] After revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and the subsequent devolution of the state into a union territory in August 2019, a lockdown was imposed in Kashmir, including in Srinagar.[79]

Geography

[edit]

The city is located on both the sides of the Jhelum River, called Vyath in Kashmir. The river passes through the city and meanders through the valley, moving onward and deepening in the Wular Lake. The city is known for its nine old bridges, connecting the two parts of the city.

There are a number of lakes and swamps in and around the city. These include the Dal, the Nigeen, the Anchar, Khushal Sar, Gil Sar and Hokersar.

Hokersar is a wetland situated near Srinagar. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds.

Hokersar is 14 km (8.7 mi) north of Srinagar, and is a world class wetland spread over 13.75 km2 (5.31 sq mi) including lake and marshy area. It is the most accessible and well-known of Kashmir's wetlands which include Hygam, Shalibug and Mirgund. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years.[80]

Birds found in Hokersar are migratory ducks and geese which include brahminy duck, tufted duck, gadwall, garganey, greylag goose, mallard, common merganser, northern pintail, common pochard, ferruginous pochard, red-crested pochard, ruddy shelduck, northern shoveller, common teal, and Eurasian wigeon.[81][82]

Climate

[edit]

Under the Köppen climate classification, Srinagar has a four-season humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with moderately hot summers and cool winters. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Due to influence from Himalayan rain shadow and western disturbances, Srinagar has year-round precipitation; the spring season is the wettest while autumn is the driest. The region also has less rain from the southwest monsoon in the summer due to lying in the leeward side of the rain shadow which reduces these winds from the south. Winters are colder in the region than most areas with monsoon climates due to these influences and its elevation,[83] resulting in higher temperature variations similar to continental climates.

Moderate to heavy snowfall occurs in winter and the highway connecting Srinagar with the rest of India faces frequent blockades due to icy roads, landslides and avalanches. Daily maximum temperatures average 7.1 °C (44.8 °F) in January and drop below freezing point at night. Summers are warm to hot, slightly moderated from its elevation, with a July daytime average of 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). The average annual rainfall is around 697.5 millimetres (27.46 in). The highest temperature reliably recorded is 38.3 °C (100.9 °F) recorded on 10 July 1946, and the lowest is −20.0 °C (−4.0 °F) recorded on 6 February 1895.[84]

Climate data for Srinagar (1991–2020, extremes 1893–2020)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 17.2
(63.0) 		20.6
(69.1) 		28.3
(82.9) 		31.1
(88.0) 		36.4
(97.5) 		37.8
(100.0) 		38.3
(100.9) 		36.7
(98.1) 		35.0
(95.0) 		33.9
(93.0) 		24.5
(76.1) 		18.3
(64.9) 		38.3
(100.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 7.1
(44.8) 		10.5
(50.9) 		15.5
(59.9) 		20.6
(69.1) 		24.7
(76.5) 		28.5
(83.3) 		30.0
(86.0) 		29.7
(85.5) 		27.6
(81.7) 		23.0
(73.4) 		15.9
(60.6) 		9.9
(49.8) 		20.2
(68.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 2.5
(36.5) 		5.5
(41.9) 		10.0
(50.0) 		14.3
(57.7) 		18.0
(64.4) 		21.6
(70.9) 		24.2
(75.6) 		23.7
(74.7) 		20.0
(68.0) 		14.4
(57.9) 		8.3
(46.9) 		4.0
(39.2) 		13.9
(57.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −1.9
(28.6) 		0.7
(33.3) 		4.3
(39.7) 		7.9
(46.2) 		11.2
(52.2) 		15.0
(59.0) 		18.4
(65.1) 		17.8
(64.0) 		13.1
(55.6) 		6.2
(43.2) 		1.2
(34.2) 		−1.6
(29.1) 		7.5
(45.5)
Record low °C (°F) −14.4
(6.1) 		−20.0
(−4.0) 		−6.9
(19.6) 		0.0
(32.0) 		1.0
(33.8) 		7.2
(45.0) 		10.3
(50.5) 		9.5
(49.1) 		4.4
(39.9) 		−1.7
(28.9) 		−7.8
(18.0) 		−12.8
(9.0) 		−20.0
(−4.0)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 63.6
(2.50) 		85.0
(3.35) 		104.6
(4.12) 		91.8
(3.61) 		63.5
(2.50) 		46.4
(1.83) 		64.0
(2.52) 		64.5
(2.54) 		37.4
(1.47) 		21.8
(0.86) 		27.7
(1.09) 		27.2
(1.07) 		697.5
(27.46)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.3 mm) 8.5 9.9 11 11.1 10.9 8.2 9.2 8.9 5.5 3.4 3.7 4.6 94.9
Average rainy days 5.4 6.0 7.2 7.0 5.9 4.1 5.0 5.4 3.1 2.0 2.2 2.6 55.9
Average relative humidity (%) (at 17:30 IST) 67 59 52 49 49 47 53 55 52 54 62 68 55
Average dew point °C (°F) −2
(28) 		1
(34) 		3
(37) 		7
(45) 		11
(52) 		14
(57) 		17
(63) 		17
(63) 		13
(55) 		8
(46) 		3
(37) 		0
(32) 		8
(46)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 74.4 101.7 136.4 189.0 238.7 246.0 241.8 226.3 228.0 226.3 186.0 108.5 2,203.1
Mean daily sunshine hours 2.4 3.6 4.4 6.3 7.7 8.2 7.8 7.3 7.6 7.3 6.2 3.5 6.0
Average ultraviolet index 3 5 7 10 12 12 12 12 9 6 4 3 8
Source 1: India Meteorological Department[85][86] NOAA(precipitation-extremes[84])Time and Date (dewpoints, 2005–2015)[87]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (sun 1945–1988),[88] Tokyo Climate Center (mean temperatures 1991–2020)[89] Weather Atlas,[90] Ultraviolet[91]

Srinagar has been ranked 43rd best “National Clean Air City” (under Category 1 >10L Population cities) in India.[92]

Economy

[edit]
Market boats on Mar Canal in Srinagar

In November 2011, the City Mayors Foundation – an advocacy think tank – announced that Srinagar was the 92nd fastest growing urban areas in the world in terms of economic growth, based on actual data from 2006 onwards and projections to 2020.[93]

Tourism

[edit]

Srinagar is one of several places that have been called the "Venice of the East".[94][95][96] Lakes around the city include Dal Lake – noted for its houseboats – and Nigeen Lake. Apart from Dal Lake and Nigeen Lake, Wular Lake and Manasbal Lake both lie to the north of Srinagar. Wular Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.

Srinagar has some Mughal gardens, forming a part of those laid by the Mughal emperors across the Indian subcontinent. Those of Srinagar and its close vicinity include Chashma Shahi (the royal fountains); Pari Mahal (the palace of the fairies); Nishat Bagh (the garden of spring); Shalimar Bagh; the Naseem Bagh. Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden is a botanical garden in the city, set up in 1969.[97] The Indian government has included these gardens under "Mughal Gardens of Jammu and Kashmir" in the tentative list for sites to be included in world Heritage sites.

The Sher Garhi Palace houses administrative buildings from the state government.[98] Another palace of the Maharajas, the Gulab Bhavan, has now become the Lalit Grand Palace hotel.[99]

The Shankaracharya Temple lies on a hill top in the middle of the city.[100]

Places of Interest

[edit]

In and Around Srinagar

[edit]

Near Srinagar

[edit]

Government and politics

[edit]

The city is run by the Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) under the leadership of a Mayor. The Srinagar district along with the adjoining Budgam and Ganderbal districts forms the Srinagar Parliamentary seat.Established in 1886, Srinagar Municipal Corporation comprises 74 wards and stretches over 227.34 sqkm within boundaries from North up to Pandach-Nagbal, North-East up to Harwan Bridge, East up to Zawoora-Zaafraan Colony, South-East up to Mahjoor Nagar-Natipora, South up to Baagh-i-Mahtaab, South-West up to Hamdaaniyah Colony, West up to Sozieth-Lawaypora and North-West up to Mujgund-Abdullahpora. SMC is organized into two wings - The deliberative wing (Mayor) and the Executive wing (Commissioner). The last elections were held in 2018.[101]

SMC is involved in Sanitation, Town Planning, Revenue, Birth and Death, Development and Grievances. SMC has been successful in its efforts of e-Governance, Collection and Disposal of Solid Waste, Beautification and Creation of Green Spaces and Improvement of Drainage Networks. The organization has, however, failed to prevent Dood Ganga Pollution for which the J&K Pollution Control Committee (JKPCC), on the direction of the National Green Tribunal (NGT), has imposed a penalty as Environmental Compensation of more than Rs 41.67 crores on Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC).[102]

Stray dog controversy

[edit]

Srinagar's city government attracted brief international attention in March 2008 when it announced a mass poisoning program aimed at eliminating the city's population of stray dogs.[103] Officials estimate that 100,000 stray dogs roam the streets of the city, which has a human population of just under 900,000. In a survey conducted by an NGO, it was found that some residents welcomed this program, saying the city was overrun by dogs, while critics contended that more humane methods should be used to deal with the animals.

The situation has become alarming with local news reports coming up at frequent intervals highlighting people, especially children being mauled by street dogs.[104]

Demographics

[edit]
Historical population
YearPop.±%
1901 122,618—    
1911 126,344+3.0%
1921 141,735+12.2%
1931 173,573+22.5%
1941 207,787+19.7%
1951 246,522+18.6%
1961 285,257+15.7%
1971 415,271+45.6%
1981 594,775+43.2%
1991 —    
2001 935,764—    
2011 1,180,570+26.2%
Source: [105]
Religion in Srinagar (2011)[106]
Islam
 
 95.97%
Hinduism
 
 2.75%
Sikhism
 
 0.92%
Other or not stated
 
 0.36%

As of 2011 census Srinagar urban agglomeration had a population of 1,264,202.[107] Both the city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 70%.[107][108] The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population.[107] Males constituted 53.0% and females 47% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1,000.[107][109]

The predominant religion of Srinagar is Islam with 96% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 2.75% of the population, nearly all migrant workers from outside Kashmir as most local Kashmiri Hindus fled the city in the 1990s.[110] The remaining population constitutes Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains.[111][112] Kashmiri Hindus constituted 21.9% of Srinagar's population as per 1891 census and 2.75% as per 2011 census.[75]

Languages of Srinagar district (2011)[113]
  1. Kashmiri (95.1%)
  2. Hindi (1.49%)
  3. Others (3.37%)

At the time of the 2011 census, 95.14% spoke Kashmiri and 1.49% Hindi as their first language.[113]

Transport

[edit]
Srinagar International Airport
A passenger train at Srinagar Railway Station

Road

[edit]

The city is served by many highways, including National Highway 1A and National Highway 1D.[114]

Engineer directing patch macadamisation of a road in Srinagar

Air

[edit]

Srinagar International Airport has regular domestic flights to Leh, Jammu, Chandigarh, Delhi and Mumbai and occasional international flights. An expanded terminal capable of handling both domestic and international flights was inaugurated on 14 February 2009 with Air India Express flights to Dubai. Hajj flights also operate from this airport to Saudi Arabia.[115]

Rail

[edit]
Main articles: Srinagar railway station and Srinagar Metro

Srinagar is a station on the 119 km (74 mi) long Banihal-Baramulla line that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla to Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund. The railway track also connects to Banihal across the Pir Panjal mountains through a newly constructed 11 km long Banihal tunnel, and subsequently to the Indian railway network after a few years. It takes approximately 9 minutes and 30 seconds for a train to cross the tunnel. It is the longest rail tunnel in India. This railway system, proposed in 2001, is not expected to connect the Indian railway network until 2017 at the earliest, with a cost overrun of 55 billion INR.[116] The train also runs during heavy snow.

