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Wrasses
Temporal range: Early Eocene to present
Cuckoo wrasse
(Labrus mixtus)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Labriformes
Suborder: Labroidei
Family: Labridae
G. Cuvier, 1816
Subfamilies

The wrasses are a family, Labridae, of marine ray-finned fish, many of which are brightly colored. The family is large and diverse, with over 600 species in 81 genera, which are divided into eight subfamilies.[1][2]

They are typically small, most of them less than 20 cm (7.9 in) long, although the largest, the humphead wrasse, can measure up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft). They are efficient carnivores, feeding on a wide range of small invertebrates. Many smaller wrasses follow the feeding trails of larger fish, picking up invertebrates disturbed by their passing.[3] Juveniles of some representatives of the genera Bodianus, Epibulus, Cirrhilabrus, Oxycheilinus, and Paracheilinus hide among the tentacles of the free-living mushroom corals and Heliofungia actiniformis.[4][5]

Etymology

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The word "wrasse" comes from the Cornish word wragh, a lenited form of gwragh, meaning an old woman or hag, via Cornish dialect wrath. It is related to the Welsh gwrach and Breton gwrac'h.[6]

†Phyllopharyngodon longipinnis (Eocene)

Taxonomy

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Parrotfish were traditionally regarded as comprising their own family (Scaridae), but are now often treated as a subfamily (Scarinae) or tribe (Scarini) of the wrasses (Labridae), being nested deep within the wrasse phylogenetic tree.[7] The odacine wrasses, traditionally classified as forming their own family, were found nested deep within the wrasse tribe Hypsigenyini, and most closely related to the tuskfishes.[8]

Genera

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The following classification is based on Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes:[1]

Subfamily Genera
Hypsigenyinae Achoerodus, Anchichoerops, Bodianus, Choerodon, Decodon, Lachnolaimus, Polylepion, Pseudodax, Terelabrus, Haletta, Heteroscarus, Neoodax, Odax, Parodax, Olisthops, Sheardichthys, Siphonognathus.
Cirrhilabrinae Cirrhilabrus, Paracheilinus, Pseudocheilinops, Pseudocheilinus, Pteragogus.
Labrinae Acantholabrus, Centrolabrus, Ctenolabrus, Labrus, Lappanella, Symphodus, Tautoga, Tautogolabrus
Cheilininae Cheilinus, Epibulus, Oxycheilinus, Wetmorella.
Scarinae Bolbometopon, Calotomus, Cetoscarus, Chlorurus, Cryptotomus, Hipposcarus, Leptoscarus, Nicholsina, Scarus, Sparisoma.
Xyrichtyinae Ammolabrus, Cheilio, Cymolutes, Iniistius, Novaculichthys, Novaculoides, Novaculops, Xyrichtys
Pseudolabrinae Austrolabrus, Doratonotus, Dotalabrus, Eupetrichthys, Malapterus, Notolabrus, Pictilabrus, Pseudolabrus, Suezichthys
Julidinae Anampses, Coris, Diproctacanthus, Frontilabrus, Gomphosus, Halichoeres, Hemigymnus, Hologymnosus, Labrichthys, Labroides, Labropsis, Larabicus, Leptojulis, Macropharyngodon, Minilabrus, Ophthalmolepis, Parajulis, Pseudocoris, Pseudojuloides, Stethojulis, Thalassoma, Xenojulis.

The following fossil genera are also known, lacking a proper tribal placement:[9]

Fossil wrasses date to the Early Eocene of Monte Bolca, Italy. Among these is Phyllopharyngodon, which can uniquely be placed in the extant subfamily Hypsigenyinae.[9] Wrasses appear to have had an even wider distribution in prehistoric times, with fossil remains being known from the Middle Eocene-aged La Meseta Formation of Antarctica. They were presumably wiped out from Antarctica following the continent's cooling during the Oligocene.[12]

Description

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Drawing of wrasse profile showing eye, lips, and teeth
Lips of Labrus festivus

Wrasses have protractile mouths, usually with separate jaw teeth that jut outwards.[13] Many species can be readily recognized by their thick lips, the inside of which is sometimes curiously folded, a peculiarity which gave rise to the German name of "lip-fishes" (Lippfische),[14] and the Dutch name of lipvissen. The dorsal fin has 8 to 21 spines and 6 to 21 soft rays, usually running most of the length of the back. Wrasses are sexually dimorphic. Many species are capable of changing sex. Juveniles are a mix of males and females (known as initial-phase individuals), but the largest adults become territory-holding (terminal-phase) males.[13]

Two very large wrasse species: humphead parrotfish (left) and humphead wrasse (right)
Whitebanded possum wrasse (Wetmorella albofasciata), one of the smallest wrasse species

