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Buginese language
Buginese language
Buginese language
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Buginese
Bugis
Basa Ugi
ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ
بهاس بوڬيس/ بَاسَ أُوْڬِيْ
Pronunciation[basa.uɡi]
Native toIndonesia
RegionSouth Sulawesi; enclaves elsewhere in Sulawesi, Borneo, Sumatra, Maluku, Papua
EthnicityBuginese
Native speakers
L1: 3.5 million
L2: 500,000
Total speakers: 4 million (2015 UNSD)[1]
DialectsBuginese dialects
Latin script (Buginese Latin alphabet)
Lontara script
Jawi-Serang script
Official status
Regulated byBadan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa
Language codes
ISO 639-2bug
ISO 639-3bug
Glottologbugi1244
The distribution of Buginese and Campalagian speakers throughout Sulawesi

Buginese (/bʊɡɪˈniːz, -ɡə-/; Basa Ugi, Lontara script: ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ, Jawi-Serang script: بهاس بوڬيس/ بَاسَ أُوْڬِيْ, pronounced [basa.uɡi]), or simply Bugis, is an Austronesian language spoken by about 4 million people, mainly in the southern part of Sulawesi, Indonesia.[1] It is the mother tongue of the Buginese people.

History

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The word Buginese derives from the word Bahasa Bugis in Malay. In Buginese, it is called Basa Ugi while the Bugis people are called To Ugi. According to a Buginese myth, the term Ugi is derived from the name to the first king of Cina, an ancient Bugis kingdom, La Sattumpugi. To Ugi basically means 'the followers of La Sattumpugi'.[2]

Little is known about the early history of this language due to the lack of written records. The earliest written record of this language is Sureq Galigo, the epic creation myth of the Bugis people.

Another written source of Buginese is Lontara, a term which refers to the traditional script and historical record as well. The earliest historical record of Lontara dates to around the 17th century. Lontara records have been described by historians of Indonesia as "sober" and "factual" when compared to their counterparts from other regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, such as the babad of Java. These records are usually written in a matter-of-fact tone with very few mythical elements, and the writers would usually put disclaimers before stating something that they cannot verify.[3][4][5]

Prior to the Dutch arrival in the 19th century, a missionary, B. F. Matthews, translated the Bible into Buginese, which made him the first European to acquire knowledge of the language. He was also one of the first Europeans to master Makassarese. The dictionaries and grammar books compiled by him, and the literature and folklore texts he published, remain basic sources of information about both languages.

Upon colonization by the Dutch, a number of Bugis fled from their home area of South Sulawesi seeking a better life. This led to the existence of small groups of Buginese speakers throughout Maritime Southeast Asia.[6][7]

Classification

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Buginese belongs to the South Sulawesi subgroup of the Austronesian language family. Within the South Sulawesi subgroup, it is most closely related to Campalagian and the Tamanic outlier in West Kalimantan.

Geographical distribution

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Most of the native speakers (around 3 million) are concentrated in South Sulawesi, Indonesia but there are small groups of Buginese speakers on the island of Java, Samarinda and east Sumatra of Indonesia, east Sabah and Malay Peninsula, Malaysia and South Philippines. This Bugis diaspora is the result of migration since the 17th century that was mainly driven by continuous warfare situations. (Dutch direct colonization started in the early 20th century.)

Phonology

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Buginese has six vowels: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, and the central vowel /ə/.

The following table gives the consonant phonemes of Buginese together with their representation in Lontara script.

Consonants
Labial Dental Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal [m] ᨆ [n] ᨊ [ɲ] ᨎ [ŋ] ᨂ
Prenasalized cluster [mp] ᨇ [nr] ᨋ [ɲc] ᨏ [ŋk] ᨃ
Plosive voiced [b] ᨅ [d] ᨉ [ɟ] ᨍ [ɡ] ᨁ
voiceless [p] ᨄ [t] ᨈ [c] ᨌ [k] ᨀ [ʔ] [a]
Fricative [s] ᨔ [h] ᨖ
Rhotic [r] ᨑ
Approximant [w] ᨓ [l] ᨒ [j] ᨐ
  1. ^ /ʔ/ only occurs finally, and is therefore not written in Lontara.

When Buginese is written in Latin script, general Indonesian spelling conventions are applied: [ɲ] is represented by ⟨ny⟩, [ŋ] by ⟨ng⟩, [ɟ] by ⟨j⟩, [j] by ⟨y⟩. The glottal stop [ʔ] is usually represented by an apostrophe (e.g. ana' [anaʔ] 'child'), but occasionally ⟨q⟩ is also used. /e/ and /ə/ are usually uniformly spelled as ⟨e⟩, but /e/ is often written as ⟨é⟩ to avoid ambiguity.

Grammar

[edit]

Pronouns

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Buginese has four sets of personal pronouns, one free set, and three bound sets:[8]

independent enclitic prefixed suffixed
1st person singular iaq -aq/-kaq/-waq (k)u- -(k)kuq
plural idiq -iq/-kiq ta- -(t)taq
2nd person polite
familiar iko -o/-ko mu- -(m)mu
3rd person ia -i/-wi na- -(n)na
1st person plural excl. (archaic) ikəŋ -kkəŋ ki- -mməŋ

The enclitic set is used with subjects of intransitive verbs, and objects of transitive verbs. The proclitic set is with subjects of transitive verbs. The suffixed set is primarily used in possessive function.

Aspects

[edit]

The following are grammatical aspects of the language:[9]

Durative Perfective Conditional Doubt Emphasis Place
kaq naq paq gaq si é
kiq/ko niq/no piq/po giq/go sa tu
kiq niq piq giq to ro
i ni pi gi mi
na pa ga

Examples

[edit]
A:

ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ

pura-no

have [portmanteau of perfective na (ᨊ) + you]

ᨆᨙᨋ?

manre

eat

ᨄᨘᨑᨊᨚ ᨆᨙᨋ?

pura-no manre

{have [portmanteau of perfective na (ᨊ) + you]} eat

'Have you already eaten?'