There are proposals to develop a metro system in the city.[117] The feasibility report for the Srinagar Metro is planned to be carried out by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation.[118]

Cable car

[edit]

In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saint Hamza Makhdoom on Hari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of 300 million INR was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after the Gulmarg Gondola.[119]

Boat

[edit]

While popular since the 7th century, water transport is now mainly confined to Dal Lake, where shikaras (wooden boats) are used for local transport and tourism. There are efforts to revive transportation on the River Jhelum.[120]

Culture

[edit]

Like the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around the city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley.

Places of worship

[edit]

There are many religious holy places in Srinagar. They include:

Additional structures include the Dastgeer Sahib shrine, Mazar-e-Shuhada, Roza Bal shrine, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan, Pathar Masjid ("The Stone Mosque"), Hamza Makhdoom shrine, tomb of the mother of Zain-ul-abidin, tomb of Pir Haji Muhammad, Akhun Mulla Shah Mosque, cemetery of Baha-ud-din Sahib, tomb and Madin Sahib Mosque at Zadibal.[122] Apart from these, dozens of smaller mosques are located all over the city. Several temples and temple ghats are located on the banks of river Jhelum in Srinagar, including Shurayar temple, Gadhadhar temple, Pratapishwar temple, Ganpatyar Ganesh temple, Purshyar temple, Sheshyar temple, Raghunath Mandir, Durga Patshala and Dhar temple.[123] Gurdwaras are located in Rainawari, Amira Kadal, Jawahar Nagar, Mehjoor Nagar, Shaheed Gunj, Maharajpur and Indra Nagar areas of the city. There are three Christian churches in Srinagar.

The Sheikh Bagh Cemetery is a Christian cemetery located in Srinagar that dates from the British colonial era. The oldest grave in the cemetery is that of a British colonel from the 9th Lancers of 1850 and the cemetery is valued for the variety of persons buried there which provides an insight into the perils faced by British colonisers in India.[124] It was damaged by floods in 2014.[125] It contains a number of war graves.[126] The notable interments here are Robert Thorpe[127] and Jim Borst.

Performing arts

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Main article: Music of Kashmir

Kashmiri cuisine is an important part of Srinagar’s Culture. Here, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes can be found. Wazwaan is a multi-course meal generally served at weddings. It is served on beautiful huge Copper plates called tream. Wazwaan is prepared by Male chefs.[128]

Kahwa is a form of green tea and is made by boiling green tea leaves with local saffron, cinnamon, cardamom and Kashmiri roses.

Harissa is winter delicacy here generally eaten during chilai kalan ( a period of extreme cold; 40 days from Dec 20 ).Garnished with two wazwaan delicacies along and topped with hot smoking mustard oil, this is the spicy slow cooked meat usually served with Kashmiri bread Tchot. It is prepared for hours usually overnight and generally eaten in the early cold winter.[129]

Education

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University of Kashmir
See also: List of colleges in Srinagar

Srinagar is home to various premiere Higher Education Institutes including the University of Kashmir, the Cluster University of Srinagar, Central University of Kashmir besides the National Institute of Technology Srinagar formerly known as Regional Engineering College (REC Srinagar). Most of these are among the oldest and earliest Institutions of the country including the University of Kashmir dating back to 1948 while the National Institute of Technology Srinagar was established during the second Five year plan. The educational institutions in the City include:

Schools

Medical colleges

Universities

General degree colleges

Broadcasting

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Srinagar is broadcasting hub for radio channels in UT which are Radio Mirchi 98.3FM,[130] Red FM 93.5[131] and AIR Srinagar. State television channel DD Kashir is also broadcast.[132]

Sports

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Royal Springs Golf Course, Srinagar

The city is home to the Sher-i-Kashmir Stadium, where international cricket matches have been played.[133] The first international match was played in 1983 in which West Indies defeated India and the last international match was played in 1986 in which Australia defeated India by six wickets. Since then no international matches have been played in the stadium due to the security situation (although the situation has now improved quite considerably).[citation needed] Srinagar has an outdoor stadium namely Bakshi Stadium for hosting football matches.[134] It is named after Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad. The city has a golf course named Royal Springs Golf Course, Srinagar located on the banks of Dal lake, which is considered one of the best golf courses of India.[135] Football is followed by the youth of Srinagar and the TRC Turf Ground is redeveloped for the particular sport in 2015. Srinagar is home to professional football club of I-League, Real Kashmir FC and Downtown Heroes FC of I-League 2.[136] There are certain other sports being played but those are away from the main city like in Pahalgam (Water rafting) and Gulmarg (skiing).

Notable people

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See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Srinagar

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Srinagar is the largest city and summer capital of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, located in the on both banks of the at an elevation of 1,585 metres above sea level. As of the 2011 census, the had a population of 1,219,516, with a rate of 71 percent and approximately 95 percent of residents identifying as Muslim. The city is historically significant, with origins tracing back to ancient settlements in the region, and it has served as a political and cultural center for centuries, featuring landmarks such as Mughal gardens and traditional houseboats on Dal Lake. Srinagar's economy relies heavily on , drawn to its natural landscapes and water-based markets, though this sector contributes around 6.8 percent to the local GDP and employs about two million amid periodic disruptions. However, since the late 1980s, the city has been at the epicenter of the , marked by -supported militant groups pursuing or unification with , leading to widespread violence, targeted killings, and a sharp decline in following events like the 2025 attack that claimed 26 tourist lives.

Etymology

Name Origins and Linguistic Evolution

The name Srinagar derives from the compound Śrīnagara, combining śrī—denoting "auspiciousness," "radiance," prosperity, or the Lakṣmī—and nagara, meaning "" or "fortified settlement." This designation appears in classical Kashmiri , notably Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī (composed c. 1148–1150 CE), which references Śrīnagara as a longstanding urban center predating later capitals like Pravarapura established by King Pravarasena II in the early CE. The term's connotation of a "royal" or "prosperous " aligns with its role as Kashmir's political and economic hub, reflecting the region's ancient Shaivite and Vaishnava cultural milieu where śrī evoked divine abundance. Linguistically, Śrīnagara transitioned from Vedic and classical Sanskrit usage into Prakrit-influenced forms during Kashmir's early medieval period, with phonetic softening evident in local Dardic and Indo-Aryan dialects spoken by inhabitants. By the 12th century, as documented in Rājataraṅgiṇī, the name had stabilized as Śrīnagara in literary Sanskrit, though vernacular pronunciation approximated "Srinagar" without the aspirated initial consonant, a pattern common in Kashmiri phonology that favors simpler consonant clusters. Alternative interpretations, such as a derivation from Kashmiri siri ("sun") yielding "city of the sun," appear in some modern travel accounts but originate from unverified local traditions rather than epigraphic or textual evidence, and they contradict the Sanskrit primacy in pre-Islamic Kashmiri records. Under subsequent Muslim sultanates (14th–16th centuries) and Mughal rule (1586–1752 CE), Persian administrative influence introduced qualifiers like Srinagar-i-Kashmir ("Srinagar of Kashmir") in chronicles, preserving the core name while adapting it to Perso-Arabic script and nomenclature conventions. This form persisted into Afghan (1752–1819 CE) and Sikh (1819–1846 CE) governance, where Srinagar reemerged prominently in revenue records as the valley's principal city, with no substantive alteration beyond transliteration. British colonial mappings from the late 19th century, such as those in the 1893 Constable's Hand Atlas of India, standardized the anglicized "Srinagar," reflecting its enduring phonetic form amid English cartographic practices. Post-independence Indian usage has retained this without evolution, underscoring the name's resilience across linguistic shifts from Sanskrit to Perso-Indo-Aryan hybrids.

History

Ancient and Early Medieval Periods

Human habitation in the , encompassing the Srinagar basin, dates to the period, with archaeological sites like Burzahom revealing pit dwellings, bone tools, and polished stone implements from circa 3000–1500 BCE, indicating early agrarian and pastoral communities. The area's integration into larger polities occurred during the Mauryan Empire, when Emperor Ashoka (r. 268–232 BCE) reportedly established a settlement named Srinagari in the 3rd century BCE, promoting through stupas and monasteries, though direct archaeological confirmation for this specific foundation remains elusive. Srinagar's development as a structured urban center is historically attributed to King Pravarsena II of the Gonandiya dynasty, who, according to Kalhana's (12th century CE), reclaimed marshy land from around the 6th century CE to build the city, initially called Pravarapura, serving as the valley's capital amid Hindu-Buddhist cultural synthesis. In the early medieval era, the (c. 625–855 CE) solidified Srinagar's role as a political hub, with rulers like (r. 724–760 CE) fostering temple architecture and territorial expansion, though grander constructions like the lay outside the city. Local Shaivite shrines, such as the on the Zabarwan hill—traditionally dated to the 4th century BCE under King Gopaditya and rebuilt subsequently—exemplify enduring Hindu devotional practices, featuring a simple octagonal design overlooking the valley. The Utpala dynasty (855–1003 CE) saw further cultural patronage, including the Pandrethan Temple near Srinagar, constructed in the 9th century CE as a Shiva shrine with characteristic Kashmiri trabeate stonework, a water tank for ritual ablutions, and a cubical sanctum, reflecting architectural continuity despite political flux.