The wrasses have become a primary study species in fish-feeding biomechanics due to their jaw structures. The nasal and mandibular bones are connected at their posterior ends to the rigid neurocranium, and the superior and inferior articulations of the maxilla are joined to the anterior tips of these two bones, respectively, creating a loop of four rigid bones connected by moving joints. This "four-bar linkage" has the property of allowing numerous arrangements to achieve a given mechanical result (fast jaw protrusion or a forceful bite), thus decoupling morphology from function. The actual morphology of wrasses reflects this, with many lineages displaying different jaw morphology that results in the same functional output in a similar or identical ecological niche.[13]

Distribution and habitat

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Most wrasses inhabit the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, though some species live in temperate waters: the Ballan wrasse is found as far north as Norway. Wrasses are usually found in shallow-water habitats such as coral reefs and rocky shores, where they live close to the substrate.

Reproductive behavior

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Most labrids are protogynous hermaphrodites within a haremic mating system.[15][16] A good example of this reproductive behavior is seen in the California sheephead. Hermaphroditism allows for complex mating systems. Labroids exhibit three different mating systems: polygynous, lek-like, and promiscuous.[17] Group spawning and pair spawning occur within mating systems. The type of spawning that occurs depends on male body size.[16] Labroids typically exhibit broadcast spawning, releasing high numbers of planktonic eggs, which are broadcast by tidal currents; adult labroids have no interaction with offspring.[18] Wrasses of a particular subgroup of the family Labridae, Labrini, do not exhibit broadcast spawning.

Sex change in wrasses is generally female-to-male, but experimental conditions have allowed for male-to-female sex change. Placing two male Labroides dimidiatus wrasses in the same tank results in the smaller of the two becoming female again.[19] Additionally, while the individual to change sex is generally the largest female,[20] evidence also exists of the largest female instead "choosing" to remain female in situations in which she can maximize her evolutionary fitness by refraining from changing sex.[21]

Broodcare behavior of the tribe

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The subfamily Labrinae arose from a basal split within family Labridae during the Eocene period.[22] Subgroup Labrinae is composed of eight genera, wherein 15 of 23 species exhibit broodcare behavior,[18] which ranges from simple to complex parental care of spawn; males build algae nests or crude cavities, ventilate eggs, and defend nests against conspecific males and predators.[18] In species that express this behavior, eggs cannot survive without parental care.[23] Species of Symphodus, Centrolabrus, and Labrus genera exhibit broodcare behavior.

Sexual developmental systems

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Wrasses exhibit three types of sexual development, depending on the species. Sex in this context refers to functional sex, ie the individual's role when mating. Some species show functional gonochorism, meaning that they are born functionally either male or female, and remain so for their entire life; there is no sex change. Meanwhile, functionally hermaphroditic species exhibit sex change, and are protogynous, meaning that individuals that are functionally female can become functionally male. These protogynous species are either monandric (all individuals are born functionally female, but can become functionally male) or diandric (individuals can be born either female or male, and individuals that are born female can become male).[24]

Evolutionarily, wrasse lineages trend towards developing monandry.[25] Monandric lineages rarely transition directly to diandry, instead transitioning through functional gonochorism first on the pathway to diandry.[24]

Potential tool use

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Many species of wrasses have been recorded using large rocks or hard coral as "anvils", upon which they smash open hard-shelled prey items. At least some of these species can remember to use a particular rock or coral repeatedly for this purpose.[26] This behaviour usually involves invertebrate prey such as clams, sea urchins, and crabs, but on one occasion, a blue tuskfish was filmed smashing a young green sea turtle on an anvil.[27][26]

Twenty-one species of eight genera have been documented exhibiting this behaviour, including Choerodon (C. anchorago, C. cyanodus, C. graphicus, C. schoenleinii), Coris (C. aygula, C. bulbifrons, C. julis, C. sandeyeri), Cheilinus (C. fasciatus, C. lunulatus, C. trilobatus), Thalassoma (T. hardwicke, T. jansenii, T. lunare, T. lutescens, T. pavo), Symphodus (S. mediterraneus), Halichoeres (H. garnoti, H. hortulanus), Bodianus (B. pulcher), and Pseudolabrus (P. luculentus).[26][28]

Cleaner wrasse

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Photo of two small wrasses cleaning large wrasse's gills
Hawaiian cleaner wrasses working on gill area of dragon wrasse Novaculichthys taeniourus, on a reef in Hawaii

Cleaner wrasses are the best-known of the cleaner fish. They live in a cleaning symbiosis with larger, often predatory, fish, grooming them and benefiting by consuming what they remove. "Client" fish congregate at wrasse "cleaning stations" and wait for the cleaner fish to remove gnathiid parasites, the cleaners even swimming into their open mouths and gill cavities to do so.[29]