B:

ᨉᨙᨄ

deq-pa

not + [conditional (ᨄ)]

ᨉᨙᨄ

deq-pa

{not + [conditional (ᨄ)]}

'Not yet.'

⟨q⟩ represents the glottal stop. It is not written in the Lontara script.

Example of usage:

ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ

méloq-kaq

want-I

ᨌᨛᨆᨙ

cemmé

bathe

{ᨆᨙᨒᨚ ᨀ} ᨌᨛᨆᨙ

méloq-kaq cemmé

want-I bathe

I want to take a bath

Writing system

[edit]
Main article: Lontara alphabet

Buginese was traditionally written using the Lontara script, of the Brahmic family, which is also used for the Makassar language and the Mandar language. The name Lontara derives from the Malay word for the palmyra palm, lontar, the leaves of which are the traditional material for manuscripts in India, South East Asia and Indonesia. Today, however, it is often written using the Latin script.

Buginese lontara

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The Buginese lontara (locally known as Aksara Ugi) has a slightly different pronunciation from the other lontaras like the Makassarese. Like other Indic scripts, it also utilizes diacritics to distinguish the vowels [i], [u], [e], [o] and [ə] from the default inherent vowel /a/ (actually pronounced [ɔ]) implicitly represented in all base consonant letters (including the zero-consonant a).

But unlike most other Brahmic scripts of India, the Buginese script traditionally does not have any virama sign (or alternate half-form for vowel-less consonants, or subjoined form for non-initial consonants in clusters) to suppress the inherent vowel, so it is normally impossible to write consonant clusters (a few ones were added later, derived from ligatures, to mark the prenasalization), geminated consonants or final consonants.

Dialects and sub-dialects

[edit]

The Bugis still distinguish themselves according to their major precolony states (Bone, Wajo, Soppeng, and Sidenreng) or groups of petty states (around Pare-Pare, Sinjai, and Suppa). The languages of these areas, with their relatively minor differences from one another, have been largely recognized by linguists as constituting dialects: recent linguistic research has identified eleven of them, most comprising two or more sub-dialects.

The following Buginese dialects are listed in the Ethnologue: Bone (Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajane), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenreng, North Pinrang, Alitta), Pasangkayu (Ugi Riawa), Sinjai (Enna, Palattae, Bulukumba), Soppeng (Kessi), Wajo, Barru (Pare-Pare, Nepo, Soppeng Riaja, Tompo, Tanete), Sawitto (Pinrang), Luwu (Luwu, Bua Ponrang, Wara, Malangke-Ussu).[10]

Numbers

[edit]

The numbers are:[8]

1 ᨔᨙᨉᨗ seddi
2 ᨉᨘᨓ dua
3 ᨈᨛᨒᨘ təllu
4 ᨕᨛᨄ əppa'
5 ᨒᨗᨆ lima
6 ᨕᨛᨊᨛ ənnəŋ
7 ᨄᨗᨈᨘ pitu
8 ᨕᨑᨘᨓ aruá
9 ᨕᨙᨔᨑ aserá
10 ᨔᨄᨘᨒᨚ səppulo
20 ᨉᨘᨓᨄᨘᨒᨚ duappulo
30 ᨈᨛᨒᨘᨄᨘᨒᨚ təlluppulo
40 ᨄᨈᨄᨘᨒᨚ patappulo
50 ᨒᨗᨆᨄᨘᨒᨚ limappulo
60 ᨕᨛᨊᨛᨄᨘᨒᨚᨊ ənnəppulona
70 ᨄᨗᨈᨘᨄᨘᨒᨚ pituppulo
80 ᨕᨑᨘᨓᨄᨘᨒᨚᨊ aruá pulona
90 ᨕᨙᨔᨑᨄᨘᨒᨚᨊ aserá pulona
100 ᨔᨗᨑᨈᨘ siratu'
1000 ᨔᨗᨔᨛᨅᨘ sisəbbu
10,000 ᨔᨗᨒᨔ silassa
100,000 ᨔᨗᨀᨛᨈᨗ sikətti

Sample text

[edit]

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1) in the Buginese language (written in Lontara alphabet):

ᨔᨗᨊᨗᨊ ᨑᨘᨄ ᨈᨕᨘ ᨑᨗ ᨍᨍᨗᨕᨊᨁᨗ ᨑᨗᨒᨗᨊᨚᨕᨙ ᨊᨄᨘᨊᨕᨗ ᨆᨊᨙᨊᨁᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨙᨊᨁᨙ ᨕᨒᨙᨅᨗᨑᨙ᨞ ᨊᨄᨘᨊᨕᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨙᨊᨁᨙ ᨕᨀᨒᨙ᨞ ᨊᨄᨘᨊᨕᨗ ᨑᨗᨕᨔᨙᨊᨁᨙ ᨕᨈᨗ ᨆᨑᨙᨊᨗ ᨊ ᨔᨗᨅᨚᨒᨙ ᨅᨚᨒᨙᨊ ᨄᨉ ᨔᨗᨄᨀᨈᨕᨘ ᨄᨉ ᨆᨔᨒᨔᨘᨑᨙ᨞

Transliteration:

Sininna rupa tau ri jajiangngi rilinoe nappunnai manengngi riasengnge alebbireng. Nappunai riasengnge akkaleng, nappunai riasengnge ati marennni na sibole bolena pada sipakatau pada massalasureng.