Sultanate and Mughal Eras

The Shah Mir dynasty, established in 1339 by Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir following the end of Hindu Lohara rule, marked the beginning of Muslim sultanate governance in Kashmir with Srinagar designated as the permanent capital. This dynasty, lasting until 1561, centralized administration in Srinagar, fostering Islamic institutions amid a population that retained significant Hindu and Buddhist elements until intensified conversions. Sultan Sikandar (r. 1389–1413), advised by Sufi saint Mir Muhammad Hamadani, pursued iconoclastic policies, demolishing temples such as the Martand Sun Temple and constructing the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar in 1394–1395 as a central congregational site accommodating 30,000 worshippers. These measures, enforced through taxes on non-Muslims and forced conversions, reduced overt Hindu practice but drew criticism in contemporary chronicles like the Baharistan-i-Shahi for excess, though they solidified Srinagar's role as an Islamic political hub. The , which supplanted the Shah Mirs in 1561 under Ghazi Shah Chak, maintained Srinagar as capital until internal strife weakened defenses against external threats. In 1586, Mughal Emperor dispatched an army under Qasim Khan via the Bhimber-Rajouri route, defeating Chak ruler Yusuf Shah and entering Srinagar unopposed on October 14 after negotiations with local elites. was integrated as the empire's northernmost , with Srinagar functioning as the summer administrative center, governed initially by mirzas and later subahdars reporting to ; 's revenue settlements extracted an annual tribute of 12 dams while allowing local jagirdars autonomy in collection. ![Shalimar Bagh][center] Mughal emperors elevated Srinagar's status through repeated summer sojourns, with visiting 13 times between 1605 and 1627 and declaring a paradise for its landscapes. He commissioned Shalimar Bagh in 1619 as a terraced garden with pavilions and water channels symbolizing imperial control over nature, spanning 22 hectares along Dal Lake's edge. developed nearby around 1620, featuring 12 terraces representing the zodiac, while built in 1632 with spring-fed fountains for therapeutic use. These gardens, blending Persian symmetry with Kashmiri hydrology, not only beautified Srinagar but served as venues for courtly assemblies, boosting local —introducing fruits like apricots and almonds—and trade, though heavy taxation and labor for maintenance strained agrarian output. By Aurangzeb's (1658–1707), Srinagar's population grew to support a cosmopolitan Mughal elite, but governance devolved amid rebellions, culminating in Afghan control by 1752.

Afghan, Sikh, and Dogra Rule

Afghan control over Kashmir was established in 1753 following the dispatch of forces by Ahmad Shah Durrani after the Mughal Empire's weakening grip on the region. Governors administered from Srinagar, including Isk Aquasi from 1753 to 1754 and Haji Karim Dad Khan from 1776 to 1783, enforcing tyrannical policies characterized by extortion and terror. Taxation was punitive, with demands like nazrana equaling four to six times annual income, revival of jizya, and specific levies such as 50,000 rupees annually on Kashmiri Pandits under Karim Dad Khan. Social impacts included widespread repression, with around 2,000 forcibly converted under Faqir Ullah Khan in and a mass exodus of Pandits, leaving only 11 families by 1819. Economic strain led to famines, such as under Azad Khan, and the felling of fruit trees to evade taxes, further impoverishing the valley's agriculture-dependent population. Sikh forces under ended Afghan rule through the conquest of in 1819, defeating governor Jabar Khan at the on July 3 and securing Srinagar without resistance shortly thereafter. From 1819 to 1846, Sikh governors like Diwan Moti Ram (1819–1820, 1821–1826) and Mihan Singh (1834–1841) governed, reducing the valley's tribute from 52 to 26 rupees, eliminating grain import duties, and fostering trade including the industry. Law and order improved, curbing Afghan-era practices like child abductions for sale, though Srinagar endured calamities such as a 1819 outbreak, 1828 earthquake, and 1833 famine. Policies prohibiting cow slaughter and the azan alienated many Muslims, while Dogra intermediary diverted shawl wool exports to , harming local economies. The period concluded after the , with the Treaty of Amritsar on March 16, 1846, transferring Kashmir to for 7.5 million Nanakshahi rupees. Dogra rule from 1846 to 1947 positioned Srinagar as the summer capital within the Province, encompassing the valley and districts like and . Maharaja Gulab Singh (1846–1858) consolidated administration across diverse territories. His successor Ranbir Singh (1856–1885) enacted the Ranbir Penal Code, reformed the judiciary and army, and reconquered in 1860. Pratap Singh (1885–1925) expanded infrastructure with roads, colleges, and a hydroelectric plant at , while (1925–1947) prioritized modernization, education, and tourism beautification in the Srinagar valley. These efforts marked relative peace and progress compared to prior eras, though British residents exerted influence and communal frictions arose amid a Hindu-ruled Muslim-majority populace.

Partition, Accession to India, and Early Independence

The Partition of India on August 15, 1947, left the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, with Srinagar as its summer capital, in a precarious position as its Hindu ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, delayed accession to either India or Pakistan amid communal tensions. Pakistani-backed Pashtun tribesmen, supported by elements of the Pakistani military, launched an invasion on October 22, 1947, rapidly advancing toward Srinagar, capturing Baramulla and reaching the city's outskirts by October 24, prompting widespread panic and the flight of the Maharaja from Srinagar to Jammu. In response to the Maharaja's plea for aid, Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to India on October 26, 1947, formally integrating Jammu and Kashmir into the Indian Union while retaining autonomy over internal affairs except defense, communications, and foreign affairs. Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar's airfield on October 27, 1947, successfully repelling the invaders and securing the city, which marked the beginning of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. The conflict, centered around Srinagar and the , involved intense fighting, with Indian troops establishing control over Srinagar and much of the Valley by late 1947, while Pakistani forces occupied parts of the state's western regions. A United Nations-mediated ceasefire took effect on January 1, 1949, establishing the that divided the state, with Srinagar remaining under Indian administration. In the early years of Indian independence, Srinagar served as the administrative hub for the integration of Jammu and Kashmir. , leader of the National Conference, was appointed head of the emergency administration in October 1947 and later sworn in as on March 5, 1948, initiating land reforms that redistributed jagirs and excess land to tillers, fundamentally altering Srinagar's agrarian socio-economic structure. Indian visited Srinagar multiple times, including in May 1948 for military parades, symbolizing federal commitment to the region's defense and development amid ongoing tensions. By the early , Srinagar experienced infrastructural improvements and the influx of Indian administrative personnel, though the city's status fueled diplomatic disputes, leading to UN resolutions calling for a plebiscite contingent on demilitarization, which neither side fully implemented.

Insurgency Period (1980s–2010s)

The escalated significantly in the late 1980s, with Srinagar as the epicenter of militant activities and protests against Indian administration. The disputed state assembly elections of November 1987, widely perceived as rigged in favor of the National Conference-Congress alliance, eroded faith in electoral democracy and catalyzed the formation of armed groups such as the (JKLF), initially focused on independence, and later Islamist outfits like seeking merger with . These groups, often supported by 's through training and arms in camps across the , launched attacks on security forces and government installations in Srinagar, including the , daughter of the Union Home Minister, on December 8, 1989, which led to the release of jailed militants and emboldened further operations. By early 1990, targeted killings and threats by militants forced the mass exodus of , the Hindu minority comprising about 4-5% of the Valley's population, from Srinagar and surrounding areas. On January 19, 1990, mosques in Srinagar broadcast calls urging s to leave or face death, amid assassinations like that of , a BJP leader, on September 14, 1989, and subsequent rapes and murders, including a nurse at Soura Medical College Hospital. Estimates indicate 150,000 to 300,000 s fled the Valley between January and March 1990, reducing their numbers from around 160,000-170,000 to a few thousand today, an event described by analysts as driven by Islamist militants to homogenize the region. Violence intensified in Srinagar throughout the 1990s, with frequent grenade attacks, ambushes on convoys, and clashes between militants and Indian security forces, including the (CRPF) and army. A pivotal incident occurred on May 21, 1990, when CRPF personnel fired on a in Hawal for assassinated Maulvi Mohammad Farooq, killing over 50 civilians and injuring hundreds amid chaotic protests following his death, which militants attributed to Indian agents though later linked to Hizbul rivals. Srinagar saw repeated sieges, such as the 1993 standoff where militants held hostages, and bombings targeting markets and temples, contributing to thousands of civilian and security personnel deaths across the Valley. Indian operations, including the deployment of over 500,000 troops by the mid-1990s, dismantled urban militant networks in Srinagar through intelligence-led raids, though allegations of excesses persisted. Into the 2000s, militancy in Srinagar persisted with attacks like the January 7, 2000, assault on the Meteorological Centre killing four security personnel, but overall incidents began declining due to reduced cross-border infiltration following the 2003 India-Pakistan ceasefire, successful neutralization of over 1,000 militants annually by security forces, and local fatigue with prolonged violence. By the late , grenade and firing incidents in Srinagar dropped significantly, from hundreds yearly in the to dozens by , as groups like shifted focus to fidayeen (suicide) strikes, though urban control was largely restored through fortified checkpoints and . This period marked a transition from peak to sporadic unrest, with Srinagar's streets witnessing fewer daily confrontations by the early 2010s, though underlying grievances fueled intermittent stone-pelting protests.

Abrogation of Article 370 and Post-2019 Developments

On August 5, 2019, the Indian Parliament passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, abrogating Article 370 of the , which had granted special autonomy to the state, and bifurcating it into two union territories: Jammu and Kashmir, with Srinagar as its summer capital, and . The move, justified by the central government as necessary to integrate the region fully, curb terrorism, and enable development, was accompanied by a security lockdown in Srinagar, including communication blackouts lasting until February 2021 and detentions of political leaders. The upheld the abrogation's legality in December 2023, ruling it constitutional while directing assembly elections by September 2024. Post-abrogation, Srinagar and the experienced a marked decline in militancy and civil unrest, with terror-related incidents dropping significantly due to intensified security measures and reduced infiltration. This improvement facilitated a boom, with J&K recording 2.11 visitors in 2023—contributing 7% to the local economy—and over 23 million domestic tourists in 2024, many passing through Srinagar's and Mughal gardens. Srinagar's economy benefited from increased employment in hospitality and handicrafts, though seasonal security concerns occasionally tempered growth. Infrastructure advancements accelerated, enhancing Srinagar's connectivity. The Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport underwent expansion plans to quadruple capacity with a Rs 1,788 investment, targeting completion by 2027, amid doubled air traffic reflecting rising passenger volumes. The Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) progressed, with integrating into the national network; the first arrived in August 2025, and Vande Bharat services were introduced, reducing transport costs and boosting goods movement. The Srinagar Project modernized roads, , and , supporting an 11% GSDP growth for J&K. The elections, held from September 18 to October 1, 2024—the first since 2014—saw the National Conference (NC) secure 42 of 90 seats, forming a with ; NC swept all Srinagar seats. The NC campaigned on restoring statehood while acknowledging ongoing development, though Omar attributed infrastructure gains to pre-existing momentum rather than the abrogation alone. exceeded 63%, signaling renewed political engagement in Srinagar amid persistent calls for .