Cleaner wrasses are best known for feeding on dead tissue, scales, and ectoparasites, although they are also known to 'cheat', consuming healthy tissue and mucus, which is energetically costly for the client fish to produce. The bluestreak cleaner wrasse, Labroides dimidiatus, is one of the most common cleaners found on tropical reefs. Few cleaner wrasses have been observed being eaten by predators, possibly because parasite removal is more important for predator survival than the short-term gain of eating the cleaner.[30]

In a 2019 study, cleaner wrasses passed the mirror test, the first fish to do so.[31] However, the test's inventor, American psychologist Gordon G. Gallup, has said that the fish were most likely trying to scrape off a perceived parasite on another fish and that they did not demonstrate self-recognition. The authors of the study retorted that because the fish checked themselves in the mirror before and after the scraping, this meant that the fish had self-awareness and recognized that their reflections belonged to their own bodies.[32][33][34] In a 2024 study, "mirror-naive" bluestreak cleaner wrasse were reported to initially show aggression to wrasse photographs sized 10% larger or 10% smaller than themselves, regardless of size. However, upon viewing their reflections in a mirror, they avoided confronting photographs 10% larger than they were.[35]

Significance to humans

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In the Western Atlantic coastal region of North America, the most common food species for indigenous humans was the tautog, a species of wrasse.[14] Wrasses today are commonly found in both public and home aquaria. Some species are small enough to be considered reef safe. They may also be employed as cleaner fish to combat sea-lice infestations in salmon farms.[36] Commercial fish farming of cleaner wrasse for sea-lice pest control in commercial salmon farming has developed in Scotland as lice busters, with apparent commercial benefit and viability.

Parasites

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As all fish, labrids are the hosts of a number of parasites. A list of 338 parasite taxa from 127 labrid fish species was provided by Muñoz and Diaz in 2015.[37] An example is the nematode Huffmanela ossicola.

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References

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Wrasse

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Wrasses (family Labridae) are a diverse family of marine ray-finned fishes renowned for their ecological versatility and often striking coloration, comprising approximately 500 across about 60 genera and inhabiting tropical and subtropical coastal waters worldwide. These fishes exhibit a broad range of body sizes, from just a few centimeters in small species like Minilabrus striatus to over 2 meters and 150 kilograms in the (Cheilinus undulatus), the largest member of the family. Their bodies are typically elongate to oblong and slightly to strongly compressed, featuring a protrusible with thick , one or two pairs of prominent forward-projecting canine teeth at the front of each jaw, and pharyngeal grinding plates for processing prey. A single continuous with 8 to 21 spines and large, smooth scales are diagnostic traits, while the may be straight, curved, or interrupted. Coloration varies dramatically, often with distinct juvenile, initial-phase (typically female or subordinate male), and terminal-phase (large dominant male) patterns that can include vibrant blues, greens, and reds. Wrasses are primarily associated with coral reefs, rocky substrates, beds, and sandy bottoms, ranging from intertidal tide pools to depths exceeding 100 meters, though most prefer shallow, nearshore environments. Their global distribution spans all tropical seas, extending into temperate regions as far north as and with the highest species diversity in the , particularly around where over 165 occur. Ecologically, wrasses occupy a wide array of trophic niches, with most species being diurnal carnivores or omnivores that feed on zooplankton, small fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, worms, echinoderms, fish eggs, parasites, and mucus, using their specialized jaws to crush hard-shelled prey or pick at substrates. Certain genera, such as Labroides (cleaner wrasses), engage in mutualistic cleaning symbiosis, removing ectoparasites from client fishes on reefs. A key life-history trait in most species is protogynous hermaphroditism, where functional females sequentially change sex to become males, often triggered by social cues in harem-like mating systems. As one of the most structurally and functionally diversified reef fish families, wrasses contribute significantly to ecosystem dynamics, including predation, cleaning, and habitat maintenance. Many wrasse species face threats from , habitat degradation, and the aquarium trade, with several listed as threatened on the as of 2025, including the Endangered due to its slow growth and high market value and the Vulnerable .

Etymology and Overview

Etymology

The word "wrasse" entered the in the 1670s, derived from the Cornish term wrach or wragh, meaning "old " or "hag." This Celtic root is cognate with the Welsh gwrach and Breton gwrac'h, both carrying similar connotations of an elderly woman or witch-like figure, possibly alluding to the fish's distinctive features or behaviors observed in local traditions. Early English usage of "wrasse" primarily referred to European species, such as the (Labrus bergylta), documented in texts from the late 17th century onward. The term's adoption reflects the influence of Cornish fishing communities, where the were commonly encountered along coastal waters. In other languages, wrasses bear varied regional names highlighting their diversity. In Spanish, they are known as lábridos, a direct from the family name Labridae, or papagallo for certain colorful species evoking parrot-like qualities. The family name Labridae itself stems from the Latin labrum, meaning "lip," in reference to the fishes' prominent protractile mouths.