Trivia

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See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Buginese language

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from Grokipedia
Buginese (Basa Ugi), also known as , is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian branch, spoken primarily by the ethnic group in , , with approximately 5 million native speakers based on the 2020 national census data indicating 1.89% usage in family settings among Indonesia's population of over 270 million. It serves as a key marker of , used in daily communication, , and traditional ceremonies. The language features a with 18 consonants and six vowels, including a distinctive , and employs an ergative-absolutive case system with typical verb-object-subject (VOS) , allowing subject pro-drop in clear contexts. Traditionally written in the —an derived from ancient Brahmic writing systems and characterized by its angular, four-cornered letters—the Buginese orthography was historically inscribed on palm leaves but has largely shifted to the Latin alphabet under Dutch colonial influence, though Lontara persists in ceremonial and cultural contexts. Buginese encompasses around 10 main dialects, including , Soppeng, Wajo, and Sinjai, which exhibit varying degrees of (typically 76–91% between adjacent varieties), reflecting the language's geographic spread across and into neighboring regions like and . As a vigorous of wider communication, it supports radio broadcasts, dictionaries, and educational materials, though it faces challenges from the dominance of Indonesian in formal domains.

Background

History

The Buginese language originated among the people of , , whose ethnic identity formed through migrations and the establishment of early kingdoms, particularly linked to the legendary sailor and kingdom founder La Sattumpugi from Luwu, who is said to have established a dynasty in Wajo during the 12th to 14th centuries. This period marks the consolidation of proto-Buginese speech forms amid broader Austronesian settlements in the region dating back millennia. The earliest written records of the language appear in the Sureq Galigo epic, also known as La Galigo, a vast creation myth narrating the descent of divine figures like to the human world, the origins of society, and subsequent generations' adventures in love, war, and custom. Composed orally as early as the mid-14th century and spanning nearly 300,000 lines, it was first committed to manuscripts in the 17th to 19th centuries, with the oldest surviving example dated to 1784, establishing it as the foundational literary tradition of Buginese culture. In the , the emerged as the primary for Buginese, adapting an earlier Indic-derived from angular palm-leaf inscriptions to a more rounded form suitable for European-imported paper, enabling the documentation of chronicles, laws, and epics like the Sureq Galigo. This development coincided with the Dutch colonization of beginning in 1667, which disrupted local kingdoms and prompted missionary activities, including into Buginese by the Dutch scholar B.F. Matthes, who completed the in 1888 and the in 1901, alongside grammars and dictionaries that documented the language for the first time in European scholarship. The 17th-century Dutch conquest also spurred a significant Bugis diaspora, as communities fled southward pressures and the 1669 Bungaya Agreement, migrating to —particularly and —and beyond, where they preserved and spread Buginese through trade networks, oral traditions, and intermarriage, fostering Bugis-Malay linguistic varieties. Following Indonesian independence in 1945, 20th-century standardization efforts integrated Buginese into national education systems, promoting the Latin alphabet for broader and administration while diminishing Lontara's everyday use, though religious institutions like Pesantren As'adiyah in continued printing in the traditional script until the late .

Classification

Buginese, also known as Bugis, belongs to the Austronesian language family, specifically within the Malayo-Polynesian branch, and is further classified under the Sulawesi subgroup as part of the South Sulawesi languages. This positioning reflects its origins in the southwestern peninsula of , , where it forms a key member of the regional linguistic stock alongside other varieties. Within the subgroup, Buginese is most closely related to the Campalagian languages and the Tamanic languages (including Embaloh and Taman), forming a distinct –Tamanic cluster that suggests historical migrations linking to western . It shares a broader affiliation with Makassarese, with which it constitutes a close but mutually unintelligible pair, often grouped together in comparative studies of the region due to shared innovations in and morphology. Buginese is recognized as a single language (ISO 639-3: bug) encompassing a , rather than multiple separate languages, according to standard classifications that account for high across its varieties. As of the , Buginese is used by approximately 5 million people in family settings in (1.89% of the population), with additional speakers in communities worldwide. As a typical Austronesian , Buginese exhibits typological features such as morphological for plurality and intensification, along with a voice system distinguishing , , and other foci through affixation. These traits underscore its alignment with broader Malayo-Polynesian patterns while highlighting innovations unique to the context.

Distribution and Variation

Geographical distribution

The Buginese language, also known as Bugis, is primarily spoken in the province of , where it serves as the native tongue for the majority of the ethnic across eleven districts, including , Soppeng, Wajo, Sidrap, Pinrang, Barru, parts of Sidenreng Rappang, Maros, Gowa, Takalar, Jeneponto, and Sinjai. Based on the , there are approximately 5 million native speakers nationwide, with the vast majority concentrated mainly in . This core region encompasses both urban centers like Watampone in Regency and rural villages. In Regency alone, speaker density is particularly high, given the regency's of 801,775 as of the 2020 , the vast majority of whom are ethnic . The language is recognized as one of 's regional languages (bahasa daerah) by the Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, supporting its preservation alongside Indonesian as the . Beyond , Buginese has established enclaves in other Indonesian provinces due to historical and economic migrations, including (, , ), ( and ), Maluku, Papua, , Central and , , and Nusa Tenggara Barat ( and ). These communities often maintain the language in familial and cultural contexts, though usage varies by location. In , significant settlements exist in states like , , and , stemming from 17th- to 19th-century migrations, with estimates of up to 1 million descendants in and neighboring . Smaller historical communities trace to the southern , particularly , from maritime trade routes, while modern migration has led to minor presences in . Language retention is stronger in rural areas of , where Buginese remains the primary medium of daily communication and cultural transmission, compared to urban settings and enclaves, where assimilation to Indonesian or Malay has accelerated rates—up to 46% in cities versus 25% in villages. This pattern reflects broader pressures from policies and , though community efforts continue to sustain its vitality in core regions.