Geography

Location, Topography, and Physical Features

Srinagar is situated in the within the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, , at approximately 34°05′N latitude and 74°48′E longitude. The city lies about 880 kilometers north of and serves as the of the region. The urban area occupies an elevation of roughly 1,585 to 1,589 meters above , nestled in a broad alluvial floor formed by glacial and fluvial processes. Topographically, Srinagar is hemmed in by the of the Lesser to the southwest and the to the east, with the Greater Himalayan ranges further north; these features create a temperate basin prone to seasonal accumulation and risks in surrounding uplands. The 's northwest-southeast orientation spans about 134 kilometers in length and averages 32 kilometers in width, with Srinagar positioned centrally along this axis. Key physical features include the , which meanders through the city core, originating from the Verinag spring and draining southward into the before joining the Chenab; its course has shaped urban settlement patterns via natural levees and floodplains. Prominent lakes such as (elevation 1,581 meters, coordinates 34°9′N 74°8′E) and adjacent form expansive wetlands integral to the city's hydrology, supporting floating markets and houseboat communities while buffering against floods. Local hills like to the west and (Takht-e-Sulaiman) to the south rise sharply from the valley floor, providing vantage points over the terrain and influencing microclimates with their forested slopes.

Climate and Environmental Challenges

Srinagar features a (Köppen Cfa) with distinct seasonal variations: winters from December to February bring sub-zero temperatures averaging -2°C to 2°C alongside heavy snowfall, while summers from June to August see highs of 25–30°C with moderate rainfall. Annual precipitation totals around 650–700 mm, concentrated in spring and summer from western disturbances and monsoons, supporting the valley's but contributing to flood risks in the basin. The city faces acute environmental degradation, particularly in Dal Lake, where untreated sewage inflow, plastic waste, and encroachments have shrunk its marshy area from 2,547 hectares in 1971 to 1,620 hectares by 2023, fostering and invasive weed proliferation that threaten and . Siltation from upstream has reduced water depth, exacerbating summer stagnation and winter freezing, while houseboat sewage adds to levels exceeding safe thresholds. Flooding remains a recurrent , as seen in the 2014 deluge that submerged 80% of Srinagar due to Jhelum overflow and inadequate drainage, worsened by upstream reducing natural water retention. Air quality deteriorates sharply in winter, with PM2.5 concentrations often surpassing 100 µg/m³ from burning for heating and vehicular emissions amid stagnant cold air, pushing the into "poor" or "very poor" categories for months. Vehicle exhaust from congested roads and reliance on /fuelwood due to power shortages contribute over 50% of particulate matter, correlating with elevated respiratory illnesses. across the , driven by timber extraction and urban expansion, has accelerated and landslides, diminishing and amplifying vulnerability. Climate change intensifies these pressures through declining snowfall—down 75% in January 2025 compared to norms—and accelerated glacial retreat in the , initially boosting river flows but projecting by mid-century as accumulation lags melt rates. Reduced winter shifts to erratic rains, disrupting apple orchards that rely on consistent for , while warmer temperatures hasten Dal Lake's algal blooms. These trends, observed in 1980–2017 data showing rising minimum temperatures and variable , underscore causal links between anthropogenic emissions and hydrological instability, independent of political narratives.

Demographics

Population Statistics and Composition

As of the 2011 Indian , had a total of 1,236,829, comprising 651,124 males and 585,705 females, yielding a of 899 females per 1,000 males. The urban agglomeration of recorded approximately 1,273,312 residents, reflecting its status as a densely populated urban center with a exceeding 4,000 persons per square kilometer in core areas. The decade from 2001 to 2011 saw a growth rate of about 21.6% for the , lower than the state average, attributable in part to migration outflows amid security challenges. Projections based on census trends estimate Srinagar district's population at around 1.49 million in 2023, with continued urban concentration driven by administrative and economic centrality, though the absence of a 2021 census introduces uncertainty in precise figures. Independent estimates for the city proper place it at approximately 1.63 million in 2023, incorporating natural growth and limited inflows. Religiously, the district's composition is overwhelmingly Muslim at 95.19% (1,177,342 individuals), followed by at 3.44% (42,540), at 0.99% (12,187), and at 0.22% (2,746), with negligible others; this distribution aligns closely with city-level data, where predominates at over 95%. The low Hindu proportion reflects historical demographic changes, including the exodus of in the late , though official counts capture remaining residents. Ethnically, the population is predominantly Kashmiri, an Indo-Aryan group native to the valley, with linguistic ties to the spoken by the vast majority as a mother tongue. Minor ethnic presences include and small communities like Burushos from northern origins, but these do not alter the overarching Kashmiri Muslim majority.

Historical Migrations and Demographic Shifts

Srinagar's demographic history reflects a transition from a predominantly Hindu and Buddhist population in ancient times to a Muslim-majority composition by the medieval period, driven primarily by conversions rather than large-scale migrations. The region, including Srinagar founded around the CE, was characterized by Shaivite and until the 14th century, when arrived through the conversion of ruler Rinchana (Sadr-ud-Din) in following his marriage to a Muslim woman and influence from Sufi saint . Subsequent rulers, particularly (1389–1413), accelerated Islamization via policies including temple destruction, imposition of tax on non-Muslims, and incentives for conversion, leading to a sharp decline in the Hindu population through assimilation and periodic emigrations of (Hindus). By the , Muslims formed the overwhelming majority in the , including Srinagar, with limited influx of external Muslim migrants from Persia or ; the shift was largely endogenous, rooted in political patronage of Islam and socio-economic pressures on non-Muslims. Under later Afghan (1750s–1819) and Sikh (1819–1846) rule, Srinagar's demographics stabilized with comprising over 70% of the Valley's population by the early 19th century, while retained a urban minority presence in Srinagar as administrators and scholars, numbering around 5-10% locally. The Dogra era (1846–1947) saw no major shifts, with the 1901 census recording at 74% and at 24% across Jammu and Kashmir, trends mirrored in Srinagar where higher Hindu concentrations persisted in the city core. Post-1947 accession to , censuses showed gradual Muslim population growth: in Srinagar, (mostly Pandits) were 10% in 1971 and 8.4% in 1981, reflecting natural increase and stable residence patterns amid overall . The most acute demographic rupture occurred during the 1989–1991 insurgency onset, when Islamist militants, supported by Pakistan-based groups, targeted with killings, threats, and mosque announcements demanding conversion or exile, prompting mass flight. An estimated 155,000–170,000 Pandits departed the , including tens of thousands from Srinagar, reducing the community's local share from 8.4% in 1981 to 2.75% by 2011; this exodus, the seventh major Pandit migration since the 14th century, was characterized as by analysts citing over 650 Pandit murders and systemic intimidation. Post-exodus, Srinagar's population composition shifted to approximately 95% Muslim by recent estimates, with minimal Hindu return and no significant counter-migration until potential post-2019 changes following Article 370's abrogation, though data on new inflows remains preliminary and unverified in official censuses.
Census YearSrinagar Hindu % (approx.)Notes on Composition
197110%Stable pre-insurgency minority.
19818.4%Peak recent presence before exodus.
20112.75%Post-exodus decline; Muslims ~95%.

Governance and Administration

Administrative Structure

Srinagar District is headed by the Deputy Commissioner, who serves as the responsible for revenue collection, law and order maintenance, and developmental administration, while also acting as the District Magistrate and District Development Commissioner. As of June 2025, this position is held by Akshay Labroo, an IAS officer. The district encompasses two sub-divisions, seven tehsils—including Srinagar, Harwan, and others—four blocks, and 21 panchayats, which facilitate local in rural and semi-urban areas. The urban core of Srinagar falls under the jurisdiction of the (SMC), the civic body tasked with managing essential services such as , , , solid , and urban infrastructure maintenance. The SMC operates through an elected council comprising councilors from numerous wards—evidenced by references to at least 69 wards in official records—and is administratively led by a , currently Shri Faz Lul Haseeb (IAS), under oversight from the Union Territory's . The coordinates with district authorities on broader planning while focusing on city-specific functions like grievance redressal and environmental initiatives.

Political Evolution and Current Status

Srinagar has served as the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir since the establishment of the under Dogra rule in 1846, a status retained after the region's accession to on October 26, 1947. Under the Indian Constitution's Article 370, enacted in 1949 and granting special autonomy, Srinagar functioned as the political center for the state assembly and successive governments led primarily by the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (NC), including Sheikh Abdullah's administration from 1948 until his dismissal in 1953, and later restorations. This era featured elected councils with limited central oversight, though periods of intervened, such as from 1986 to 1996 amid governance breakdowns following disputed 1987 elections. The political landscape shifted dramatically on August 5, 2019, when the Indian Parliament abrogated Article 370, revoking Jammu and Kashmir's special status and reorganizing it into two union territories effective October 31, 2019, with Srinagar designated as the summer capital of the Jammu and Kashmir Union Territory (sharing winter duties with Jammu). This centralization aimed to integrate the region fully into India's legal and administrative framework, extending all constitutional provisions and enabling direct application of national laws. Srinagar's governance transitioned to Lieutenant Governor oversight, with the assembly suspended until delimitation in 2022 increased seats to 90. Assembly elections, absent since 2014, occurred in three phases from September 18 to October 1, 2024, marking the first since abrogation; the NC secured 42 seats, primarily in the including Srinagar constituencies, enabling an NC-Congress alliance government. was sworn in as on October 16, 2024, heading a with 49 seats total, while the (BJP) won 29 seats concentrated in . As of October 2025, Srinagar remains the summer administrative hub, with the traditional "Darbar move" revived after a four-year pause, shifting operations to for winter; however, the status persists amid ongoing demands from the elected government for restoration of full statehood to enhance local legislative powers. The Lieutenant retains key authorities over security, finance, and executive orders, reflecting hybrid central-local control.

Security and Militancy

Origins and Nature of Militancy

The militancy in Srinagar and the broader emerged in the late 1980s amid political disillusionment following the perceived rigging of the 1987 elections. The National Conference-Congress alliance, led by Chief Minister , secured a amid widespread allegations of ballot stuffing, arbitrary arrests of opposition candidates, and the declaration of defeated candidates as winners in key constituencies like Amira Kadal in Srinagar. The Muslim United Front (MUF), a coalition advocating greater Islamic governance and , polled strongly but saw over 400 supporters detained post-election, fostering a sense of betrayal among Kashmiri Muslim youth who viewed democratic participation as futile. This alienation catalyzed the formation of armed groups, with early militants crossing into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir for training provided by Pakistan's (ISI). The (JKLF), initially focused on secular independence (azaadi) from India, conducted high-profile actions like the 1989 , daughter of Union Home Minister , in Srinagar to secure the release of jailed militants. However, by the early 1990s, the JKLF was overshadowed by , an Islamist outfit founded in 1989 with Pakistani backing, which prioritized merger with Pakistan and enforced religious ideology through fatwas against secular nationalists. The nature of militancy centered on asymmetric guerrilla tactics in urban Srinagar, including assassinations of political leaders, security personnel, and civilians perceived as collaborators, alongside bombings and ambushes that disrupted daily life and targeted non-Muslims, contributing to the exodus of over 100,000 Kashmiri Pandits by 1990. , drawing ideological inspiration from , imposed coercive social controls such as bans on music and Western attire, while relying on infiltration across the for arms and recruits, with Pakistan's role evident in the supply of trained cadres from Afghan jihad veterans. Though initially framed as a quest for , the insurgency's Islamist turn and external sustenance shifted its character toward sustained proxy warfare, with Srinagar as a focal point for protests masking militant operations.