General Characteristics

Wrasses belong to the family Labridae within the order Labriformes, a diverse group of marine ray-finned fishes (class ) that inhabit tropical and subtropical waters worldwide. As of 2025, the family comprises over 600 distributed across approximately 82 genera, making it one of the largest and most speciose families of fishes. These fishes exhibit a wide range of body sizes, with most species being relatively small, typically measuring under 20 cm in total length, though they vary greatly in shape, from elongate to deep-bodied forms. The largest , the (Cheilinus undulatus), can reach up to 2.3 m in length and weigh as much as 191 kg, highlighting the family's morphological diversity. A defining characteristic of wrasses is their protractile equipped with prominent canine-like teeth, which aids in capturing prey, paired with thick, often fleshy that can fuse with the in some . They possess a continuous formed by the fusion or close adjacency of two dorsal elements, typically with IX-XII spines and 9-19 soft rays, contributing to their agile swimming in complex environments. Many display vibrant coloration, with patterns ranging from iridescent blues and greens to bold stripes and spots, which serve functions in , , and recognition. Additionally, a significant proportion of wrasses are protogynous hermaphrodites, meaning individuals develop as females first and may later transition to males, a reproductive that enhances population flexibility in varying social conditions. As key inhabitants of coral reef ecosystems, wrasses play vital roles in maintaining by occupying diverse trophic niches, from invertebrate feeders to cleaners and herbivores in some cases, thereby supporting the structural integrity and health of reef communities. Their abundance and ecological versatility contribute to the overall resilience of coral habitats, where they help control populations of small and , indirectly benefiting coral growth and survival.

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Classification

Wrasses belong to the phylum Chordata, class , order Labriformes, and family Labridae, which encompasses the wrasses proper. Phylogenetically, the family Scaridae (parrotfishes) is nested within Labridae based on molecular data, though it is traditionally treated as a separate family due to distinct morphological and ecological traits. This placement reflects the family's position within the superorder , with Labriformes sister to the Centrogenys false scorpionfishes. The Labridae family comprises approximately 676 across 83–85 genera. This total includes ~100 species of parrotfishes (Scarinae), nested within Labridae based on molecular phylogenies, increasing the count from the traditional ~576 wrasse . These are organized into 12–13 major clades that function as subfamilies in the updated phylogenetic . These include Hypsigenyinae (encompassing Odacini with 12 ), Clepticini, Cirrhilabrinae (89 ), Labrinae (true wrasses, 23 ), Cheilininae (24 ), Xyrichtyinae (47 ), Pseudolabrinae (38 ), and Julidinae (246 , further divided into up to 23 subclades). This structure arises from synthetic phylogenies incorporating 590 , highlighting the family's diversity in body form and . Recent taxonomic revisions have added dynamism to Labridae classification, with 42 new species described in the past decade and over 150 genus-species combinations updated since 2000. Notable additions include Paracheilinus amanda (Amanda's flasher wrasse) from the and in 2023, Iniistius bakunawa (eclipse-spot razor wrasse) from the and in 2023, and Halichoeres sanchezi (tailspot wrasse) from Mexico's Revillagigedo in 2024. Eleven genera have been elevated, such as Concholabrus (2 species) and Crassilabrus, while 17 species in Cirrhilabrinae have been proposed as synonyms. Prominent genera within Labridae illustrate the family's ecological breadth. Labroides, known for cleaner wrasses, includes 9 species that engage in symbiotic cleaning behaviors. Thalassoma encompasses approximately 27 species of active, predatory wrasses, though some have been reclassified into Gomphosus. Cheilinus features large-bodied species, such as the (C. undulatus), adapted to environments. In 2025, phylogenetic taxonomy proposals by Brownstein et al. and Fricke et al. integrate extensive molecular data to refine Labridae structure, formally recognizing 12 major clades including Odacini and Clepticini for improved evolutionary alignment. These updates emphasize and provide a stable nomenclature that preserves established names while resolving polyphyletic groups.