Dialects and subdialects

Buginese, also known as Bugis, exhibits significant dialectal variation across , with listing dialects such as (including Palakka, Dua Boccoe, Mare), Pangkep (Pangkajene), Camba, Sidrap (Sidenreng, North Pinrang, Alitta), Sinjai, Soppeng, Wajo, Seko, Enna (Bontenang), and Marisa. These dialects are primarily distinguished by lexical and phonological differences, reflecting geographical and historical influences within the region. Mutual intelligibility is generally high among inland dialects, such as those of and Soppeng-Wajo, where shared s exceed 90%, facilitating communication across these varieties. In contrast, intelligibility decreases with coastal dialects like Maros and Pangkajene, where sharing drops to around 70-80%, due to greater divergence in and vocabulary. Subdialectal features include phonological variations, such as vowel shifts in coastal dialects (e.g., /u/ to /o/ or /i/ to /e/ in certain environments), which mark boundaries between inland and maritime varieties. Lexical differences are also prominent, particularly in terms, which vary according to the influence of prestige dialects like , where terms for relatives often serve as regional standards. The Bone dialect holds prestige status, functioning as the basis for literary works, media broadcasts, and standardized in Buginese-speaking communities. Some subdialects, especially those in contact zones, incorporate borrowings from neighboring languages, including Makassarese (e.g., lexical items like poko for 'tree') and Indonesian, reflecting historical trade and administrative interactions.

Phonology

Consonants

The standard variety of Buginese features an inventory of 17 consonant phonemes, characteristic of many Austronesian languages. These phonemes are organized by as follows: six plosives (/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/), one (/c/), two fricatives (/s/, /h/), three nasals (/m/, /n/, /ŋ/), two liquids (/l/, /r/), two glides (/w/, /j/), and the (/ʔ/). The plosives include both voiceless and voiced pairs across bilabial, alveolar, and velar places of articulation, with /b/ and /d/ realized as implosives [ɓ, ɗ] in many environments. The /c/ is palatal, akin to [t͡ʃ], while the fricatives are alveolar /s/ and glottal /h/. Nasals occur at bilabial, alveolar, and velar positions, and liquids distinguish lateral /l/ from trill /r/. Glides /w/ and /j/ function semivocalically, and /ʔ/ marks glottal closure.
Place/MannerBilabialAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottal
Plosive (voiceless)ptkʔ
Plosive (voiced)bdg
Affricatec
Fricativesh
Nasalmnŋ
Liquidl, r
Glidewj
This table summarizes the consonant phonemes, with places of articulation indicated; note that /c/ is post-alveolar or palatal. Allophonic variation occurs among several consonants. Voiceless /p, t, k/ are unaspirated in all positions. Other consonants like nasals and show minimal allophonic variation, though /r/ may fluctuate between trill and flap [ɾ] in casual speech. Consonant distribution in Buginese is constrained by positional rules. Notably, /ŋ/ and /r/ do not occur word-initially, with /ŋ/ restricted to medial and final positions (e.g., no ŋuru, but kaŋe 'cook'). /ʔ/ frequently appears intervocalically or as a coda, enforcing syllable boundaries. Gemination (lengthening) is common for consonants in loanwords from Arabic, Dutch, or Indonesian, such as doubled /p, t, k/ in borrowed terms, though native words rarely exhibit it beyond morphological processes. Dialectal variations may affect realization, such as in Bone or Soppeng subdialects, but these are addressed elsewhere. In orthography, Buginese consonants are represented differently in the traditional Lontara script and the modern Latin alphabet. The Lontara abugida has 18 basic symbols corresponding to the core consonants, including: ᨀ (/k/), ᨁ (/g/), ᨂ (/ŋ/), ᨄ (/p/), ᨅ (/b/), ᨆ (/m/), ᨈ (/t/), ᨉ (/d/), ᨌ (/c/), ᨍ (/ɟ/), ᨎ (/ɲ/), ᨓ (/w/), ᨑ (/r/), ᨒ (/l/), ᨔ (/s/), ᨖ (/h/), ᨐ (/j/), but it is defective for codas and geminates, often omitting them. The Latin orthography, standardized in the 20th century for education and print, uses standard letters: p, b, t, d, k, g, c (for /tʃ/), s, h, m, n, ng (/ŋ/), l, r, w, y (/j/), and ' or zero for /ʔ/ (e.g., pəm'bəli for /pəmbəli/). Prenasalized clusters in loans may be written as mp, nt, ŋk. This dual system reflects Buginese's transition from manuscript tradition to contemporary use.

Vowels

Buginese features a vowel inventory consisting of six monophthongs: the high front /i/, high back /u/, mid front /e/, mid back /o/, low central /a/, and central mid /ə/. These vowels occupy distinct positions in the vowel space, with acoustic analyses showing that /ə/ exhibits a relatively high tongue position, similar to /i/ and /u/ in terms of first formant (F1) values, often realized as [ɨ] in certain phonetic contexts. Vowel contrasts are phonemically relevant, as demonstrated by minimal pairs such as /amaʔ/ 'mother' and /aməʔ/ 'swallow' for /a/ versus /ə/, /mate/ 'die' and /mata/ 'eye' for /e/ versus /a/, and /ita/ 'see' versus /iti/ 'duck' for /a/ versus /i/. Nasalization does not occur as a phonemic feature among Buginese vowels. While duration varies acoustically— with lower vowels like /a/ tending to be longer than higher ones like /i/ and /u/—vowel length is not contrastive in the core phonemic system, though contextual lengthening appears in unstressed final positions. The realization of /ə/ shows dialectal variation; for instance, in the Sawitto dialect, it may shift toward or be replaced by other vowels like /o/, /e/, or /i/ in specific lexical items, such as /macallaʔ/ versus /macəllaʔ/ in other dialects. Inland dialects, in particular, favor a higher [ɨ]-like articulation for /ə/, aligning with its acoustic profile across speakers. No native diphthongs are attested in the language, with sequences typically analyzed as disyllabic.