Counter-Insurgency Efforts and Pakistani Involvement

Indian security forces, primarily the Indian Army's battalions, (CRPF), and , have conducted sustained counter-insurgency operations in the , including Srinagar, employing cordon-and-search tactics, intelligence-led targeted strikes, and non-kinetic measures like community engagement to dismantle militant networks. These efforts intensified following the resurgence of militancy in the late , with a focus on neutralizing active militants, disrupting , and preventing infiltration across the (LoC). Launched in 2017, Operation All Out targeted top militant leadership and overground workers, resulting in the elimination of over 200 militants in its initial phases through precise encounters, with security forces reporting 78 militants killed in 2017 and 150 in 2016 across Jammu and Kashmir. By 2020, the operation had reduced active local militants to around 170-180, emphasizing surgical strikes to avoid collateral damage in urban areas like Srinagar. Post-2019 abrogation of Article 370, operations expanded to dismantle the terror ecosystem, including financial networks and radicalization hubs, leading to a reported decline in incidents while sustaining high neutralization rates. Quantitative outcomes include the neutralization of over 1,000 militants between and , with Indian government data indicating dozens killed annually in counter-terror incidents, particularly foreign militants originating from . Infiltration attempts, often involving Pakistani nationals, have been thwarted at rates exceeding 90% along the LoC, with forces recovering arms and explosives traced to Pakistani ordnance. Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) has provided logistical, training, and financial support to insurgent groups operating in Srinagar and the Valley, such as Hizbul Mujahideen and Lashkar-e-Taiba, enabling infiltration and sustained violence through proxy warfare since the 1990s. Evidence includes confessions from captured militants, intercepted communications, and seizures of Pakistani-issued currency and documents, confirming state-sponsored backing that sustains groups like The Resistance Front, which claimed attacks in the region. This involvement, documented in Indian Ministry of External Affairs reports, frames the insurgency as externally fueled rather than purely indigenous, with ISI directing operations to destabilize Indian administration.

Post-2019 Security Trends and Data

Following the abrogation of Article 370 on August 5, 2019, Jammu and Kashmir, including Srinagar, experienced a marked decline in overall terror-related fatalities, with official data indicating 1,230 deaths from August 5, 2019, to August 4, 2025—comprising 189 civilians, 204 security personnel, 833 terrorists, and 4 unidentified individuals—representing a 33% reduction compared to 1,845 deaths in the preceding six years (2013–2019). This trend reflects intensified counter-insurgency operations that neutralized a higher number of militants while reducing casualties among non-combatants and forces, though some analysts note a temporary uptick in incidents during 2020–2022 before stabilization. Incidents of stone pelting, a form of low-level unrest prevalent in and surrounding areas, plummeted post-2019, dropping from 1,328 cases in 2018 to zero reported in 2023, a 100% decline from peak levels around 2010 when over 2,600 incidents occurred. By mid-2021, stone-pelting events in the first seven months numbered just 77, an 88% decrease from 620 in the same period of 2019, correlating with enhanced security deployments and the cessation of organized protests and strikes. Terrorist incidents overall decreased by approximately 70% in the first year post-abrogation, with acts of falling 32% from , 2019, to June 6, 2022, relative to the prior equivalent period, driven by operations dismantling terror infrastructure and networks. In Srinagar, urban militancy shifted toward targeted assassinations of non-local workers and officials, but such events remained lower in frequency than pre-2019 mass violence, with security forces reporting sustained control over key areas like the city center and periphery.
YearCivilian FatalitiesSecurity Personnel FatalitiesTerrorist FatalitiesTotal Incidents (J&K)
2019 (pre-Aug)~100 (est.)~50 (est.)~150 (est.)369
20203760221415
20213641188~300 (est.)
20222530150253 deaths total
20231825120<200 (est.)
Data compiled from Ministry of Home Affairs and SATP indicate that while foreign militants and Pakistan-backed infiltration attempts persisted, local recruitment fell sharply, contributing to the overall stabilization in Srinagar's landscape. Critics from outlets like argue incidents rose post-initial drop, but aggregate official metrics from multiple periods refute a net increase, emphasizing operational successes over sporadic attacks.

Economy

Primary Economic Sectors

The primary economic sectors in include , rearing, and traditional , particularly handicrafts, which sustain in peri-urban and rural pockets amid the city's . focuses on field crops such as , , and , alongside vegetable cultivation suited to the valley's and irrigated floodplains; remains the staple, with paddy fields covering significant portions of cultivable land outside the urban core. Vegetable farming, including off-season production of , , and , supports local markets and contributes to J&K's total vegetable output of 520 thousand quintals in 2023-24, bolstered by initiatives like high-value cropping under the Holistic . Livestock and allied activities, accounting for 5.39% of J&K's (GVA) with 5.73% growth in 2024-25, are integral to Srinagar's rural , encompassing ( production at 2,081 thousand metric tons by November 2024), sheep and rearing for mutton (298.7 kg by November 2024), and . These sectors employ a substantial , with 7.77 million heads across J&K per the 20th , and support schemes like Kisan Cards for (1.87 accounts, Rs. 1,483 sanctioned) and sheep (30,950 accounts, Rs. 303 ). Fisheries, though minor at 0.34% of GVA, involve farming in local water bodies, yielding 19,530 metric tons by November 2024. Handicrafts, classified under secondary but rooted in traditional primary-like labor, form a cornerstone of Srinagar's as the valley's production epicenter, employing over 4.22 artisans region-wide in crafts like Pashmina shawls, hand-knotted carpets, , and woodwork—many holding GI tags. The sector drove J&K handicraft exports to Rs. 1,162 in 2023-24, up from Rs. 563 in 2021-22, generating foreign exchange of approximately Rs. 1,700 annually and ranking Srinagar's district first in industries and allied sectors per 2025 performance metrics. Small-scale units, numbering 334 operational in J&K by December 2024 with Rs. 2,977 investment and 8,443 jobs, include and textiles concentrated around Srinagar, supported by MSME schemes like PMEGP (15,037 units aided in 2023-24, creating 1.2 jobs). Overall, J&K's primary sector contributes 20% to GVA in 2024-25, down from prior decades due to service sector expansion, while secondary stands at 18.3%.

Tourism and Horticulture

Srinagar's tourism industry revolves around its scenic lakes, historic gardens, and cultural sites, drawing visitors primarily to and the Mughal Gardens complex. , spanning approximately 18 square kilometers including its floating islands, features traditional wooden houseboats and gondolas for sightseeing, with a unique floating market operating daily. The lake supports over 1,000 houseboats, many converted from royal vessels dating back centuries, offering overnight stays amid lotus blooms and Himalayan views. The Mughal Gardens—Shalimar Bagh (built 1619 by Emperor ), Nishat Bagh (1633 by his wife ), and Chashme Shahi (1632 by Shah Jahan's governor)—exemplify Persian-influenced terraced layouts with cascading fountains, central water channels, and pavilions overlooking and the . These tentative list sites host seasonal flower displays, including tulips in spring. Visitor arrivals to Jammu and Kashmir surged post the August 2019 abrogation of Article 370, with improved security enabling 2.35 tourists in 2024, up from 2.11 in 2023, predominantly domestic travelers to Srinagar's attractions. alone recorded nearly 3 million visitors in 2024, reflecting Srinagar's role as the primary gateway. Horticulture underpins Srinagar's economy, with the producing high-value crops like apples, , and ornamentals on terraced orchards and fields. Apples dominate, yielding 1.8 million metric tons annually as of 2020-21, supporting exports worth thousands of crores and employing over 35 lakh people regionally. from nearby fields near Srinagar produces 15-20 tons yearly, prized for its GI-tagged quality and contributing to the sector's Rs 5,000 crore economic input. Srinagar's , Asia's largest at 55 hectares, blooms over 1.5 million tulip bulbs in spring, boosting off-season and revenue. The sector accounts for about 9% of Jammu and Kashmir's GSDP, though challenged by variability and .

Infrastructure Investments and Growth Metrics

The completion of the Udhampur-Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) in June 2025 marked a major infrastructure milestone, connecting Srinagar to the Indian railway network after 28 years of construction at a total cost of Rs 37,012 . This 272 km line, featuring engineering feats like the Chenab Bridge, has enabled the first freight trains to Srinagar by October 2025, facilitating industrial inputs such as salt from and reducing dependency on vulnerable to weather disruptions. The rail link's operationalization is projected to lower logistics costs and boost Srinagar's cargo handling, with initial passenger services already integrating into the valley's transport matrix. Srinagar has undergone expansion planning to increase capacity fourfold, with a Rs 1,788 investment in a new integrated terminal building, apron extension, and allied facilities, targeting completion by June 2027. Daily flights to Srinagar rose from 35 in 2019 to higher volumes post-upgrades, enhancing access amid improved , though full terminal tripling to 15,000 sq m remains under phased implementation. Road infrastructure investments exceeded Rs 30,000 on over five years ending 2024, including the Bridge over set for opening in late 2025 and broader four-laning of Jammu-Srinagar highway segments. Under , over 12,000 km of rural roads were upgraded region-wide, improving Srinagar's peri-urban connectivity. The Rail project, estimated at Rs 4,893 crore for urban congestion relief, remains stalled as of October 2025 pending central approval of its revised detailed project report. These investments correlate with Jammu and Kashmir's gross state domestic product (GSDP) growth of 7.06% in real terms for 2024-25, with nominal projections exceeding 11%, driven partly by enhanced connectivity in and sectors concentrated in Srinagar. fell to 6.1% in 2023-24, amid rising , though critics note a slowdown in to 8% post-2019 from prior 10.2%, attributing it to transitional disruptions rather than investment shortfalls.
Key Infrastructure ProjectInvestment (Rs Crore)Status/Impact as of 2025
USBRL Rail Link37,012Fully operational; enables year-round freight and passenger access to Srinagar.
Expansion1,788Under construction; targets quadrupled capacity by 2027, boosting daily flights.
National Highways (5 yrs)30,000+Completed/upgraded; enhances Srinagar-Jammu linkage and local bridges like .
4,893Awaiting approval; potential for urban mobility once funded.