Evolutionary History

The fossil record of the Labridae family, which includes wrasses, dates back to the Early Eocene, approximately 50 million years ago, with the earliest known specimens discovered in the Monte Bolca in . These early forms, such as those from the genus Eocoris and related taxa, already exhibited characteristic protractile mouths adapted for feeding on small and , indicating that key morphological features of modern wrasses were present in these ancient reef-associated fishes. At least five distinct labrid species have been identified from this site, providing evidence of an established presence in Eocene ecosystems. The family underwent rapid diversification during the epoch (approximately 23 to 5 million years ago), coinciding with the global expansion of coral reefs and the proliferation of reef habitats in the . A 2025 genome-scale phylogenomic study led by Yale researchers revealed "explosive " in Labridae, with major clades experiencing accelerated rates and pulses of morphological , positioning wrasses and parrotfishes as one of the most species-rich families among modern reef fishes. This diversification was driven by ecological opportunities in expanding reef environments, where labrids adapted to diverse niches, contributing to their current global species count exceeding 600. Recent phylogenetic reconstructions have refined our understanding of Labridae's evolutionary history through node-stem definitions and phylogenomic analyses. A 2025 study published by the established comprehensive phylogenetic for the , delineating 12 major clades (such as Hypsigenyinae and Labrinae) based on ultraconserved genomic elements and fossil-calibrated trees, which trace the deep history of reef fish diversification. These analyses highlight convergent evolutionary patterns across lineages, integrating fossil data from the Eocene to to model the family's radiation. Key adaptations, such as protogynous sex change and tool use, emerged independently in multiple Labridae lineages, enhancing reproductive flexibility and efficiency in complex settings. Sex change mechanisms, where females transition to males in response to , evolved multiple times within the family, supported by genomic studies identifying novel genes and epigenetic reprogramming in species like the bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum). Similarly, tool use—such as anvil use by striking urchins against hard surfaces to access prey—has been documented in over five species of Halichoeres wrasses, with 2025 observations confirming independent origins in this clade, likely tied to ecological pressures.

Physical Description

Morphology

Wrasses exhibit an elongated, cylindrical body shape that is often laterally compressed, covered in scales that provide flexibility and smooth movement through water. This body form supports their agile navigation in complex environments, with sizes ranging from as small as 4 cm in the minute wrasse (Minilabrus striatus) to over 2 m in the (Cheilinus undulatus). Their fins include a single continuous bearing 9 to 21 spines followed by soft rays, an anal fin with 3 spines and 8 to 12 soft rays, and paired pelvic fins typically with 1 spine each, all contributing to precise maneuvering and propulsion aided by well-developed pectoral fins. The system is either continuous or interrupted, enabling detection of water vibrations from nearby movements. The head features a protractile upper equipped with thick, fleshy and prominent forward-pointing canine teeth adapted for grasping prey, complemented by specialized pharyngeal jaws that crush ingested items. The overall is pointed to facilitate probing crevices. Sensory adaptations include large eyes suited for vision in the low-light conditions of coral reefs, enhancing prey detection and spatial awareness. Coloration patterns, which can vary by sex, often feature intricate markings that align with these structural traits.

Sexual Dimorphism and Coloration

Wrasses display pronounced , particularly in size and coloration, where females and initial-phase (IP) males are generally smaller and exhibit drabber, more cryptic patterns, while terminal-phase (TP) males are larger and feature brighter, bolder markings. This dimorphism is especially marked in species confined to coral reefs, as phylogenetic comparative analyses reveal that reef exclusivity correlates strongly with the evolution of color differences, independent of other factors. In many species, TP males attain lengths up to 20-30% greater than females, enhancing their competitive advantages in . Coloration in wrasses often involves vibrant hues of , and , with TP males showing intensified pigmentation such as iridescent and greens alongside reduced areas, in contrast to the and mottled patterns of IP individuals that aid in blending with substrates. For instance, the Mediterranean rainbow wrasse (Coris julis) exemplifies this, with females displaying a brownish dorsum, yellowish flanks, and pale ventral region, whereas males exhibit a more vivid green-to- body accented by orange longitudinal bands. Similarly, in the (Cheilinus undulatus), TP males develop a prominent hump alongside brighter blue-green tones, a feature less pronounced or absent in females, correlating positively with body size. During protogynous from female to TP male, wrasses undergo rapid physiological changes in pigmentation, shifting from IP drabness to TP vibrancy within days to weeks, reflecting hormonal influences on chromatophores. Cleaner wrasses, such as Labroides bicolor, demonstrate species-specific signals through subtle dimorphism, with males often showing more saturated heads and tails compared to the grayer, striped females, aiding in pair recognition at stations.

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range

Wrasses (family Labridae) are predominantly distributed in tropical and subtropical marine waters worldwide, with the highest species diversity occurring in the region, where over 500 of the family's more than 600 species are found. In contrast, the Atlantic Ocean hosts fewer species, around 100, reflecting lower overall in that basin. Some species extend into temperate waters, such as the (Labrus bergylta), which ranges northward to the coasts of . The centers of wrasse diversity are concentrated in biodiverse hotspots like the Coral Triangle, encompassing and the , and the , where numerous genera achieve peak . Vagrant populations have also appeared in the as Lessepsian migrants via the , including species such as Pteragogus pelycus and Pteragogus trispilus. High levels of characterize many wrasse populations, particularly on isolated islands; for example, 16 of the 45 recorded in Hawaiian waters are endemic to the , including the Hawaiian cleaner wrasse (Labroides phthirophagus). Recent discoveries underscore ongoing exploration in the Pacific, such as the eclipse-spot razor wrasse (Iniistius bakunawa), described in 2023 from specimens in the and . Most wrasse species exhibit sedentary adult lifestyles, remaining closely tied to local habitats, though juveniles often disperse over long distances via currents during their pelagic larval phase.