Prosody and

The syllable structure of Buginese follows a predominantly (C)V(C) pattern, with open syllables being more common than closed ones; closed syllables are permitted but restricted by coda constraints that allow only the velar nasal /ŋ/, the /ʔ/, or the initial consonant of a geminate cluster, such as /bb/ or /pp/. Consonant clusters exceeding two members are prohibited, and roots are typically bisyllabic, though epenthetic vowels may be inserted in loanwords to conform to these phonotactic rules. Stress in Buginese is realized as a pitch accent, with a high pitch on the stressed , and generally falls on the penultimate of lexical words, excluding clitics and function words; in three-syllable words, this placement is consistent, while in disyllabic words, stress may occur on either the initial or final and can be contrastive (e.g., distinguishing minimal pairs). Exceptions arise in loanwords, where original stress patterns may influence placement. The language lacks lexical tone, relying instead on this stress system to contribute to rhythmic structure. Phonotactics in Buginese do not feature , allowing free combination of its inventory across syllables. , a common morphological process, often involves partial copying of the initial CV or first two syllables (e.g., paa '' → paa-paa 'small '), which increases word length and thereby shifts stress placement according to the penultimate rule, affecting overall prosodic without altering underlying phonemes. Intonation patterns are primarily intonational, with prosodic phrasing cued by pitch targets on accented lexical words, contributing to subtle distinctions in sentence types such as questions versus statements.

Grammar

Morphology

Buginese exhibits agglutinative morphology, in which affixes attach to to encode grammatical categories such as voice and derivation, often in a linear fashion without fusion. Suffixes such as -ang indicate locative derivation, exemplified by sappe-ang 'hook it up' from sappe 'hook'. Reduplication serves multiple functions, including plurality and intensification, through full or partial repetition of the base. Full reduplication typically denotes plurality, such as bola-bola 'balls' from singular bola 'ball', or wija-wija 'grandchildren' () from wija 'grandchild'. Partial reduplication expresses intensity or repetition, for instance maccue-cue 'following repeatedly' derived from ma-cue 'follow', or ber-ber '' intensifying ber ''. Compounding involves combining roots, particularly nouns, to form new lexical items, often endocentric or exocentric structures. Noun-noun compounding is prevalent, as in ana'-sikola 'student' (literally 'child-school') or indo-ambo 'parents' (literally 'mother-father'). Adjectival derivation via compounding is uncommon. Nouns in Buginese lack grammatical gender distinctions. Numerals require classifiers to quantify certain nouns, particularly humans, as in limang limaq 'five people', where limaq functions as a human classifier alongside the numeral limang 'five'. Details on voice marking in verbs are provided in the verbal system subsection.

Pronouns

Buginese features four distinct sets of personal pronouns: independent (free-standing forms used for emphasis or as subjects/objects), enclitic (bound forms attaching to verbs to mark arguments, often absolutive), prefixed (proclitic forms attaching before verbs to mark ergative arguments), and suffixed (genitive forms used primarily for possession). These sets distinguish first-person singular, first-person plural inclusive and exclusive, second-person singular, and third-person singular/plural (with no number distinction for third person). The paradigms are presented in the following table, based on standard Bone dialect forms:
PersonIndependentEnclitic (Absolutive)Prefixed (Ergative)Suffixed (Genitive/Possessive)
1SGia’=(k)a’ / =wa’(k)u==(k)u
1PL.INCLidi’=(k)i’ / =wi’ta==ta’ / =ki’
1PL.EXCLikeng=kkengki==mmeng
2SGi(k)o=(k)omu==mu
3SG/PLia=(w)ina==na
The first-person plural distinguishes inclusive (idi’, referring to speaker and addressee) from exclusive (ikeng, referring to speaker and others excluding addressee). Independent forms like ia’ ('I') or ia ('he/she/they') are used sparingly for emphasis, while bound forms predominate in verbal predicates. Possession employs the suffixed genitive set. , typically involving body parts or terms, attaches suffixes directly to the noun (e.g., ulu-ku 'my head'). Alienable possession, such as for objects like houses, uses the genitive form followed by the noun, often with a linker for third person (e.g., na-pe 'his house'). Buginese lacks inherent honorific pronouns, but social shapes usage: direct second-person forms are avoided with superiors or elders, favoring first-person inclusive forms like idi’ or ta- for polite address, reflecting in speech acts.

Verbal system

The verbal system of Buginese, an Austronesian language spoken primarily in , , is characterized by a system that highlights either the or the (undergoer) of the , with morphological marking primarily through prefixes. The voice, which promotes the to the privileged syntactic position (absolutive), is marked by the prefix m-, as in m-ita 'see' or 'I see'. In contrast, the voice (undergoer voice), which focuses on the undergoer as the privileged (absolutive), is morphologically unmarked, as in ita =i 'it is seen' (with enclitic marking). These voices apply to transitive verbs, with the voice often implying an indefinite undergoer and the voice requiring a definite undergoer, reflecting the language's ergative-absolutive alignment in certain contexts. Aspect in Buginese verbs is not extensively marked through dedicated inflectional affixes but is conveyed via reduplication or contextual inference, with the unmarked form typically indicating durative or ongoing actions. Reduplication of the verb stem expresses imperfective, habitual, or iterative aspects (e.g., partial or full reduplication to denote repeated or ongoing events), while non-reduplicated forms imply perfective completion. Some analyses identify three primary aspectual categories—durative (with subcategories for repetition or similarity), perfective (often past-oriented), and conditional—though morphological realization varies by dialect and person, with durative forms unmarked and perfective potentially involving contextual clitics like =mo for completive sense. Habitual actions may also align with imperfective reduplication rather than a specific prefix like ri-, which more commonly functions in passive or locative constructions across South Sulawesi languages. Mood distinctions in Buginese include imperative forms, realized by the bare verb stem without affixes, often softened by particles like donga 'please' for polite requests (e.g., passē 'cook!' as a direct command). Conditional mood is expressed through particles or clause structure rather than verbal inflection, with no dedicated prefix like jādia widely attested; instead, irrealis contexts (e.g., hypotheticals) trigger ergative case marking on actors. Negation is preverbal, using the particle dé or deq, which shifts the clause to ergative alignment and applies to the entire predicate (e.g., dé m-ita 'not seeing' or 'I am not seeing'). Tense lacks dedicated morphological markers on verbs, relying instead on contextual adverbs, temporal expressions, or discourse for indicating past, present, or future (e.g., ka otti 'tomorrow' signals future intent in ka otti m-ita 'I will see tomorrow').