Infrastructure and Transport

Road and Urban Connectivity

Srinagar's road connectivity relies heavily on National Highway 44 (NH-44), which links the city southward to over approximately 247 kilometers, serving as the primary all-weather artery to the rest of despite vulnerabilities to landslides and heavy rains. This highway, upgraded with tunnels and bypasses, has seen restorations nearing completion as of September 2025 following monsoon-induced damages that disrupted full traffic flow. The 2.35-kilometer bypass, part of the four-laning project, was slated for operationalization by late July 2025 to enhance safety and reduce congestion. Within the city, the road network has expanded significantly, with data indicating growth from 1,154 kilometers in 2014 to 2,259 kilometers by 2022, reflecting incremental urban infrastructure development amid population pressures. Key intra-urban links include bridges over the , such as the forthcoming 127-meter Noor Jehan Bridge at Qamarwari, expected to open in October 2025 to alleviate river-crossing bottlenecks. However, persistent delays plague projects like a 130-meter bridge intended to ease central congestion, which has missed multiple deadlines over 15 years due to administrative and execution shortfalls. Urban traffic management faces chronic from unregulated minibuses, , and narrow , exacerbated by outdated and insufficient public enforcement. Authorities have pursued remedies including road widening, one-way systems in dense areas, and under the Jammu and Kashmir Road Safety Policy-2025, alongside calls for detailed congestion plans integrating flyovers and subways. Federal investments totaling ₹29,903 in Jammu and Kashmir's since 2020 have constructed over 1,003 kilometers of new stretches, bolstering regional access, while 100 ongoing projects valued at ₹1,957 target further enhancements as of July 2025. ![Engineer directing patch macadamisation on roads][float-right]

Air, Rail, and Water Transport

Srinagar , officially Ul-Alam (IATA: SXR), serves as the primary air gateway to the city and the , handling both domestic and limited international flights from an integrated terminal spanning 212,000 square feet with capacity for 950 passengers at a time, including 500 domestic and 450 international. The airport connects to 11 domestic destinations operated by five airlines, predominantly , with direct flights to major hubs such as , Bengaluru, , , , and , facilitating over 425 incoming and outgoing passengers per terminal peak. As a dual-use facility shared with the , it supports seasonal surges in and pilgrimage traffic, though international operations remain minimal compared to domestic routes spanning up to 2,329 km to Bengaluru. The –Srinagar– Rail Link (USBRL), a 272 km engineering feat completed and declared fully operational on June 7, 2025, provides Srinagar with its first all-weather rail connectivity to the Indian mainland via , crossing challenging Himalayan terrain including the world's highest rail bridge over the . Srinagar now accommodates passenger services, including the trains linking the city to Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra station, with additional halts such as at introduced from October 29, 2025, to enhance regional access. This infrastructure enables direct express services from Katra onward to broader networks, reducing dependence on road travel amid seasonal closures of highways like the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway. Water transport in Srinagar centers on Dal Lake, where traditional wooden boats—narrow, oar-propelled vessels—serve as the primary means for ferrying tourists to , navigating canals, and accessing the lake's floating markets, the latter being India's only such vegetable bazaar conducted entirely on water. operations, regulated under Jammu and Kashmir tourism policies, rely on shikaras for guest transfers, with each shikara defined as a vessel for lake traversal and subject to capacity limits and safety mandates including mandatory life jackets for all passengers and displayed maximum loads. In December 2024, introduced 'Uber Shikara', a pioneering app-based service for booking these boats at government-fixed rates, requiring reservations 12 hours to 15 days in advance to formalize what was previously an informal, haggle-based system while preserving cultural practices.

Recent Development Projects

Srinagar has seen accelerated infrastructure development under the , with 90% of sanctioned projects completed by March 2025, encompassing 288 initiatives worth ₹6,597 crore across and Srinagar. Specific efforts include urban rejuvenation along the , enhanced integration, and smart solutions like integrated command centers, with ongoing reviews in September 2025 emphasizing timely completion of remaining works. These projects, initially targeting full smart city status by June 2024, have progressed amid commitments from regional leadership to resolve bottlenecks and integrate advanced . Key transport connectivity enhancements include the Z-Morh Tunnel, a 6.5 km bidirectional structure on the Srinagar-Leh Highway, inaugurated on January 13, 2025, reducing travel time and enabling all-weather access to Sonamarg from Kangan. Complementing this, over 100 road projects valued at ₹1,957 crore were underway as of July 2025, focusing on national highways and urban links to bolster Srinagar's integration with Jammu and border regions. Srinagar International Airport underwent upgrades to handle increased capacity post-2019, including terminal expansions and runway enhancements to support international flights and tourism recovery. Ongoing mega-projects like the , advancing toward 60% completion by August 2025 with a revised deadline of 2028, promise to link Srinagar to year-round, mitigating seasonal disruptions on NH-1. These initiatives, part of broader post-2020 investments exceeding ₹41,735 crore in 47 highway stretches totaling 810 km, aim to enhance strategic mobility and economic linkages.

Culture and Society

Religious and Cultural Heritage

Srinagar's religious heritage encompasses ancient Hindu temples and predominantly sites shaped by Sufi traditions, reflecting a historical known as . The city's sacred landscape includes pre- structures alongside mosques and shrines established after the 14th-century arrival of , with Sufi saints of the order fostering communal harmony by integrating local Shaivite elements into Islamic mysticism. The , perched on a hill 1,000 feet above the city, stands as Srinagar's oldest surviving Hindu site, dedicated to Lord . Believed to date back to around 200 BC under King Jaluka or Gopaditya in the 4th century BC, the current octagonal structure with its terraced base originates from the 9th century AD following multiple rebuilds after destructions. Named after the 8th-century philosopher , who reportedly meditated there, it offers panoramic views of and the surrounding valley. Islamic architecture dominates, exemplified by the Jama Masjid in Nowhatta, constructed in 1400 AD by Sultan Sikandar Butshikan of the . This expansive , measuring approximately 381 feet by 212 feet, features Indo-Saracenic design with intricate wooden pillars and has undergone restorations, including expansions under Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin and Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1672. It serves as a central congregational site, accommodating thousands during Friday prayers and embodying the wooden craftsmanship central to Kashmiri religious buildings. The Hazratbal Shrine on the western shore of houses the Moi-e-Muqaddas, a relic venerated as a hair of Prophet Muhammad, brought to in the 18th century by Syed Abdullah Shah, a claimed descendant of the Prophet. Initially constructed in the under Mughal Emperor , the current marble edifice was rebuilt in 1968 by the Muslim Auqaf Trust, drawing massive pilgrim crowds during Eid and relic exhibitions. Sufism profoundly influenced Srinagar's cultural fabric, with shrines like and the tomb of promoting tolerant practices that blended Persian mysticism with indigenous asceticism. This heritage manifests in traditions such as shrine-based rituals, devotional music (chakri), and ethical codes emphasizing and environmental harmony, as propagated by Rishi saints like in the . Other notable sites include the 8th-9th century Pandrethan Shiva Temple, an ancient Hindu remnant near the city center, underscoring pre-Islamic roots amid later Islamic dominance. Culturally, these religious elements underpin Kashmiri identity through shared practices like urs festivals at Sufi dargahs, which historically mitigated sectarian divides and preserved a pluralistic ethos despite periodic iconoclasm under rulers like Sikandar.

Performing Arts and Festivals

Kashmiri performing arts in Srinagar prominently feature Bhand Pather, a centuries-old folk theater form that integrates dance, music, , and improvisation to narrate social and historical tales, often performed by wandering troupes in open spaces during community gatherings. This tradition, derived from roots meaning "actor's path," employs minimal props and live percussion like the drum, with actors portraying exaggerated characters to critique local customs or politics through humor. Folk dances constitute another core element, including Dumhal, performed exclusively by men of the Wattal tribe who don conical caps adorned with peacock feathers and vibrant robes while executing rhythmic leaps to the beat of the damal drum, symbolizing agricultural rituals and warrior prowess. Rouf, a graceful women's dance forming human chains with synchronized handclaps and swaying movements, celebrates spring and is commonly enacted on auspicious occasions like Eid, evoking themes of fertility and communal harmony. Other forms such as , a masked dance mimicking shepherds, and Hafiza, involving women in elaborate attire, further enrich Srinagar's repertoire, typically accompanied by traditional instruments like the and rubab. Festivals in Srinagar amplify these arts through public spectacles. The , held annually in April at Srinagar's botanical gardens, showcases over 1.5 million tulip bulbs alongside folk dance performances, music concerts, and exhibitions to promote and cultural preservation since its in 2017. Religious observances like Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Adha, marking the end of and the pilgrimage respectively, feature mass prayers at sites such as the Jamia Masjid followed by Rouf dances, Bhand Pather skits, and communal feasts, drawing thousands to Srinagar's streets and mosques. commemorations at shrines like Hazratbal draw Sufi singing and devotional dances, perpetuating mystical traditions tied to Kashmiri Islam. The Gurez Festival in highlights tribal dances and music from the region's pastoral communities, fostering inter-valley cultural exchange. These events, while rooted in tradition, have faced disruptions from regional instability but continue to sustain amid efforts for revival.

Social Structure and Family Life

Kashmiri society in Srinagar, predominantly Muslim, is organized around patrilineal systems where descent and follow the male line, forming the core of and functions. This structure emphasizes agnatic ties, with extended networks providing , though urban pressures in Srinagar have increasingly favored nuclear units over traditional families. Despite Islamic egalitarian ideals, a social hierarchy persists among Muslims, resembling caste-like with groups such as Syeds (claiming prophetic descent) at the top, followed by occupational castes like artisans and service providers at lower levels, influencing marriage alliances and social interactions. Family life traditionally revolves around the patriarchal household, where the male head holds authority over decisions including marriages, often arranged within kin or caste to preserve honor and property. Consanguineous unions, particularly first-cousin marriages, remain prevalent, comprising over 50% of unions in nearby regions and similarly high in Srinagar due to kinship preferences. Gender roles are distinctly divided, with men focused on economic provision and public life, while women manage domestic spheres, child-rearing, and family honor, though elderly women often wield informal influence in reinforcing patriarchal norms. Islamic teachings underscore filial piety, mandating respect for parents, which sustains intergenerational co-residence, with elders typically integrated into adult children's homes rather than isolated in care facilities. Recent shifts, driven by conflict, urbanization, and , have eroded joint family dominance, promoting nuclear setups and , which correlate with rising rates and challenges to arranged marriages. Women's increasing access to and is altering dynamics, yet patriarchal enforcement persists, limiting and contributing to domestic tensions. Inter-caste unions face , highlighting the enduring grip of hereditary hierarchies despite official denial.