Ecological Niches

Wrasses primarily occupy a range of coastal marine environments, including coral , rocky shores, and beds, spanning from intertidal zones to depths of up to 100 m. Temperate species extend into forests, where macroalgae provides structural complexity similar to that of tropical . These habitats offer the substrate proximity and structural diversity essential for the family's benthic-oriented lifestyle. Species-specific zonation is common, with juveniles frequently inhabiting shallow rubble, rock pools, and inshore areas for protection, while adults shift to outer reef slopes or deeper subtidal zones. This ontogenetic habitat partitioning allows juveniles to exploit less competitive microhabitats with abundant cover, such as seagrass or algal beds, before transitioning to more exposed, structure-rich sites like crevices and boulder fields on reefs. Preferences for complex substrates facilitate hiding from predators and access to prey, with many species avoiding open sand flats in favor of vegetated or rocky terrains. Adaptations to these niches include territorial behaviors, where individuals defend small areas within crevices or algal patches for and . For example, the goldsinny wrasse (Ctenolabrus rupestris) establishes territories of 0.7–2 amid rocks and eelgrass, relying on these refuges for site fidelity and predator avoidance; this species is particularly sensitive to variations in , which can disrupt its crevice-dependent lifestyle. Such territoriality enhances resource monopolization in high-competition environments. Through their feeding habits as invertivores, wrasses play a key role in maintaining habitat integrity by regulating abundances, which indirectly modulates rates on reefs. like the prey on sea urchins, preventing excessive that could alter algal and substrate stability. These interactions support overall reef health by promoting balanced benthic communities.

Behavior and Ecology

Feeding Strategies and Tool Use

Wrasses exhibit diverse feeding strategies adapted to their coral reef and benthic habitats, primarily targeting invertebrates such as crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, and fish eggs, alongside algae and occasionally small fish or corals. Their diets reflect trophic versatility, with many species acting as generalists despite specialized jaw morphologies; for instance, micro-crustaceans and macro-invertebrates like crabs and snails constitute major components in many examined species across the Great Barrier Reef. Feeding methods include precise pecking at sessile or slow-moving prey using protrusible jaws, and crushing hard-shelled items with robust pharyngeal jaws that function as a secondary grinding apparatus. Cleaner wrasses, such as Labroides dimidiatus, incorporate ectoparasites into their diet as a key food source. Foraging in wrasses is predominantly opportunistic and diurnal, with individuals actively searching reef crevices, beds, and algal mats during daylight hours to exploit available prey. Activity peaks shortly after dawn and tapers toward , allowing efficient energy allocation in visually oriented predation. Some wrasse species employ cocoons at night for during rest, underscoring their diurnal while minimizing nocturnal vulnerability. A notable innovation among wrasses is tool use, observed in at least 26 species across multiple genera, where individuals strike hard-shelled prey against anvils such as rocks or coral to access nutritious interiors. This behavior, documented since the 1970s, involves deliberate selection of anvil sites and prey transport, demonstrating cognitive flexibility; for example, tuskfishes in the genus Choerodon routinely use coral heads to crack mollusks and crustaceans. Their strong pharyngeal jaws and mouth morphology facilitate prey manipulation during these strikes. Recent research has expanded evidence of anvil use in the genus Halichoeres, with a 2025 study documenting 19 observations across five New World species (H. bivittatus, H. brasiliensis, H. garnoti, H. poeyi, and H. radiatus), targeting prey like , sea urchins, clams, and brittle stars against diverse including rocks, , and even human debris. These findings, gathered via , highlight anvil use's prevalence in tropical reefs for overcoming prey defenses. Iconic examples include the (Cheilinus undulatus), which preys on (Acanthaster planci), helping control outbreaks that threaten ecosystems.