Syntax

Buginese exhibits a verb-initial basic of VOS (verb-object-subject), although VSO (verb-subject-object) is also common due to pragmatic flexibility in the ordering of post-verbal arguments. This structure aligns with the ergative-absolutive alignment typical of languages, where the ( in voice or absolutive in undergoer voice) follows the . For instance, the sentence mappassē iya balla' means 'I cook rice', with mappassē as the , iya as the first-person , and balla' as the object. As a , Buginese permits the omission of subjects when contextually recoverable, with pronominal information often encoded via enclitics or proclitics on the . Noun phrases are head-initial, featuring the as the initial element followed by modifiers such as adjectives or . Prepositional phrases employ prepositions like ri- to indicate location or direction, as in ri bone 'in Bone' (a place name). Possessive constructions place the possessor before the possessed , without obligatory linking elements for alienable possession, e.g., buku aku 'my '. Inalienable possession, such as body parts or kin terms, may use possessive suffixes on the head , like -ku for 'my'. Relative clauses are post-nominal, attached directly to the head noun and often marked by the relativizer -na or verbal affixes indicating the gap. An example is orang i-baca buku-na 'the person who reads the book', where i-baca is the relative verb form and -na links to the head orang 'person'. Questions are typically formed through interrogative words like apa 'what' or sīa 'who', placed in situ, or by rising intonation for yes/no queries, without dedicated question particles altering word order. Clause coordination uses conjunctions such as massai 'and' to link elements at the phrase or clause level, e.g., aku massai iya 'I and he'. Buginese discourse often follows a topic-comment structure, where a topicalized element is preposed for prominence, followed by the comment clause providing new information. This topicalization can involve fronting a , as in buku-na, iya baca 'the book, he reads (it)', shifting focus from the canonical VOS order. Verbal forms from the language's voice system integrate into these patterns, allowing actors or undergoers to surface as core arguments depending on voice selection.

Writing System

Lontara script

The , also known as the Buginese script, is an derived from ancient through intermediaries such as the Pallava and Kawi scripts of and , respectively. It features 23 basic consonant letters, each carrying an inherent sound /a/, with diacritics added to modify the vowel or indicate its absence in certain contexts. This structure allows for efficient representation of syllables, typical of Brahmic-derived writing systems in . As a defective script, Lontara does not represent syllable-final consonants, such as nasals or the , which are implied by readers. The letters, known as akkara, range from ᨀ (pronounced /ka/) and ᨁ (/ga/) to ᨖ (/ha/), including ᨂ (/ŋa/) and prenasalized forms like ᨃ (/ŋka/) and ᨇ (/mpa/). The letter ᨕ represents the /a/ and serves as a base for independent s, such as ᨕ (/a/) or ᨕᨗ (/i/). These letters are angular and often described as "four-cornered," reflecting their geometric shape, which aids in carving on palm leaves or wood. Representative examples include ᨈ (/ta/) for dental stops and ᨌ (/ca/) for palatal affricates, illustrating the script's coverage of Buginese phonemes such as stops, nasals, and . Vowel indications rely on diacritics positioned above, below, or beside the . The inherent /a/ requires no mark, but other vowels use signs like ᨗ (above for /i/, as in ᨀᨗ /ki/) and ᨘ (below for /u/, as in ᨀᨘ /ku/). For mid vowels, ᨙ marks /e/ (post-consonantal), ᨚ /o/, and ᨛ /ə/ or a schwa-like sound. Independent vowels at the start of words use ᨕ as a base, such as ᨕ (/a/) or ᨕᨗ (/i/); a full independent /a/ can also appear as ᨕ without further modification. These diacritics ensure the script's syllabic nature, where final consonants are often implied rather than written explicitly. Traditional Lontara texts employ , with no spaces between words, relying on reader familiarity for parsing. is minimal, using vertical lines like the pallawa (᨞) to separate phrases or intonational units, functioning as a or period, and a section-end mark (᨟) for longer breaks. While modern usage is left-to-right, some historical variants, particularly in older manuscripts, read right-to-left or in a style. Historically, the gained prominence in the for recording lontaraq—palm-leaf chronicles detailing genealogies, royal histories, and migrations—along with , legal documents, and treaties among Buginese kingdoms in . These texts, often inscribed on lontar () leaves, served as vital cultural and administrative records until the mid-20th century, when largely supplanted it.