Tourism and Attractions

Iconic Sites Within Srinagar

serves as Srinagar's central aquatic landmark, spanning approximately 18 square kilometers across five interconnected basins linked by channels, and functions as an integral hub for tourism and local commerce through its accommodations and rides. The lake, an urban freshwater body formed from ancient geological remnants potentially tracing to Pleistocene origins, supports a unique for vegetables and handicrafts, distinguishing it as India's sole such venue. , introduced during British colonial restrictions on land stays in the , number over 1,000 and embody Kashmiri hospitality, often featuring carved walnut wood interiors. Environmental challenges, including from and weed proliferation, have prompted restoration efforts, such as weed harvesting and sewage diversion, to preserve its ecological balance. The Mughal Gardens, exemplifying Persian-influenced terraced landscapes with fountains, s, and chinar trees, represent imperial engineering feats from the 17th century. Shalimar Bagh, constructed around 1620 by Emperor for retreats and festivities, features three descending terraces symbolizing earthly, heavenly, and divine realms, with water channels fed by ancient springs. , laid out in 1633 by Asaf Khan—brother of Empress —mirrors the Zeban mountain contours with 12 terraces evoking zodiac signs, boasting over 300 fountains operational via gravity-fed aqueducts. , the smallest at 12 acres and built in 1632 under , centers on a perennial spring believed to hold medicinal properties, incorporating a three-tiered garden with a central for royal sojourns. These sites, maintained by the , draw visitors for their symmetrical layouts and seasonal blooms, though siltation and urban encroachment necessitate ongoing conservation. ![Jama Masjid, Srinagar (14363005587](./assets/Jama_Masjid%252C_Srinagar_1436300558714363005587 Religious edifices underscore Srinagar's syncretic heritage, with perched at 1,100 feet on Gopadar Hill offering panoramic valley views and dedicated to since its foundational structure in the 2nd century BCE, attributed to Ashoka's son Jalauka, and later rebuilt by King Gopaditya around 371 BCE. The octagonal stone edifice, accessible via 250 steps, features a circumambulatory path and overlooks , serving as a pilgrimage site despite historical conversions and restorations. Jama Masjid, the grand congregational mosque in Nowhatta, was founded in 1394 CE by Sultan Sikandar Butshikan at the urging of Sufi scholar Mir Muhammad Hamadani, expanded by his son Zain-ul-Abidin to cover 3,620 square meters with capacity for 33,333 worshippers, and rebuilt multiple times post-earthquakes and fires, its pagoda-style minarets reflecting Indo-Islamic fusion. , on 's left bank, holds supreme Muslim reverence as custodian of the Moi-e-Muqaddas—a relic purportedly a hair from Prophet Muhammad—drawing annual Eid crowds exceeding 100,000 since its marble structure's completion in 1962, though relic authenticity remains a matter of faith amid 1963 theft and recovery episodes that spurred political tensions.

Nearby Destinations and Eco-Tourism

, situated approximately 50 kilometers northwest of Srinagar at an elevation of 2,650 meters, serves as a premier and destination, featuring Asia's highest cable car system and alpine meadows ideal for and summer rides. The area, accessible via a two-hour drive, attracts visitors for its snow-covered slopes from to March and wildflower blooms in spring. Pahalgam lies about 90-95 kilometers southeast of Srinagar, reachable in roughly three hours by road, and is known for its pine forests, Lidder River rafting opportunities, and proximity to Betaab Valley, a filming location for Bollywood productions. At an altitude of 2,200 meters, it functions as a base for the Amarnath pilgrimage and offers pony treks to sites like Aru Valley. Sonamarg, positioned 80 kilometers northeast at 2,800 meters elevation, provides access to Thajwas Glacier via pony rides or short hikes, along with high-altitude lakes such as Krishansar and Gadsar, drawing trekkers and adventure enthusiasts. The drive takes about three hours, with the region noted for its glacial streams and as a gateway to Baltal for further expeditions. Eco-tourism in the vicinity emphasizes conservation amid the , with , 22 kilometers east of Srinagar and spanning 141 square kilometers, designated as a wildlife sanctuary since 1981 to protect the endangered Hangul deer (Cervus hangul), whose population numbered around 250 as of recent surveys. Covering altitudes from 1,700 to 4,300 meters, the park supports over 50 mammal species and permits guided jeep safaris, birdwatching for species like the , and moderate treks from April to October, subject to permits issued by the Jammu and Kashmir Forest Department to regulate visitor impact. Efforts include habitat restoration to counter and habitat loss, promoting low-impact activities like camping in designated zones.

Tourism Recovery and Challenges

Following the abrogation of Article 370 on August 5, 2019, tourism in Srinagar and the broader underwent a marked recovery, fueled by bolstered security protocols, infrastructure investments, and targeted marketing under initiatives like "." Annual tourist arrivals in the region climbed from 5.65 in 2019 to approximately 2.95 million by 2024, with domestic visitors comprising the majority and serving as the primary driver of economic resurgence in Srinagar's houseboat and sectors. This uptick reflected a causal link between reduced militancy incidents—down over 70% from pre-2019 peaks according to official security data—and renewed investor confidence, evidenced by the addition of over 5,000 hotels and guesthouses across Jammu and Kashmir since 2019. The momentum persisted into 2025, with Jammu and Kashmir recording over 95 lakh domestic tourists and nearly 20,000 foreign visitors in the first half of the year, many routing through Srinagar's Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport as the valley's primary entry point. Srinagar-specific assets, including Dal Lake's rides and Mughal gardens, benefited disproportionately, contributing an estimated 40% of regional tourism revenue through extended stays averaging 4-5 days. However, this recovery remained uneven, as foreign arrivals lagged at under 1% of totals, constrained by lingering international travel advisories from select governments despite India's assertions of normalcy. Persistent challenges undermine full stabilization, chief among them intermittent terrorist violence that exploits Srinagar's proximity to border areas and amplifies media-driven perceptions of risk. The April 22, 2025, attack, killing over a dozen civilians, triggered an immediate 80-95% drop in bookings across Srinagar's hotels and houseboats, idling thousands of shikaras and stranding local operators amid peak season cancellations. Infrastructure deficits, such as overburdened roads and limited high-altitude connectivity beyond Srinagar, exacerbate vulnerability to seasonal closures from harsh winters, while ecological pressures from —evident in Dal Lake's pollution levels rising 15% annually—pose long-term sustainability risks without stricter enforcement. These factors, compounded by occasional over-reliance on subsidies rather than diversified streams, highlight the need for resilience-building measures like enhanced intelligence-sharing to decouple tourism from security volatility.

Education

Higher Education Institutions

The , established in 1948 as the Jammu and Kashmir University and bifurcated into a separate entity in 1969, serves as the primary state university in Srinagar, located in the Hazratbal area with a focus on arts, sciences, and humanities. It offers undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral programs across multiple faculties, enrolling thousands of students annually despite regional security challenges that have periodically disrupted operations. Affiliated colleges in Srinagar, such as and , contribute to its network, providing degree programs in various disciplines. The , founded in 1960 as a Regional Engineering College under the Government of India's second five-year plan, was upgraded to full NIT status in 2003 and specializes in , technology, and architecture. Situated on a 67-acre campus overlooking , it admits students via national entrance exams like JEE Main and emphasizes research in fields such as civil, electrical, and , with an annual intake of around 700 undergraduates. The institute has faced infrastructure limitations due to its location in a seismically active zone but maintains accreditation from bodies like the . Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of (SKUAST-K), established in 1982 and headquartered in Shalimar, Srinagar, focuses on agricultural, veterinary, and allied sciences tailored to the Himalayan region's agro-climatic conditions. It operates research stations and extension centers across , offering programs in , , and , with an emphasis on improving local crop yields like and apples amid challenges from climate variability and conflict-related disruptions. The university's Shalimar campus includes facilities for and , supporting farmer outreach in a state where employs over 60% of the workforce. Other notable institutions include the (), a in Soura, Srinagar, established in 1982 for postgraduate and super-specialty training, handling tertiary care and research in and . These institutions collectively face systemic issues like funding shortages and enrollment fluctuations tied to political instability, yet they remain central to regional development.

Primary and Secondary Education

Primary and secondary in Srinagar encompasses government-operated under the Directorate of School and a growing network of private institutions, serving the urban population of approximately 1.2 million. Elementary (classes 1-8) and (classes 9-10) face persistent challenges including enrollment declines in public schools and suboptimal learning outcomes, amid a regional shift where nearly half of students in Jammu and Kashmir opt for private schooling due to perceptions of superior quality. Enrollment in government schools across Jammu and Kashmir dropped by over 52,000 students between 2021-22 and 2023-24, from 1,473,022 to 1,421,225, reflecting broader trends in Srinagar where low-attendance public institutions have prompted mergers and closures of nearly 4,400 schools region-wide by late 2024. In Srinagar district, secondary school enrollment data for 2020 indicated participation rates aligned with urban averages, but recent audits reveal hundreds of schools statewide with fewer than 50 students, including 119 with zero enrollment as of early 2025, straining resources and teacher deployment. Dropout rates have decreased at the primary level but worsened at secondary stages, exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure and transportation barriers in peripheral areas. Learning proficiency remains low, with a 2025 government report finding that 52% of Class VIII students in Jammu and Kashmir government schools unable to read Class II-level texts, signaling foundational skill deficits despite increased overall enrollment of 1.2 lakh students region-wide in 2024. Literacy in Srinagar's urban agglomeration stood at about 71% per the , lagging the national average of 74%, though Jammu and Kashmir's rate has risen to 77.3-82% in recent estimates, with urban Srinagar likely benefiting from denser school access. Historical disruptions reduced school density and attendance, with pre-2001 data showing higher-than-national averages of primary and secondary institutions , but persistent quality issues like teacher shortages and mismatches continue to drive preference. Government efforts under Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan emphasize universal elementary enrollment, infrastructure upgrades, and computer education in higher secondary facilities, coordinated by district-level officers including the Chief Education Officer. Gender disparities persist, with rural female literacy in Jammu and Kashmir below national averages, though urban Srinagar shows progress in girls' retention; challenges like single-teacher schools (over 1,300 statewide serving 31,000 students) and misallocation undermine efficacy.

Recent Educational Reforms

Following the abrogation of Article 370 in August 2019, which integrated Jammu and Kashmir more fully with central government schemes, educational reforms in Srinagar and the broader emphasized infrastructure expansion and reduced dropout rates in government schools. Central funding enabled the construction of thousands of new classrooms and the application of national programs like Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan without prior restrictions. By 2022, government efforts had notably lowered student dropout rates across Jammu and Kashmir, attributing this to improved access and facilities in urban centers like Srinagar. The adoption of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 marked a pivotal shift, with Jammu and Kashmir ranking among top performers in its implementation by August 2025, including the allocation of art and teachers to all schools. Key measures involved holistic reforms promoting multidisciplinary learning, vocational integration from secondary levels, and pre-primary education linkage with care. In Srinagar, this included completing approximately 3,000 new classrooms and providing scholarships to over 5,000 students pursuing higher studies to mitigate financial barriers. Discussions in September 2025 between the Chief Secretary and the Union Education Secretary focused on accelerating NEP-aligned upgrades and teacher accountability to enhance learning outcomes. Recent initiatives extended reforms to non-traditional institutions; in 2025, the Kashmir Students Federation incorporated madrasas, Darul Ulooms, and coaching centers into a unified regulatory framework to standardize quality and oversight in Srinagar's diverse educational landscape. Events like the NEP Conclave 2025 in Srinagar and the CII J&K Education Summit underscored emphasis on "design your degree" flexibility and inclusive adaptation to local contexts. However, foundational learning levels in reading and arithmetic have shown declines in government schools as of early 2025, highlighting persistent challenges amid these structural changes despite policy emphasis on remedial and .