Cleaning Symbiosis

Cleaner wrasses, particularly the five of the Labroides exemplified by Labroides dimidiatus, form mutualistic partnerships with a wide array of by establishing dedicated cleaning stations on coral reefs. At these stations, typically located in shallow waters 1-3 meters deep, cleaners meticulously remove ectoparasites such as gnathiid isopods, along with dead skin and from the bodies, gills, and mouths of client . This behavior is for Labroides , meaning it constitutes their primary strategy and . The symbiosis yields clear benefits: client fish achieve improved hygiene and reduced parasite burdens, which can enhance their growth, survival, and overall fitness, while cleaners secure a reliable food supply from the ingested material. However, an element of conflict arises through "client manipulation," as cleaners preferentially consume protein-rich mucus over the less nutritious parasites, sometimes leading to shorter cleaning sessions that prioritize the cleaner's nutritional needs over the client's optimal parasite removal. This dynamic underscores the evolutionary tension in the mutualism, where clients may return despite occasional cheating due to the net health advantages. Cleaners advertise their services using vivid signals, including striking blue and yellow body colorations that distinguish them from predators and attract potential clients from afar. Upon approach, they perform rapid, tail-beating dances to initiate interactions and guide clients into position. A 2019 experiment demonstrated that L. dimidiatus passes the mirror self-recognition test by attempting to remove marks visible only in reflections, suggesting advanced cognitive abilities that may facilitate strategic decision-making during cleaning encounters. These cleaning stations function as defended territories, often maintained by a hierarchical group consisting of a dominant male overseeing multiple subordinate females, with the male aggressively repelling intruders to preserve access to clients. By curbing ectoparasite proliferation across the reef community, cleaner wrasses like L. dimidiatus play a pivotal role in stability, promoting higher local diversity and abundance through indirect effects on client health and behavior.

Reproduction and Life History

Sexual Systems

Wrasses (family Labridae) exhibit diverse sexual systems, with the majority of displaying , predominantly of the protogynous type, where individuals transition from female to male during their lifetime. In protogynous , such as the bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum), all individuals initially develop as females, with the largest or socially dominant female undergoing sex change to become a functional male when conditions favor it. This transition involves rapid al reorganization, typically completing within weeks to months, driven by a shift from ovarian to testicular tissue production. Recent studies, such as those on the (Labrus bergylta) in 2023, have provided histological and endocrine insights into early development in protogynous . Protogyny is considered the ancestral condition in Labridae, correlating with social structures like harems where larger males monopolize mating opportunities. The sexual phases in protogynous wrasses are divided into the initial phase (IP) and terminal phase (TP). During the IP, individuals are either females or smaller "sneaker" IP males that mimic female and coloration to opportunistically fertilize eggs, comprising a minority (often 4-10%) of the male population. TP males, known as "super-males," arise either as primary males (rarely born male) or through secondary sex change from females; they are larger, more aggressive, and display vibrant coloration to defend territories. Sex change is primarily triggered by , such as the removal of a dominant TP male from a group, prompting the largest female to initiate the process to fill the reproductive vacancy. Hormonal mechanisms underpin this, including decreased levels of 17β-estradiol and increased 11-ketotestosterone, alongside potential roles for like in mediating social stress responses. While protogyny dominates, exceptions exist within the family. Bidirectional sex change, allowing reversals between sexes, has been documented in select species like the saddle wrasse (Halichoeres trimaculatus), where social manipulations can induce changes in either direction. Additionally, gonochoristic species with fixed sexes occur, particularly among temperate wrasses such as the ocellated wrasse (Symphodus ocellatus), which lack hermaphroditic capabilities and maintain separate lineages throughout life. These variations highlight the evolutionary flexibility of sexual systems in wrasses, influenced by ecological and social factors.

Reproductive Behaviors and Parental Care

Reproductive behaviors in wrasses (family Labridae) are diverse, reflecting their varied systems, which range from to lek-like aggregations. In systems, dominant terminal-phase (TP) males, often larger and more colorful, perform displays involving rapid swimming, head shakes, and exaggerated body postures to attract and retain groups of females within defended territories, culminating in pair spawning where eggs and are broadcast externally over the reef substrate. Lek-like systems, common in species like the bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum), feature TP males establishing transient spawning sites where they intensify displays—such as vertical rises and color flashes—to solicit females from passing schools, sometimes resulting in group spawning with multiple males competing. Initial-phase (IP) individuals, which may be females or smaller males, often engage in parasitic spawning by streaking into pairs to fertilize eggs undetected. Spawning in wrasses predominantly occurs in shallow, nearshore reef environments, where water currents aid in egg dispersal, and many species time these events with lunar cycles to optimize larval survival or sex ratios. For instance, the sixbar wrasse (Thalassoma hardwicki) preferentially spawns around the new moon, potentially linking light levels to offspring development, while other species like the bluehead wrasse exhibit year-round activity peaking in warmer months. In the Labrinae tribe, some species construct simple nests from algae or seagrass in sheltered crevices, where females deposit adhesive eggs for localized fertilization, contrasting with the pelagic broadcast typical of most labrids. These sites are selected for protection from predators and strong currents, ensuring higher egg viability. Parental care is rare among wrasses and limited to paternal efforts in select temperate and subtropical species, primarily within the genus Symphodus. Nesting males, such as those in the ocellated wrasse (Symphodus ocellatus), build and maintain nests from plant debris, fan eggs to oxygenate them, and vigorously defend against egg predators and intruding males, often at the expense of further mating opportunities. In the corkwing wrasse (Symphodus melops), larger males invest more time in nest guarding, correlating with higher hatching success, though care duration varies with environmental risks and male personality traits. Mouthbrooding is absent across the family, and in most tropical species, eggs are abandoned post-spawning, relying on high fecundity for recruitment. In protogynous wrasse species, sex change integrates seamlessly with reproductive behaviors, as transitioning individuals rapidly adopt male-typical aggression and displays to compete for territories and mates. For example, in the bluehead wrasse, females induced to change sex by the removal of dominant males begin performing TP rises and territorial patrols within hours, enhancing their access to . This behavioral plasticity, tied to the family's hermaphroditic systems, allows former females to shift from subordinate roles to dominant ones, often increasing reproductive output through harem formation.