Latin orthography

The Latin for the Buginese language was adopted in the mid-20th century to facilitate education and administration under Indonesian rule, with initial efforts tied to post-independence language policies promoting Romanized scripts for regional languages. occurred through workshops organized by the Indonesian National Language Institute, culminating in the 1975 Lokakarya Pembakuan Ejaan Latin Bahasa-Bahasa Daerah di Selatan in Ujung Pandang (now ), which established core rules for Buginese alongside other languages. This was refined in subsequent guidelines, including the 1984 Pedoman Ejaan Bahasa-Bahasa Daerah di Selatan yang Disempurnakan and the 1986 Pedoman Ejaan Bahasa Bugis by Zainuddin Hakim, issued under the Department of Education and Culture. The orthography employs a 21-letter Latin alphabet: a, b, c, d, e, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y, supplemented by the glottal stop symbol Q (or apostrophe ’ in some variants) to indicate syllable breaks or word-final closure. Digraphs represent key phonemes absent in standard Indonesian: ng for /ŋ/, ny for /ɲ/, while following broader Indonesian conventions for affricates (c for /tʃ/, j for /dʒ/) and glides (y for /j/, w for /w/). The schwa /ə/ is uniformly spelled as e, typically occurring in unstressed syllables before nasals like ng or the glottal stop. Gemination (doubled consonants, e.g., bb, dd) denotes preglottalized voiced stops, a phonological feature briefly aligned with the language's prosody where stress defaults to the penultimate syllable but remains unmarked in writing. Conventions emphasize morphological integrity: root words and affixes (prefixes like ma-, si-; suffixes like -eng, -i) are joined without spaces (e.g., mappacci "to cut"), while reduplications use hyphens for partial forms (e.g., to-ri-to for iterative actions) or full repetition for plurality. Capitalization follows standard practice, applied to sentence-initial words and proper nouns (e.g., Basa Ugi for ""), diverging from some traditional non-capitalized Lontara influences. Punctuation mirrors Indonesian norms, using periods, commas, and question marks. Examples include Basa Ugi () and tau ri (person from Bone), illustrating simple phrases. This dominates in formal education, newspapers like Fajar, and digital platforms such as and online forums in , coexisting with the for ceremonial or literary purposes. However, dialectal variations—such as differing realizations of /r/ or vowel qualities across Bone, Soppeng, and Wajo dialects—lead to inconsistent in informal contexts, prompting minor reforms in the workshops to harmonize representations.

Lexicon and Examples

Numbers

The Buginese language employs a decimal (base-10) numeral system for cardinal numbers, with terms derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian roots common across Austronesian languages. The basic cardinals from 1 to 10 (forms may vary by dialect) are as follows: seddi (1, ᨔᨙᨉᨗ), dua (2, ᨉᨘᨓ), təllu (3, ᨈᨛᨒᨘ), əppa' (4, ᨕᨛᨄ), lima (5, ᨒᨗᨆ), ənnəŋ (6, ᨕᨛᨊᨛ), pitu (7, ᨄᨗᨈᨘ), aruá (8, ᨕᨑᨘᨓ), semba (9, ᨔᨛᨄᨁ), and səppulo (10, ᨔᨛᨄᨘᨒ). These are written in the traditional Lontara script using stacked consonants and inherent vowels, reflecting the script's abugida nature where final consonants often go unrepresented. Higher cardinals combine the tens with units, such as səppulo idua (12) or duapulo (20), maintaining the base-10 structure up to larger multipliers like ratus (100, ᨑᨀᨈᨘ) and ribu (1000, ᨑᨗᨁᨘ). Buginese has no obligatory numeral classifiers, though measure words or sortal nouns may be used for specificity, as in lima tau ("five people") or lima ana' ("five children"). Ordinal numbers are derived by prefixing ma- to the cardinal form and typically follow the head as post-modifiers, yielding forms like fammulang ("first"), madua ("second"), and mattellu ("third"). This system underscores the language's agglutinative tendencies, where affixes adapt roots for sequential or ranked meanings. Culturally, Buginese numerals hold significance, particularly in traditions like mappacci—a pre-wedding symbolizing purity—where odd numbers such as seddi (1), pitu (7), and (9) are used in symbolic items during the henna , such as one for completeness, seven sarong folds for protection, and nine leaves for prosperity in cosmology. This traditional counting practice, traceable to at least the , intertwines linguistic elements with Hindu-Buddhist influences in .

Sample texts

Sample texts in Buginese illustrate the language's morphological complexity, syntactic patterns, and cultural nuances, often featuring voice alternations, pronouns, and locative markers. A simple declarative sentence exemplifies the undergoer voice construction, common for transitive events with definite objects: Na-uno=i ula-é Popi. This glosses as 3ERG=kill=3ABS snake-DEF Popi, translating to "Popi killed the snake." Here, the ergative na- marks the "Popi" as oblique, while the absolutive clitic =i attaches to the verb for the undergoer "snake," which bears the definite -é; this structure highlights Buginese's ergative alignment in perfective contexts. Everyday dialogues reveal politeness strategies embedded in morphology and , such as inclusive pronouns and imperative forms that signal based on social hierarchy, a key cultural value in society known as siri' (honor or shame). Consider this exchange: Speaker A: Onrono kko tuuréwe’. ("Now (you) stay there and I return.") Gloss: stay-now-you there I-return. Speaker B: Aga naréwe’. ("Then he returns.") Gloss: then he-return. The imperative túuréwe’ (return) uses a bare stem for directness in familiar settings, but cultural norms dictate softer imperatives among elders to preserve face; the temporal onrono (now) adds immediacy, while aga (then) sequences events narratively. This reflects Buginese favoring verb-initial order with clitics for tense and aspect, often omitting subjects in pro-drop contexts. An excerpt from the , adapted into Buginese via Christian missionary translations, demonstrates nominal and verbal morphology in ritual language: Ambo'ta ri surugaé, Iko ritu Allataala iya Séuwaé. Tennapodo risompa-Ko sibawa ripakalebbi. This translates to "Our Father who art , hallowed be Thy name." The inclusive ambo'ta (our, 1PL.INCL) fosters communal address, with the locative ri surugaé (-DEF) using the preposition ri for spatial relations; risompa-Ko employs the 2SG suffix -Ko (Thy) on the "hallow," illustrating how Buginese integrates possession into predicates for sanctity. Such texts blend indigenous with borrowed concepts, maintaining the language's agglutinative style. Classical literature like the Sureq Galigo epic showcases archaic pentasyllabic meter and mythological themes central to Bugis cosmology, contrasting with modern colloquial forms. A snippet in Latin reads: Ajaq naonro lobbang linoé lé namasuaq mua na sia makkatajangeng ri atawareng mappaleq wali ri pérétiwi. This glosses roughly as NEG call gods heaven-DEF and NEG praise person REL 3SG offer prayer LOC upper.world, translating to "There is no one to call the gods Lord, or to offer praise to the ." The negative ajkq prefixes the clause, makkatajangeng derives from the makka- on "praise" for offering, and locatives like ri atawareng (in upper world) evoke divine ; in , this appears as ᨀᨀᨂ ᨑᨀᨑᨁᨑ ᨎᨮᨁᨂ ᨎᨗᨑ ᨑᨀᨆᨔᨀᨈᨂᨑ ᨆᨀ ᨑᨀ ᨔᨗᨀ, emphasizing the script's nature where vowels are diacritics. Culturally, this passage underscores the epic's role in affirming human-divine connections, recited in ceremonies to invoke ancestry and avoid siri'-inducing taboos like neglecting praise. Modern variants simplify archaisms for accessibility, but retain syntactic fluidity.