Media and Broadcasting

Srinagar is home to several English-language daily newspapers that serve the and broader Jammu and Kashmir region. , published from the city since its inception as a weekly in 1987 before expanding to daily editions, offers extensive coverage of local , security developments, and cultural events. Rising Kashmir, another key English daily based in Srinagar, emphasizes regional news, editorials, and analysis on governance and societal issues. Kashmir Observer, headquartered at Haza Complex in Srinagar, provides reporting on current affairs, with a focus on in-depth features and opinion pieces. Kashmir Times, while maintaining operations across Jammu and Kashmir, publishes editions from Srinagar addressing regional and national topics. The print media landscape in Srinagar has encountered significant pressures since , including reduced —often withheld from outlets critical of policies—and a surge in digital news consumption, prompting staff reductions and some publication suspensions. As of 2025, these economic constraints have led to a contraction in the sector, with legacy newspapers adapting through e-papers and hybrid models amid competition from platforms. Electronic media in Srinagar is primarily anchored by public service broadcasters. (AIR) Srinagar, operational since July 1948, transmits on AM 1116 kHz and FM frequencies, delivering news, talk shows, and music in Kashmiri, , and to cover local, national, and international content. Kendra Srinagar operates the Kashir Channel, broadcasting television programs in and Kashmiri, including news bulletins and cultural transmissions tailored to the region. Private FM options are limited, with BIG FM 92.7 Srinagar providing commercial entertainment, music, and light news segments since its entry into the market. Journalistic operations in Srinagar's electronic media face ongoing restrictions, including internet shutdowns during unrest and regulatory scrutiny, which have curtailed live reporting and prompted reliance on delayed or state-approved feeds in some instances. AIR and Doordarshan, as government entities under Prasar Bharati, maintain steady infrastructure with transmitters at key sites like Residency Road, ensuring wide reach despite these challenges.

Digital and Film Industry Developments

The Jammu and Kashmir Film Policy of 2021, followed by an updated version in 2024, has facilitated the shooting of over 350 films and in the region since its , with many utilizing Srinagar's urban settings and proximity to scenic valleys for production. These policies provide incentives such as single-window clearances and subsidies to attract domestic and international filmmakers, aiming to integrate film production with and local employment. In 2025, Bollywood units resumed shooting in Srinagar and nearby areas despite security incidents like the attack earlier that year, signaling renewed confidence in the area's logistics for large-scale productions. Local Kashmiri cinema has seen incremental growth, with filmmakers like Ali Emran establishing production bases in Srinagar to create narratives rooted in regional socio-political contexts, as evidenced by independent projects exploring themes of identity and resistance. Titles such as Harud (2010) and more recent works like Songs of Paradise demonstrate a slow but expanding slate of Kashmiri-directed films, often produced on modest budgets in Srinagar studios or locations. The reopening of cinemas after a 23-year hiatus due to conflict, including Srinagar's first multiplex in 2022, has supported local distribution and audience engagement for both regional and mainstream content. In the digital media domain, Srinagar has witnessed the emergence of tech-driven ventures, such as BrandSparc, an AI automation agency founded in 2025 by local entrepreneurs Fayzan Shah and Danish Showkat, focusing on and tools tailored for Kashmiri businesses. Broader digital adoption has accelerated with improved infrastructure over the past decade, enabling platforms and online content creation, though adoption rates lag due to connectivity challenges in rural peripheries. in Srinagar faces hurdles including proliferation and regulatory pressures, prompting calls for enhanced training and verification standards among local outlets. technologies have also facilitated community-driven content, particularly in religious and cultural dissemination, with Srinagar-based creators leveraging platforms for wider reach.

Sports

Traditional and Modern Sports

Traditional sports in Srinagar trace their origins to historical practices patronized by regional rulers, with emerging as a prominent equestrian game introduced to by Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin in the , involving mounted players striking a ball with mallets toward goals. This sport, rooted in Central Asian traditions, was played on grounds near the city and symbolized martial skills and horsemanship among elites. , another enduring activity, has been practiced for centuries in the valley, with local competitors honing precision skills in community events that reflect Kashmir's martial heritage. Traditional wrestling variants, including forms akin to conducted in open akharas, emphasized and were common in rural outskirts of Srinagar, often tied to festivals or seasonal gatherings. Many indigenous games, such as saz loung () and baante zaar (marbles), once widespread among youth in Srinagar's neighborhoods, have declined due to and digital alternatives, though efforts like the Modern in 2024 aim to revive them through organized competitions. These activities fostered community bonds but lacked formal infrastructure, contrasting with their informal, skill-based nature. Modern sports in Srinagar have shifted toward organized team games, with dominating participation and viewership; the city hosts matches at venues like the TRC Ground, producing national talents through Jammu and Kashmir's domestic teams. Football follows closely, with grassroots leagues in districts including Srinagar drawing thousands, supported by local clubs and recent infrastructure upgrades enabling year-round play. Hockey and have gained traction indoors, while water sports on Dal Lake, such as , emerged via events like the 2025 Water Sports Festival. Winter adaptations, including snow rugby introduced in 2004, have engaged over 3,000 female participants by 2018 in Srinagar and nearby areas, blending global rules with local conditions to promote inclusivity. Government initiatives since 2022 have positioned Srinagar as a venue for national events, enhancing facilities for , , and emerging disciplines like ice stock, though participation remains concentrated in urban youth amid security and economic challenges.

Infrastructure and Events

Srinagar's primary sports infrastructure includes the Bakshi Stadium, a multi-purpose venue in Raj Bagh with a capacity of 30,000 spectators, primarily used for football matches, , and occasionally cricket events. The stadium features an international-standard athletic track and has undergone upgrades to support diverse competitions, though some downtown facilities face neglect and decay, limiting access for local athletes. The Sher-i-Kashmir Stadium in Sonwar Bagh serves as the main venue, accommodating up to 25,000 fans and hosting domestic tournaments like the . Additional facilities include the TRC Football Stadium with FIFA-approved for 12,000 spectators and ongoing developments such as indoor complexes and turf upgrades in areas like Shahr-e-Khaas, funded by allocations of ₹1 in 2025. The Jammu and Kashmir Sports Council oversees 32 indoor across the region, with inspections in Srinagar confirming progress on synthetic tracks and multi-sport halls as of May 2025. Major events have revitalized the scene, including the Indian Heaven Premier League (IHPL) 2025 cricket tournament opener at Bakshi Stadium on October 25, 2025, featuring teams like Gulmarg Royals. Srinagar hosted the Khelo India Water Sports Festival on Dal Lake from August 21-23, 2025, with events in kayaking, canoeing, and rowing, where Madhya Pradesh secured 18 medals. The 69th National School Games in September 2025 involved over 4,000 athletes across 16 disciplines, including football and boxing, with Srinagar as a key venue. The second Kashmir Marathon is scheduled for November 2025, with preparations reviewed on October 25, 2025, emphasizing routes through the city to promote fitness amid improving security. Other highlights include the Judo Cluster of national games in October 2025 and the historic return of exhibitions at Bakshi Stadium in 2024, signaling Srinagar's emergence as a host for Legends League matches. These events, supported by the Youth Services and Sports Department, have boosted participation despite infrastructural challenges in older venues.

Notable People

Historical Figures

King Pravarsena II established the city of Srinagar, originally known as Pravarapura, in the mid-6th century CE near , marking it as a planned urban center with defensive structures and temples that laid the foundation for its enduring layout. This development followed the earlier Srinagari built under Ashoka's influence, but Pravarsena's initiative integrated the settlement into the Valley's strategic geography, promoting trade and governance continuity. Lal Ded, also known as Lalla Arifa or Lalleshwari, born circa 1320 CE in Pandrethan—a suburb of —emerged as a pivotal 14th-century Shaivite mystic and poet whose vakhs (verses) articulated non-dualistic philosophy and social critique, influencing Kashmiri literature and spiritual traditions. Her rejection of ritualism in favor of direct experiential knowledge bridged Hindu and emerging Sufi thought, with her wanderings through Srinagar's environs embedding her legacy in the region's cultural identity despite familial and societal opposition. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, reigning from 1420 to 1470 CE as the eighth ruler of the , transformed Srinagar into a prosperous hub through infrastructure like the Zainagir for and flood control, alongside patronage of arts, crafts, and interfaith tolerance that attracted scholars and artisans. Known as Budshah ("Great King"), his policies fostered economic stability via paper-making and shawl-weaving industries centered in Srinagar, while restoring temples and mosques, averting famines through granaries, and dispatching embassies to and , elevating the city's status as Kashmir's political and cultural capital. His rule, documented in contemporary chronicles, represented a peak of administrative efficiency before later dynastic declines.

Contemporary Contributors

Farooq Abdullah, born in 1937 in Soura on the outskirts of Srinagar, has been a pivotal figure in Jammu and Kashmir politics as the longtime president of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference. He served as of the state multiple times between 1982 and 2002, and later as Union Minister for New and Renewable Energy from 2009 to 2014, where he advanced solar and wind energy initiatives amid India's push for sustainable power. His advocacy for greater autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir within the Indian union shaped regional discourse, though it drew opposition from central governments. In human rights activism, Parveena Ahanger, born in Srinagar, founded the Association of Parents of Disappeared Persons (APDP) in 1994 after her son Javed Ahmed Ahanger disappeared during a 1990 protest in the city. As APDP chairperson, she has led weekly protests in Srinagar's Pratap Park since 2005, documenting over 8,000 cases of enforced disappearances linked to the , and mobilized families to demand accountability from security forces. Her efforts earned the 2017 for Emergent Leadership, recognizing her non-violent resistance despite state restrictions on assemblies. The entertainment industry features Srinagar natives like , born on 2 October 1987 in the city, who rose to prominence as an actress in Indian television and film. She gained fame portraying in the long-running soap from 2009 to 2016, amassing over 1,800 episodes and establishing her as one of television's highest-paid stars with earnings reported at ₹35-40 per month during peak years. Khan expanded to films like Hasse Toh Phaseee (2014) and reality shows such as Bigg Boss 11 (2017), while publicly sharing her 2024 stage 3 diagnosis to raise awareness. Kunal Kemmu, born on 25 May 1983 in Srinagar to a Kashmiri family displaced by 1990 unrest, debuted as a in (1996), earning a Award for Best Child Artist. As an adult, he starred in commercial successes including the comedy series (2006-2019), contributing to box-office earnings exceeding ₹500 crore across installments, and transitioned to directing with (2020). In literature, Mirza Waheed, born and raised in Srinagar, has chronicled Kashmir's socio-political upheavals through novels like The Collaborator (2011), a shortlisted for the DSC Prize for , and The Book of Gold Leaves (2014), which explore themes of loss and identity amid conflict. His works, informed by personal experiences of the region's violence, have been translated into multiple languages and featured in outlets like The Guardian, where he contributes essays on Kashmiri history. Waheed's latest, Tell Her Everything (2021), addresses generational trauma from the 1990s insurgency.

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