Interactions and Significance

Parasites and Diseases

Wrasse in the family Labridae host a diverse assemblage of parasitic organisms, with 338 parasite records documented across 127 wrasse species globally. These include endoparasites such as trematodes (134 species) and s (9 species), as well as ectoparasites like crustaceans, particularly copepods (44 species), and monogeneans (12 species) that commonly infest gills and skin. A representative nematode is Huffmanela ossicola, which embeds in the bones of labrid hosts, including branchial arches and spinal cords of species in the genus Bodianus, potentially causing structural damage to skeletal tissues. Parasitic infections in wrasse can impair host fitness by reducing growth rates through diversion and tissue , while severe infestations may induce sterility by disrupting reproductive organs or hormonal balance. Ecologically, these parasites integrate into food webs, where they may be transferred between hosts during interactions such as by mutualistic partners. In contexts, wrasse face additional threats from diseases like viral nervous (VNN), caused by betanodaviruses, which has been identified in wild populations of species such as (Labrus bergylta) and goldsinny wrasse (Ctenolabrus rupestris) along Norwegian and Swedish coasts, leading to , behavioral abnormalities, and high mortality rates. Fungal infections, including those from Ichthyophonus hoferi, also affect stressed wrasse in farmed settings, manifesting as granulomatous lesions and elevated mortality in overcrowded or environmentally compromised populations. Host specificity is a prominent feature among wrasse parasites, with many taxa restricted to particular labrid or genera, which enhances their utility in assessments and phylogenetic analyses of communities.

Human Interactions and Conservation

Wrasses are harvested for various human uses, including as food fish in commercial fisheries. For instance, the (Tautoga onitis), a North Atlantic wrasse, supports targeted fisheries where it is valued for its firm white flesh and caught using hook-and-line methods, contributing to regional markets. Similarly, the (Cheilinus undulatus) is prized in the live reef fish trade across , where its flesh is considered a luxury delicacy and often transported alive to markets like those in for high-end consumption. Vibrant such as the yellowbreasted wrasse (Anampses twistii) are popular in the marine aquarium trade, with approximately 90% of traded marine ornamental fish, including wrasses, sourced from wild habitats, potentially straining ecosystems. Additionally, in the Labroides, known as wrasses, have been explored for use in , though temperate wrasses like the goldsinny (Ctenolabrus rupestris) and (Labrus bergylta) are more commonly deployed in salmon farms to control sea lice infestations by removing parasites from farmed (Salmo salar), reducing reliance on chemical treatments. Major threats to wrasse populations stem from , habitat degradation, and . The was assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN in 1996 but has since declined sharply due to intense exploitation in the live reef trade, leading to its reclassification as Endangered on the , with ongoing population reductions observed into 2025. affects many wrasse species globally, including through destructive practices like in reef areas. Habitat loss from coastal development and exacerbates these pressures, while poses acute risks; a 2024 multi-stressor experiment revealed that the goldsinny wrasse exhibits high sensitivity to marine heatwaves, with 34% mortality under heat stress alone and 53% under combined warming, acidification, and hypoxia conditions. Conservation efforts for wrasses include international trade regulations and innovative monitoring technologies. The humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) has been listed on Appendix II since 2004, requiring export permits to ensure trade does not threaten its survival and aiming to curb illegal international commerce. In 2025, a facial recognition application called Saving Face was launched in , utilizing AI to identify individual humphead wrasses by their unique facial patterns from photographs, aiding enforcement against illegal trade by verifying compliance with import permits. Protected marine areas also play a key role; the safeguards wrasse populations through zoning that prohibits fishing in no-take zones, supporting and recovery for species like the Maori wrasse (Cheilinus chlorourus). Emerging issues include predation by and pathogen transmission from . Invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) in the western Atlantic heavily prey on the endangered social wrasse (Halichoeres socialis), comprising nearly half of their diet in Belizean reefs and compounding threats to this narrowly ranged . Furthermore, the use of farmed cleaner wrasses in salmon risks spreading diseases to wild populations, as escaped or released fish can transmit pathogens like to native wrasse stocks, highlighting the need for disease screening in practices.

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