Sociolinguistics and Cultural Role

Modern usage and status

Buginese, also known as , maintains a robust presence as a among its ethnic community in , , where it serves as a of wider communication and is taught as a subject in educational settings. According to vitality assessments, it is used by all members of the ethnic group as their primary , with strong intergenerational transmission in rural areas, though direct evidence of broader stability is limited. However, the language faces challenges from ongoing shifts, particularly in urban regions, where approximately 46.73% of speakers exhibit patterns of transition toward Indonesian, compared to 25.20% in rural zones. Bilingualism with Indonesian is widespread among Buginese speakers, facilitating daily interactions and formal contexts. between Buginese and Indonesian is common, often resulting in interference patterns such as shifts in , where the standard SVO structure of Indonesian influences colloquial Buginese expressions. In diaspora communities, such as those in , speakers adapt by prioritizing Malay in public domains while retaining Buginese for intra-community use, though phonological adaptations occur in integration, like the insertion of glottal stops to align with native . Language shift is evident in contexts of interethnic marriages, as seen in the Biau of , where second-generation speakers preserve Buginese through rituals and family interactions, but third-generation individuals increasingly shift to Indonesian due to mixed heritage and . This trend contributes to declining fluency among younger cohorts in urban and migratory settings, exacerbating concerns despite the language's overall institutional recognition. Preservation efforts are supported by Indonesia's policies, which promote regional languages through and media. Initiatives include broadcasts on (RRI) in Buginese, cultural programs in schools, and digital tools such as Android-based dictionaries designed to engage younger users and document vocabulary. In 2025, a Bugis language dictionary application utilizing the SM-KMP algorithm was developed for students in to further aid learning and preservation. In areas like Sinjai City, community-driven activities since 2000 emphasize sociolinguistic maintenance, including language classes and heritage events to counter shift. These measures aim to sustain the language's role in ethnic identity amid . Sociopragmatic features of Buginese reflect hierarchical social structures, with speech acts and politeness strategies varying by factors such as , age, , familiarity, and . For instance, in the Bulukumba , address terms like kinship-based appellations (e.g., "andeng" for elder siblings) are employed to navigate hierarchies and maintain harmony in interactions. differences influence usage, with women often employing more indirect forms in polite , while men may use direct imperatives in authoritative roles, aligning with broader cultural norms of .

Literature and cultural significance

The Buginese literary tradition encompasses both oral and written forms that have preserved the cultural heritage of the Bugis people in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Central to this tradition is the epic Sureq Galigo, also known as La Galigo, a vast mythological narrative spanning approximately 6,000 pages in its manuscript form, detailing the creation of the world, the origins of humanity, and the adventures of divine and heroic figures. Originating from pre-Islamic oral traditions around the 14th century and later transcribed in the Lontara script between the 18th and 20th centuries, La Galigo is composed in a poetic meter with specialized Bugis vocabulary, renowned for its linguistic beauty and complexity. In 2011, UNESCO inscribed La Galigo on its Memory of the World Register, recognizing it as a masterpiece of humanity's creative genius and one of the longest epic poems globally. Complementing this are the Lontaraq, historical chronicles that document the genealogies, reigns, and events of Bugis kingdoms, such as the Bugis Chronicle of Bone from the late 17th century, which exemplifies the historiographical prose tradition used to legitimize rulers and preserve societal memory. Buginese literature features diverse genres that reflect social values and daily life. , often categorized under sureq or "beautiful literature," includes lyrical forms that explore themes of love, nature, and morality, while known as to-riolo or pappasang to riolo encapsulate ancestral wisdom, emphasizing virtues like perseverance and —such as the proverb "Ajak mopelei olona tauwe," which advises guiding others toward goodness to foster communal harmony. Folktales, transmitted orally, narrate moral lessons through stories of mythical beings and human dilemmas, reinforcing ethical norms within communities. These genres embody the siri' honor code, a core cultural principle denoting personal , shame avoidance, and social , which permeates narratives to uphold individual and collective reputation. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Buginese has evolved with the adoption of the , enabling modern expressions amid increasing influence. Novels and in Bugis now address contemporary issues like identity and migration. The Buginese language holds profound cultural significance as the medium for expressing siri' and facilitating rituals that strengthen community bonds, including wedding ceremonies where poetic recitations and proverbs invoke ancestral blessings and honor. It underpins identity, serving as a repository of philosophical and ethical teachings that guide social interactions and resolve conflicts through shame-honor dynamics. Globally, Buginese has gained recognition through adaptations like Robert Wilson's 2004 theater production I La Galigo, a visually stunning interpretation of the epic that premiered in and toured internationally, highlighting its influence on Southeast Asian and cross-cultural .

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